Harsha Warnakulasooriya

DATA IGCSE ICT AS and AL

PROCESSING
AND
INFORMATION
Chapter No 1
Data and Information
Data
Data is raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images with no meaning.
Some examples of data are:

• P952BR
• @bbcclick
• 359
The data P952BR could have several meanings. It could be:

• A product code
• A postal/ZIP code
• A car registration number
Because we do not know what the data means, it is meaningless.

Information
When data items are given context and meaning, they become information. Information is
much more refined data, that has evolved to the point of being useful for some form of
analysis.
Data is given context by identifying what sort of data it is.

For the data to become information, it needs to be given meaning.

AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information

Data Sources
Direct data
Data collected from a direct data source (primary source) must be used for the same
purpose for which it was collected.
It is often the case that the data will have been collected or requested by the person who
intends to use the data. The data must not already exist for another purpose though.
When collecting the data, the person collecting should know for what purpose they intend
to use the data.

Indirect data
Data collected from an indirect data source (secondary source) already existed for another
purpose.
Although it can still be collected by the person who intends to use it, it was often collected
by a different person or organization.

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AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information
Examples of direct and indirect data
Example 1: Online shop
An online shop stores your email address and details of
items you have bought. They use this data to help with
their stock control and to send you an order confirmation.
This is direct or original source data.
But then they might sell your data (email address) to a
similar company (with your permission).
This second company might then email you with a list of
related items you might be interested in (indirect data).
For example, you buy a computer game from one online company, then an email arrives
from a different company asking if you would like to buy a strategy book for the game.
Example 2: Weather data
Data loggers are set up all over the country to measure
local weather conditions.
All this data is gathered together by the 'Met office' to allow
weather forecasts to be made. (Direct or original source
data)
But this 'data set' may also be purchased by a local business
who wants to see how sales of their ice-cream relates to the
weather.
This information is used to plan ice-cream production
ahead of time. (indirect data)

Direct data sources

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are often used to collect data from individuals. They can be hard copy or
completed online. Questionnaires can make it easier to analyse information because all
respondents are asked the same questions.

Interviews
Interviews allow you to collect more data from people as responses can be given in greater
depth.

Observation
Data gatherers observe what is happening during an activity, then record and analyse the
resulting data.
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Data logging
This is the use of sensors to produce data that can be gathered and interpreted.

Uses of direct data

An example of use of direct data could be planning a new high speed train line
The government are investigating the feasibility of introducing a new high speed rail link
between the capital and a major industrial city. Before they decide whether to proceed or
not, they will need to collect some direct data.
This direct data will include:

• The time it takes to get from the capital to the other city using the existing rail line.
• The number of trains and passengers who use the existing rail line.
• How many passengers would use the new system.
• What people who live on or near the existing route think about the effect it would have
on their environment.

Here are some examples of how the data could be collected.

The time it takes to get from the capital to the other city using the existing rail line:
This information can be collected from existing train timetables, however this method
would not be using a direct data source. Original data could be collected by actually
travelling on trains periodically and timing the journeys, but this might not be practical
given the time it would take.
The number of trains and frequency on the existing line:
The suggested method to be used is a data logger. A sensor is placed on the rail line. This
sensor is attached to a roadside data logger. As trains pass over the sensor, their speed,
time of day, number of carriages and frequency are logged. The advantage of a data logger
is that it gathers physical data automatically.
The number of passengers:
The method could be to use infra-red sensors fitted around each door on the train to count
the number of passengers getting on and off the train at each station. From these it can be
calculated how many passengers are on the train at any point along its route. The data is
fed back to a microprocessor.
How many passengers would use the new system:
This could make use of questionnaires: passengers on the existing route and airline
passengers in the capital are asked to complete the questionnaires.

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AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information
The advantage of questionnaires is that they can be collected and analysed reasonably
quickly. The disadvantage is that only a proportion are returned, making the sample size
quite small.
What local residents think:
Face-to face interviews would be best. The advantage of interviews is that they may gather
some unexpected data and obtain personal attitudes that a simple questionnaire would
not. However, it takes time for many interviews to take place.

Indirect data sources

Indirect data sources are third-party sources that the data gatherer can obtain data from.
Electoral register
This is a list of adults who are entitled to vote in a local or national election. An edited
version of the register can be purchased and used for any purpose.
Businesses collecting personal information
Businesses sell the information that they collect from their customers. For example when
someone purchases something online they are often asked to tick a box authorising the
business to share this with other organisations. Customers often provide personal
information that has a commercial value. Businesses use this information to create mailing
lists that can be purchased by any other organisation/individual to send emails or even
brochures through the post.

Uses of indirect data sources

• Apart from elections and other government purposes, the electoral register can only
be used to select individuals for jury service or by credit reference agencies. These
agencies are allowed to buy the full register to help them check the names and
addresses of people applying for credit. They are also allowed to use the register to
carry out identity checks in an attempt to deal with money laundering.
• Businesses which collect personal information often use it to create mailing lists that
they then sell to other organisations, which are then able to send emails or even
brochures through the post.
• Any organisation that provides data or information to the general public for use by
them can be said to be an indirect source.
• Another scenario could be studying pollution in rivers. Direct data sources could be
used, of course; questionnaires could be handed out to local landowners and residents
in houses near to the river, asking about the effects on them of the pollution, and they
could also be interviewed. Computers with sensors could be used to collect data from
the river. However, indirect data sources could also be used; documents may have been
published by government departments showing pollution data for the area.

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Advantages of direct data sources

• Only as much or as little data is gathered as needed.

• Exactly where the data came from, and therefore how reliable it is, is known.
• There may be an opportunity to sell the data for other purposes.
• Gathering data directly addresses specific issues, as the data gatherer controls the
methods of collecting the data to fit their needs.

Disadvantages of direct data sources

• Data gathering may be expensive as other companies may have to be hired to get it.
• It may involve having to buy equipment such as data loggers and computers.
• It may not be possible to gather original data due to the time of year e.g. winter
snowfall data may be required but it is now the middle of summer.
• Compared to indirect data sources, using direct data sources may be very expensive in
preparing and carrying out the gathering of data. Costs can be incurred in, for example,
producing the paper for questionnaires, or the equipment for an experiment.
• It takes longer to gather data than to acquire data from an indirect data source.
• By the time the project is complete the data may be out-of-date.
The sample size may be small.

Advantages of indirect data sources

• Indirect data sources may allow a larger set of data to be examined using less time and
money than direct data collection would require.
• The use of indirect data sources allows data to be gathered from subjects (e.g. people)
to which the data gatherer does not have physical access.
• A larger sample size can be used. Direct data gathering can have limitations due to the
availability of the people being interviewed, but by using indirect data sources, the size
of the sample can be increased giving rise to greater confidence in the findings.
• Using indirect data sources can be done at a relatively low cost, although this varies.
• Quite often the data can be in an easily accessible location such as the internet
whereas for direct data sources, travelling expenses and time taken to collect data can
be great.
• Information can be of a higher quality. Data collected indirectly has already been
collated and grouped into meaningful categories and, for example, poorly-written

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responses to questionnaires or interview transcripts do not have to be read through to
create the data source.

Disadvantages of indirect data sources

• The various purposes for which data was collected originally may be quite different to
the purpose of the current research and unnecessary data may need to be filtered out.
• There may be no data available – the data required has simply never been recorded.
• There may be sampling bias – data from only one section of the community (whether it
is based on educational level, level of income etc.) may have been collected but what is
required is data from a representative cross-section of the community.

Quality of Information
Measuring the quality of information is sometimes based on the value which the user
attaches to the information collected.
Poor quality data can lead to serious consequences. Poor data may give a distorted view of
business dealings, which can then lead to a business making poor decisions. Customers can
be put off dealing with businesses that give poor service due to inaccurate data, causing
the business to get a poor reputation.
With poor quality data it can be difficult for companies to have accurate knowledge of their
current performance and sales trends, which makes it hard for them to identify worthwhile
future opportunities.

Factors that affect quality of information

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Accuracy

Completeness Relevance

Information

Level of detail Age

Accuracy
As far as possible, information should be free from errors and mistakes. The accuracy of
information often depends on the accuracy of the collected data before it is processed. If
the original data is inaccurate then the resulting information will also be inaccurate.

Examples

• Consider a simple stock check. If it is carried out manually, a quantity of 62 could easily
be copied down as 26 if the digits were accidentally transposed. This information is
now inaccurate.
• If people are collecting the data manually e.g. recording answers to questionnaires,
writing down instrument measurements, they might make a mistake.
• If data is being collected automatically by sensors or other instruments then the results
could be inaccurate if the instruments were not correctly calibrated at the start of the
data collection period.

Relevance
Relevance is an important factor because there has to be a good reason why that particular
set of data is being collected. Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it
is to be used. It must meet the requirements of the user.

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AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information
There are a number of ways in which the data may or may not be relevant to the user’s
needs. It could be too detailed or concentrate too much on one aspect.
On the other hand, it might be too general, covering more aspects of the task than is
necessary.
Examples

• It may relate to geographical areas that are not really part of the study. Where the
study is meant to be about pollution in a local area, for example, data from other parts
of the country would not be relevant.
• In an academic study, it is important to select academic sources. Business sources or
sources which appear to have a vested interest should be ignored.
• You might be feeling unwell and want to make an appointment to see your doctor. You
phone up the local surgery to find out when the doctor has a spare appointment time.
It wouldn't be very useful or relevant to you if the receptionist told you how many
appointment times were available to see the nurse.
• Consider a school situation. You need to study a tremendous amount of information to
prepare for your exams. How would you feel if your teachers chose to spend several
lessons talking about aspects of the subject that they found really interesting.

Age
How old information is can affect its quality. As well as being accurate and relevant,
information needs to be up-to-date. Most information tends to change over time and
inaccurate results can arise from information which has not been updated regularly.
The age of information is important, because information that is not up-to-date can lead to
people making the wrong decisions. In turn, that costs organizations time, money, and
therefore, profits.

Examples

• Choosing a holiday can be great fun. And you would probably go to the travel agent to
get the latest brochures. Why? Well, because if you used last year's brochures the
holiday may not even be available any more. And certainly the prices would be
different. So you need up-to-date information.
• Your parents are still thinking of selling their house. They need an idea of how much
their house is worth right now. It would be no use to them being told by the estate
agent how much their house was worth five years ago.

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Level of detail
For information to be useful, it needs to have the right amount of detail. Sometimes, it is
possible for the information to have too much detail, making it difficult to extract the
information you really want.
Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use.
Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use.
Examples

• For example, it is usual to summarize statistical data and produce this information
either in the form of a table or using a chart. Most people would consider a chart to be
more concise than data in tables, as there is little or no unnecessary information in a
chart.
• Suppose a car company director wants to see a summary of the sales figures of all car
models for the last year; the information with the correct level of detail would be a
graph showing the overall figures for each month. If the director was given figures
showing the sales of each model every day of the previous 12 months in the form of a
large report, this would be seen as the wrong level of detail because it is not a
summary.
• A person orders a pizza. They ask for a large pepperoni to be delivered. They forgot to
say what type of base they wanted and where it should be delivered to. The pizza
company does not have enough information to fulfil the order.

Completeness
In order for information to be of high quality it needs to be complete. To be complete,
information must deal with all the relevant parts of a problem. If it is incomplete, there will
be gaps in the information and it will be very difficult to use to solve a particular problem.
Examples

• Consider the car company director mentioned above who wants to see a summary of
the sales figures for the last year. If the director was given figures showing the sales for
the first six months, this would be incomplete. If the director was shown the figures for
only the best-selling models, this would be incomplete.
• Imagine you are feeling ill and you need to make an appointment to see your doctor.
How useful would it be if the receptionist just told you that you could have an
appointment at quarter past two? Does she mean today, tomorrow or next week? The
information in incomplete.
• You want to plan the family picnic for tomorrow. However, when you check the
weather forecast you are only told what the weather in the morning will be like. There
is nothing about the afternoon. You can't really make a decision just based upon what
the morning weather is likely to be.

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AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information
Encryption
The need for encryption
When data is transmitted over any public network (wired or wireless), there is always a risk
of it being intercepted by, for example, a hacker. Using encryption helps to minimize this
risk.
Once it is intercepted the information can be changed or used for purposes such as identity
theft, cyber-fraud. If, however, the information is intercepted but it is unreadable or cannot
be understood, it becomes useless to the hacker or interceptor.
Encryption is a way of scrambling data so that only authorized people can understand the
information. It is the process of converting information into a code which is impossible to
understand. This process is used whether the data is being transmitted across the internet
or is just being stored. It does not prevent cyber criminals intercepting sensitive
information, but it does prevent them from understanding it. This is particularly important
if the data is sensitive or confidential for example, credit card/bank details, medical history
or legal documents.

Methods of encryption
Encryption is the name given to converting data into a code by scrambling it, with the
resulting symbols appearing to be all jumbled up. The algorithms which are used to convert
the data are so complex that even the most dedicated hacker would be extremely unlikely
to discover the meaning of the data.
Encrypted data is often called ciphertext, whereas data before it is encrypted is called
plaintext.

The way that encryption works is that the computer sending the message uses an
encryption key to encode the data. The receiving computer has a corresponding decryption
key that can translate it back again.
A key is just a collection of bits, often randomly generated by a computer. The greater the
length of the key, the more effective the encryption.
Modern encryption uses 256- bit keys which makes this form of encryption virtually
impossible to crack. The key is used in conjunction with an algorithm to create the
ciphertext.
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There are two main types of encryption. One is called Symmetric Encryption and the other
is Asymmetric Encryption, which is also referred to as public-key encryption.

Symmetric encryption
Symmetric encryption is a type of encryption that uses the same key to encrypt and
decrypt data. Both the sender and the recipient have identical copies of the key, which they
keep secret and don’t share with anyone. This differs from asymmetric encryption, which
uses two keys, a public key (that anyone can access) to encrypt information and a private
key to decrypt information.
How symmetric encryption works

• The sender uses an encryption key (usually a string of letters and numbers) to encrypt
their message.
• The encrypted message, called ciphertext, looks like scrambled letters and can’t be
read by anyone along the way.
• The recipient uses a decryption key to transform the ciphertext back into readable text.

In the example above, we used the same key for encryption and decryption, which means
this is symmetric encryption.
Only these two parties (sender and recipient) can read and access the data. This is why it’s also
sometimes called secret key encryption, secret key cryptography, private key cryptography,
symmetric cryptography and symmetric key encryption.

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Asymmetric encryption
Asymmetric encryption is also known as public-key cryptography. Asymmetric encryption
overcomes the problem of symmetric encryption keys being intercepted by using a pair of
keys. This will include a public key which is available to anybody wanting to send data, and
a private key that is known only to the recipient. The key is the algorithm required to
encrypt and decrypt the data.
Using an example to explain how this works; suppose Tom and Jane work for the same
company and Tom wishes to send a confidential document to Jane:

1. Jane uses an algorithm to generate a matching pair of keys (private and public) that
they must keep stored on their computers; the matching pairs of keys are
mathematically linked but can’t be derived from each other.

2. Jane now sends her public key to Tom.

3. Tom now uses Jane’s public key to encrypt the document he wishes to send to her.
He then sends his encrypted document (ciphertext) back to Jane.

4. Jane uses her matching private key to unlock Tom’s document and decrypt it; this
works because the public key used to encrypt the document and the private key
used to decrypt it are a matching pair generated on Jane’s computer. (Jane can’t use
the public key to decrypt the message.)

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Encryption protocols
An encryption protocol is the set of rules setting out how the algorithms should be used to
secure information. There are several encryption protocols.
IPsec (internet protocol security)
is one such protocol suite which allows the authentication of computers and encryption of
packets of data in order to provide secure encrypted communication between two
computers over an internet protocol (IP) network. It is often used in VPNs (virtual private
networks).

SSH (secure shell)

is another encryption protocol used to enable remote logging on to a computer network,
securely. SSH is often used to login and perform operations on remote computers, but it
can also be used for transferring data from one computer to another.
Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
The most popular protocol used when accessing web pages securely is transport layer
security (TLS). TLS is an improved version of the secure sockets layer (SSL) protocol and has
now, more or less, taken over from it.
The three main purposes of SSL/TLS are to:

• Enable encryption in order to protect data

• Make sure that the people/companies exchanging data are who they say they are
(authentication)
• Ensure the integrity of the data to make sure it has not been corrupted or altered.
Many websites use SSL/TLS when encrypting data while it is being sent to and from them.
This keeps attackers from accessing that data while it is being transferred. SSL/TLS should
be used when storing or sending sensitive data over the internet. The SSL/TLS protocol
enables the creation of a secure connection between a web server and a browser. Data
that is being transferred to the web server is protected from eavesdroppers.

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Uses of encryption
There are many reasons to encrypt data:

• Companies often store confidential data about their employees, which could include
medical records, payroll data, as well as personal data.
• An employee in a shared office may not want others to have access to their work which
may be stored on a hard disk, so it needs to be encrypted.
• A company’s head office may wish to share sensitive business plans with other offices
using the internet. If the data is encrypted, they do not have to worry about what
would happen if it were intercepted.
• When individuals are emailing each other with information they would want to remain
confidential. They need to prevent anybody else from reading and understanding their
mail.
• People use websites for online shopping and online banking. When doing so, the
debit/credit card and other bank account details should be encrypted to prevent
fraudulent activity taking place.

Applications of encryption
Hard disk encryption
Hard-drive encryption is a technology that encrypts the data stored on a hard drive using
sophisticated mathematical functions. Data on an encrypted hard drive cannot be read by
anyone who does not have access to the appropriate key or password. This can help
prevent access to data by unauthorized persons and provides a layer of security against
hackers and other online threats.
When a file is written to the disk, it is automatically encrypted by specialised software.
When a file is read from the disk, the software automatically decrypts it while leaving all
other data on the disk encrypted. The encryption and decryption processes are understood
by the most frequently used application software such as spreadsheets, databases and
word processors.
The whole disk is encrypted, including data files, the OS and any other software on the disk.
Full disk encryption is your protection should the disk be stolen, or just left unattended. So,
even if the disk is still in the original computer, or removed and put into another computer,
the disk remains encrypted and only the keyholder can make use of its contents.

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Email encryption
Email encryption involves encrypting, or disguising, the content of email messages in order
to protect potentially sensitive information from being read by anyone other than intended
recipients. Email encryption often includes authentication.
Email is a vulnerable medium, particularly when emails are sent over unsecured, or public,
Wi-Fi networks. Even emails sent within a secure company network can be intercepted by
other users, including your login credentials. Encryption renders the content of your emails
unreadable as they travel from origin to destination, so even if someone intercepts your
messages, they can’t interpret the content.
Email encryption: what to
encrypt?

1. The connection from your

email provider.
2. Your actual email
messages.
3. Your stored, cached, or
archived email messages.

Encryption in HTTPS websites

Normal web pages that are not
encrypted are fetched and transmitted using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Anybody
who intercepts web pages or data being sent over HTTP would be able to read the contents
of the web page or the data. This is particularly a problem when sending sensitive data,
such as credit card information or usernames and password.
HTTPS, or Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, is the secure version of HTTP, which is the
only primary protocol browsers use to connect to web servers and display web pages to
users. HTTPS uses asymmetric encryption to secure the data in transport between the web
server and client.
HTTPS is more favorable where privacy is more relevant. These can be situations where we
are making online transactions, logging into our bank, or other tasks that would include the
usage of sensitive documents. A green padlock, or simply a padlock, is shown, which
signifies the usage of HTTPS.
HTTPS uses Secure Socket Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt and
decrypt pages and information sent and received by web users.

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How HTTPS works

1. You start your web browser and request a secure page by using the https:// prefix on
the URL.
2. Your web browser contacts the web server on the HTTPS port and requests a secure
connection.
3. The server responds with a copy of its SSL certificate.
4. Your web browser uses the certificate to verify the identity of the remote server and
extract the remote server's public key.

5. Your web browser creates a session key, encrypts it with the server's public key and
sends the encrypted key to the server.
6. The server uses its private key to decrypt the session key.
7. The client and server use the session key to encrypt all further communications.

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AS & A Level Information Technology Chapter 1: Data Processing and Information
Checking the Accuracy of Data
Data validation
Validation is one way of trying to reduce the number of errors in the data being entered
into your system. Validation is performed by the computer at the point when you enter
data. It is the process of checking the data against the set of validation rules.
Validation aims to make sure that data is sensible, reasonable, complete and within
acceptable boundaries.
Data validation can be performed by using a number of validation checks.

Range Check

A range check is commonly used when you are working with data which consists of
numbers, currency or dates/times.

A range check allows you to set suitable boundaries:

Boundary Description Validation

The maximum price of any item in a shop

Upper limit is £100 Less than OR equal to 100

In a shop, you cannot sell a negative

number of items, however you can sell
Lower limit no items Greater than OR equal to 0

to achieve a B grade you must score Greater than or equal to 75

A range between 75% - 84% AND Less than or equal to 84

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Type Check

When you begin to set up your new system you will choose the most appropriate data type
for each field.

A type check will ensure that the correct type of data is entered into that field. For
example, in a clothes shop, dress sizes may range from 8 to 18. A number data type would
be a suitable choice for this data. By setting the data type as number, only numbers could
be entered e.g. 10, 12, 14 and you would prevent anyone trying to enter text such as ‘ten’
or ‘ten and a half’.

Check Digit

This is used when you want to be sure that a range of numbers has been entered correctly.
There are many different schemes (algorithms) for creating check digits.

For example, the ISBN-10 numbering system for books makes use of 'Modulo-11' division.
In modulo division, the answer is the remainder of the division. For example

8 Mod 3 = 2 i.e. the remainder of dividing 8 by 3 is 2.

Consider the ISBN number:

ISBN 1 84146 201 2

The check digit is the final number in the sequence, so in this example it is the final ‘2’.

The computer will perform a complex calculation on all of the numbers and then compare
the answer to the check digit. If both match, it means the data was entered correctly.

Length Check

Sometimes you may have a set of data which always has the same number of characters.

For example, a UK landline telephone number has 11 characters.

A length check could be set up to ensure that exactly 11 numbers are entered into the field.
This type of validation cannot check that the 11 numbers are correct but it can ensure that
10 or 12 numbers aren't entered.

A length check can also be set up to allow characters to be entered within a certain range.

For example, postcodes can be in the form of:

CV45 2RE (7 without a space or 8 with a space) or

B9 3TF (5 without a space or 6 with a space).

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So you could set a length check for postcode to accept data which has a minimum number
of 5 characters and a maximum number of 8.
Lookup Check

Where you have a field which only allows a limited list of

items to be entered then a lookup list can help to reduce
errors.

For instance, the image opposite shows a 'look-up' list being

used in a spreadsheet that only allows 8, 10, 11 or 12 to be
entered.
For example:

- a shop might put the dress sizes into a lookup list

- a car showroom might put the car models into a lookup list

- a vet might list the most popular types of animals that they deal with

Picture/Format Check

You may see this validation technique referred to as either a picture or a format check, they
are the same thing.

Some types of data will always consist of the same pattern.

Example 1

Think about a postcode. The majority of postcodes look something like this:

CV36 7TP

WR14 5WB

Replace either of those examples with L for any letter which appears and N for any number
that appears and you will end up with:

LLNN NLL

This means that you can set up a picture/format check for something like a postcode field
to ensure that a letter isn't entered where a number should be or a number in place of a
letter.

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Example 2

A National Insurance number must be in the form of XX 99 99 99 X. The first two and the
last characters must be letters. The other six characters are numbers. Any format entered
differently to this will be rejected.

Presence Check

There might be an important piece of data that you want to make sure is always stored.

For example, a school will always want to know an emergency contact number, a video
rental store might always want to know a customer's address.

A presence check makes sure that a critical field cannot be left blank, it must be filled in. If
someone tries to leave the field blank then an error message will appear and you won't be
able to progress to another record or save any other data which you have entered.

Consistency check

A consistency check is a type of logical check that confirms the data has been entered in a
logically consistent way. It checks that data across two fields is consistent.

An example is checking if the delivery date is after the shipping date for a parcel.

When entering the gender of ‘M’ or ‘F’, a consistency check will prevent ‘F’ from being
entered if the title is ‘Mr’ and will prevent ‘M’ from being entered if the title is ‘Mrs’ or
‘Miss’.

When entering data about dispatching products, it would not be possible to mark an item
as being dispatched until after it has been packaged.

Limit check

A limit check is similar to a range check, but the check is only applied to one boundary.

For example, in the UK you are only allowed to drive from the age of 17, but there is no
upper limit. If somebody enters a number lower than 17 when asked to enter their age
when applying for a driving license, for example, this will generate an error message.

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Data verification
Verification means to check that the data on the original source document is identical to
the data that you have entered into the system. Verification can be performed in two ways;
double entry method, visual check.

Double entry

Think about when you choose a new password, you often have to type it in twice. This lets
the computer check if you have typed it exactly the same both times and not made a
mistake. It verifies that the first version is correct by matching it against the second
version.
Whilst this can help to identify many mistakes, it is not ideal for large amounts of data.

• It could take a person a lot of time to enter the data twice.

• They could enter the same mistake twice and so it wouldn't get picked up.
• You would end up with two copies of the data.
Visual check

This saves having to enter the data twice. It can help pick up errors where data has been
entered incorrectly or transposed.

However, it isn’t always that easy to keep moving your eyes back and forth between a
monitor and a paper copy. Also, if you are tired or your eyes feel 'blurry' then you might
miss errors. An alternative method is to print out the data entered and compare the
printout side by side with the source document.

• Visual checking can be rather time-consuming and possibly costly as a result.

• Another problem is that the person who is checking that the data has been entered
correctly may be the same person who entered it. It is very easy for them to overlook
their own mistakes. A possible way around this is to get somebody else to do the
check.

Parity check

A parity bit is a check bit, which is added to a block of data for error detection purposes. It
is used to validate the integrity of the data. The value of the parity bit is assigned either 0
or 1 that makes the number of 1s in the message block either even or odd depending upon
the type of parity. Parity check is suitable for single bit error detection only.

The two types of parity checking are:

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• Even Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made even.
• Odd Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made odd. Consider

the following byte of data;

If this byte is using even parity, then the parity bit needs to be 0 since there is already an
even number of 1-bits (in this case, 4).

If odd parity is being used, then the parity bit needs to be 1 to make the number of 1-bits
odd.

Therefore, the byte just before transmission would be;

If a byte has been transmitted from ‘A’ to ‘B’, and even parity is used, an error would be
flagged if the byte now had an odd number of 1-bits at the receiver’s end.

In this case, the receiver’s byte has three 1-bits, which means it now has odd parity whilst
the byte from the sender had even parity (four 1-bits). This clearly means an error has
occurred during the transmission of the data.

Parity bits only check to see if an error occurred during data transmission. They do not
correct the error. If an error occurs, then the data must be sent again.

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Parity checks can find an error when a single bit is transmitted incorrectly, but there are
occasions when a parity check would not find an error if more than one bit is transmitted
incorrectly.

Checksum

A checksum is a value used to verify the integrity of a file or a data transfer. In other words,
it is a sum that checks the validity of data. Checksums are typically used to compare two
sets of data to make sure they are the
same. Some common applications include
verifying a disk image or checking the
integrity of a downloaded file. If the
checksums don't match those of the
original files, the data may have been
altered or corrupted.

A checksum is also sometimes called a hash

sum and less often a hash value, hash code, or simply a hash.

A checksum can be calculated in many different ways, using different algorithms, for
example a simple checksum could simply be the number of bytes in a file. Just as we saw
with the problem with transposition of bits deceiving a parity check, this type of checksum
would not be able to notice if two or more bytes were swapped; the data would be
different, but the checksum would be the same.
The common protocols used to determine checksum numbers are the transmission control
protocol (TCP) and the user diagram protocol (UDP). While checksum values that do not
match can signal something went wrong during transmission, a few factors can cause this
to happen, such as;

• An interruption in the internet or network connection.

• Storage or space issues including problems with the hard drive.
• A corrupted disk or corrupted file.
• A third party interfering with the transfer of data.

Different algorithms can be used to generate the checksum. Popular algorithms include
SHA-256, SHA-1 and MD5.

Hash total

A method for ensuring that data in a file have not been altered. A hash total is the
numerical sum of one or more fields in the file, including data not normally used in
calculations, such as account number. When necessary, the hash total is recalculated and
compared with the original. If data are lost or changed, a mismatch occurs which signals an
error.
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Let’s consider a simple example. Sometimes, school examinations staff are asked to do a
statistical analysis of exam results. Here we have a small extract from the data that might
have been collected.

Normally, the Student ID would be stored as an alphanumeric type, so for the purpose of a
hash check, it would be converted to a number. The hash check involves adding all the
Student IDs together. In this example it would perform the calculation 4762 + 153 + 2539 +
4651 giving us a hash total of 12105.

The data would be transmitted along with the hash total and then the hash total would be
recalculated and compared with the original to make sure it was the same and that the
data had been transmitted correctly.

Control total

A control total is calculated in exactly the same way as a hash total, but is only carried out
on numeric fields. There is no need to convert alphanumeric data to numeric. The value
produced is a meaningful one which has a use.
In the example above, we can see that it would be useful for the head teacher to know
what the average pass rate was each year. The control total can be used to calculate this
average by dividing it by the number of students. The calculation is 6 + 8 + 7 + 3 giving us a
control total of 24. If that is divided by 4, the number of students, we find that the average
number of passes per student is 6.

Data Processing
Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information. Data
can include personal data, transaction data, sensor data and much more. Data processing
starts with data in its raw form and converts it into a more readable format (graphs,
documents, etc.), giving it the form and context necessary to be interpreted by computers
and utilized by employees throughout an organization.
There are several different methods of data processing, but the three most popular ones
are batch, online, and real-time.

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Batch processing
Batch Processing system is an efficient way of processing large volumes of data. where a
group of transactions is collected over a period of time. Data is collected, entered,
processed and then the batch results are produced. The main function of a batch
processing system is to automatically keep executing the jobs in a batch. These batches of
data are stored until a set time when they will be processed and an output produced.

Master and transaction files

In this type of system, the important data that the computer stores all of the time is kept in
a file called the master file. The data in the master file is sorted into order using one of the
fields in the records in the file, known as the primary key field. The primary key field must
uniquely identify each record in the file.
Each piece of input data (which will update the contents of the master file) is known as a
transaction. All the input data is put together into a batch in a file called the transaction
file. There are three different types of transaction that any processing system will have to
cope with. They are;

• Add a new record to the master file

• Delete a record from the master file
• Amend / update an existing record in the master file.
At some predetermined time (e.g. the end of the day or week) the computer system will
process the data stored in the transaction file and make any changes that are necessary to
the master file as a result of the transactions. This will produce an updated master file and
an error report detailing any transactions that could not be processed for some reason.
Generating a single updated master file from the old master file and the transaction file is
known as merging files.
Before this processing can take place, the transactions must be prepared for processing. To
do these two operations must be carried out;

1. Validating: Each transaction that is entered is validated to check that it is unlikely to

halt processing by causing an error. It is very important that processing is not halted in
a batch processing system because processing often takes place overnight without a

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human operator being present. If an invalid transaction caused the processing to stop
then a whole night's processing time could be lost. Transactions are usually validated as
they are keyed in by the operator. Any errors that are found can be reported and
corrected straight away.
2. Sorting: The data in the transaction file is sorted into order using the same primary key
field as the master file. Sorting can not take place until the whole batch of transactions
entered and stored in a file. The transaction and master files need to be put into the
same order before processing occurs because the two files are processed sequentially.
The files are usually stored on a serial access medium such as magnetic tapes. If the
records on the tapes were not sorted into order then whenever a transaction record
was read from the transaction file the computer system would have to waste a lot of
time searching for the matching record in the master file.

Advantages and disadvantages of batch processing.

Advantages Disadvantages
It is a single, automated process requiring
There is a delay as data is not processed
little human participation which can reduce
until the specific time period.
cost.
It can be scheduled to occur when there is Only data of the same type can be
little demand for computer resources, for processed since an identical, automated
example, at night. process is being applied to all the data.
As it is an automated process there will be
none of the transcription and update errors Errors cannot be corrected until the batch
that human operators would produce. process is complete.

There are fewer repetitive tasks for the

human operators.

This system flowchart shows what happens in a batch processing system.

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Use of batch processing in payroll

Payroll systems are often implemented using batch processing.
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• The master file would contain the records for all of a company's employees, including
their employee number, rates of pay and how much they have been paid so far this
year. The records in the master file would be sorted using the employee number as the
primary key field.
• The input data put into the transaction file would consist of records showing how many
hours each employee had worked in the current week. Sometimes transactions would
be used to add a new record if a new employee started or delete a record when an
employee left the company.

Here is an example record for an employee called Anna Jones in a master file together with
an entry in the transaction file which will update her record with the number of hours she
has worked this week.

After the transaction file was processed, Anna's record in the master file would show that
her pay so far this year was Ł5762.50. This would include the Ł187.50 (25 hours at Ł7.50)
she had just earned.

The transaction file would be processed at the end of each week as workers are paid
weekly. Before processing it would have to be sorted into the same order as the master file,
i.e. the records would be sorted into order by employee number.

The computer would then process the transactions, using the information about how many
hours each employee has worked this week (from the transaction file) and their rates of
pay (from the master file) to calculate the employee's wages for the week. Payslips can
then be printed and the master file can be updated to increase the amount paid so far this
year by the wages paid this week. An error report will also be produced.

This system flowchart shows the operation of the payroll system.

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Online/transaction processing
An online processing system is a type of processing system that deals with data in
transactions. A certain amount of data is input as a transaction. This amount of data is
usually small. Once the data for the transaction is collected it is processed and the next
transaction can occur. Transaction Processing is also known as Interactive processing.
For some applications the master file needs to be kept up to date all of the time. For
example, in a travel agency whenever a seat is booked on a flight the number of seats that
remain available on the flight must be reduced by one immediately. If this update was not
done until the end of a day (as might happen in a batch processing system) then the flight
could become overbooked with the same seat being booked more than once.
Transaction processing systems are used whenever the master file must be kept up to
date. A transaction processing system operates like this;

• When a transaction is entered it is placed in a queue of transactions waiting to be

carried out. The transactions are processed in the order that they are placed into the
queue. If there are many people using the system at the same time then there could be
lots of transactions being made from different computer terminals.

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• The computer system will process one transaction at a time. Once the system starts
processing a transaction it will not process any other transactions until the current
transaction is finished. When a transaction is processed the master file is updated
immediately. Therefore, the master file is always kept up to date.
Transaction processing systems need to use direct access files. In a direct access file any
record in the file can be updated directly, without having to read through all of the records
that come before it in the file. Serial access media such as magnetic tape cannot be used.
The time required to find the record in the master file that a transaction related to would
make processing incredibly slow.
Transaction processing is interactive, i.e. processing takes place as a "conversation"
between the user and the computer. The computer responds to the user’s input by
outputting some data before the user can input any more data. This means that the user's
input can depend on the computer's previous output.
Use of online/transaction processing in POS automatic stock control system
A supermarket uses a Point of Sale (POS) terminal to keep track of the goods that it has in
stock and to produce bills for customers. Whenever an item is sold the product code of the
item is read into a till by a barcode scanner. Sometimes the barcode is not scanned
properly. If this happens the product code must be rescanned or entered using a keyboard.
Once the product code has been entered the till looks up the price and name of the
product in the supermarket's stock database. This information is printed on the customer's
receipt. It also updates the product's record in the stock file to indicate that the product
has been sold.

This system can be depicted by this system flowchart.

The system has to be a transaction processing system because a customer at a till would
not be prepared to wait for a batch processing system to look up the price and name of the
product.
The product file on the computer contains the record of each product that is sold. Each
record consists of different fields containing data, for example;

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• Barcode number: the number which identifies each different product; this is the key
field because it is different for each product
• Product details: a description, such as tin of beans, packet of teabags and so on price
of the product
• Size: weight or volume of the product
• Number in stock: the current total of that product in stock; this changes every time a
product is sold or new stock arrives
• Re-order level: the number which the computer will use to see if more of that product
needs re-ordering. If the number in stock falls to this level, the supermarket or store
must re-order
• Re-order quantity: when the product needs re-ordering, this is the number of products
which are automatically reordered
• Supplier number: the identification number of the supplier which will be used to look
for the details on the supplier file.
The processing involved in automatic stock control is as follows:

Real-time processing
For some tasks a computer must process information to meet some real-world time
deadline. The time deadline must be met regardless of how much work the computer has
to do. Usually real time computer systems are required to process information very quickly.
Most real time systems appear to process data instantly.
A computer system which must process data extremely quickly to meet a real-world deadline
is known as a real time system.

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Use of real-time processing in a missile guidance system

For example, consider a control system that is used to fly a guided missile to hit a target.
Once the missile is launched the control system must guide it to its target. The missile's
guidance system identifies its position by examining the contours / features of the ground it
is flying over. This input data is used to ensure that the missile follows the path it has been
programmed with. Using the inputs, the system will decide how to move ailerons/fins to
change direction and control the speed of the rocket motor.
Because a missile flies very fast the inputs must be processed very quickly to affect the
outputs. If it took two seconds for the missile to change its direction to avoid an
unexpected object then the missile would probably hit the object before the change of
direction could take place. The data must be processed in thousandths of a second to avoid
a disaster. There is a real-world time limit on how long the computer system can take to
process data without having terrible consequences. Therefore, a missile control system has
to be a real time system.
Most real time systems are control systems. Other examples include the cooling system in
a nuclear reactor which prevents the reactor overheating or any system which must control
a dangerous chemical reaction.

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