MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 CHAPTER 2 LOADS ON STRUCTURES The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life span. The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to their nature and source into three classes: (1) Dead loads: due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other material permanently attached to it; - (2) Live loads: which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure; and (3) Environmental loads: which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind, snow, and earthquakes. In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer must also consider the possibility that some of these loads might act simultaneously on the structure. The structure is finally designed so that it will be able to withstand the most unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime. The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures must be designed are usually specified in building codes Determination of the loads that act on a structure, evaluation of critical force effects in the member and dimensioning are the most difficult and yet important steps in the overall process of design. The loads that enter a system are of three different types. Concentrated loads (example a single vehicular wheel load) are those that are applied over a relatively small area. Line loads are distributed along a narrow strip of the structure. The weight of a member itself and the weight of a wall or partition are examples of this type of load. Surface loads are loads that are distributed over an area. The loads on a warehouse floor and the snow load on a roof are examples of surface loads. The loads that act on a structure can be grouped into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and environmental loads. These categories can be further divided according to the specific nature of the loading. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading, all loads could be combined before the analysis is performed. However, separate analyses for the individual loading cases are usually carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load combinations, Furthermore loads can be classified based on: Compiled by Regasa Yadeta. Page 1MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 * Direction: - Gravity/vertical and LateraVhorizontal loads * Variation with time: - dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (temporary) + Structural Response: - Static (loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied over a short period of time and vary in magnitude with time) DEAD LOADS Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself and of the components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result, dead loads are characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights of the structural members themselves, such as beams and columns, the weights of roof surfaces, floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions, and so on. The dead loads associated with the structure can be determined if the materials and sizes of the various components are known. Some of standard material unit weights are shown in Table 2.1. (Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings) Table 2.1 Solid Brick Hollow Concrete Block (HCB: Trachyte (Masonry) Concrete (with reinforcement 25 ee eee ee Zigba (podacargus Gracillior tei ¢ ett PVC floor covering [ESE eae LIVE LOADS In a general sense, live loads are considered to include all loads on the structure that are not classified as dead loads. However, it has become common to narrow the definition of live loads to include only loads that are produced through the construction, use, or occupancy of the structure and not to include environmental. eee Compiled by Regasa ‘Yadeta. Page 2MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 These loads are dynamic in character in that they vary both in magnitude and position. Live loads where the dynamic nature has significance because of the rapidity with which change in Position occurs are called moving loads, whereas live loads in which change occurs over an extended period of time, or where there is the potential for change whether exercised or not, are referred to as movable loads. Moving loads include vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in industrial buildings. Another type of live load is a variable load or a time dependent load-that is, one whose magnitude changes with time, such as a load induced through the operation of machinery. Includes: > Occupancy live loads Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values that tust be used for design purposes. Some Tepresentative values are given in Table 2.2. (Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings) Table 2.2 |_____ Category | Uniform Load (kN/m” Bed rooms, class rooms, . . . 2.0 Offices, Café, ... Assembly halls, Cinema, . . . 3.0 4.0 > Traffic Loads for Bridges Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use and minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes. In the case of highway bridges, these loads are specified in Bridge Design Manuals. The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of axles and wheels for a design truck, a design tandem, and the design lane load. These loadings provide for a set of concentrated loads (which represent a truck type loading) and a uniform load (which simulates a line of vehicles) > Impact loads Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on the structure than would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in which a load varies with time and the time over which the full load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by which the static response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response. Compiled by Regasa Yadeta, SeraeeeeaEet pres Page 3MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 For building occupancy loads, the minimum design loads normally include adequate allowance for ordinary impact conditions. However, provisions must be made in the structural design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibrations and impact forces. One situation in which an impact effect (IM is defined as the dynamic load allowance) is applied for moving vehicular loads on a highway bridge. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS Structures experience numerous loading conditions as a result of the environment in which they exist. These are Snow and Ice Loads, Roof loads, Wind loads and Earthquake Loads. > Snow and Ice Loads The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on a building is normally based on ground snow loads and an appropriate ground-to-roof conversion. The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are used, Factors considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor, thermal factor, the effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or non-uniform loads on various roof configurations, drifting, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on snow. Snow loads are not normally considered in bridge design because they are usually small when compared with other loadings on the structure. However, ice loads can be appreciable on bridge structures. The icing not only creates loads on the structure but also increases the member sizes, which, in tur, increases the magnitude of the wind induced loads. > Rain loads Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious problem. This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water accumulates faster than it runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or because of the inadequacy or blockage of the drainage system. The real danger is that as ponding occurs the roof deflects into a dished configuration, which can accommodate more water, and thus greater loads result, The best way to prevent the problem is to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft or 2em. per m or more) and to design an adequate drainage system. In addition to the primary drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude the accumulation of standing water above a certain level. > Wind loads The wind loads that act on a structure result from movement of the air against the obstructing surfaces. Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some cases instability in the overall structure as well as its non-structural components. These wind effects depend on the wind speed, mass density of the air, location and geometry of the structure, and vibrational characteristics of the system. Compiled by Regasa Yadeta. Page 4MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 The design wind pressure that is used to establish the wind load on a structure is directly related to velocity pressure (q) and is given by: ly 19 Where p is the mass density of air, and v is the wind velocity. Wind Forces According to EBSC-1, 1995 Wind Pressure: The external and internal wind pressures are given as: W, = Angee pe W, = DnglelZe Vp Where q,,ris the reference wind pressure; We and W; are the external and internal pressures; Ce(2e) and c,(z,) are the external and internal exposure coefficients; Cpe and cp are the external and internal pressure coefficients. Reference Wind Pressure: The reference wind pressure is given by: 1 z Greg = Pl Where p is air density and v,eris the reference wind velocity. ‘The air density is a function of altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure to be expected in the region during storms. A temperature of 20°C has been selected as appropriate for Ethiopia and the variation of mean atmospheric pressure with altitude is given in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Values of air Densi Site Altitude (m) 0 500 | 1000 | 1500 2000 Above Sea Level Air density, p 1.20 | 1.12 | 1.06 | 1.00 | 0.94 (kg/m) Compiled by Regasa ‘Yadeta. PaesMeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 Reference Wind Velocity: The reference wind velocity is taken as 22m/s. Exposure Coefficient: takes into the account the effects of terrain, topography, and elevation. C(z) =f (terrain category, topographic coefficient, elevation) Terrain Category: The terrain category attempts to take into account the effect of the land coverage, and is given below. The terrain type is classified into 4 groups as follows: Category I: Lakes with at least 5 km fetch upwind and smooth flat country without obstacles. Category II: Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional small farm structure, houses or trees Category III: Suburban or industrial areas and permanent forests. Category IV: Urban areas in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with buildings and their average height. Topography Coefficient: ‘The topography coefficient C, accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over isolated hills and escarpments and mountainous regions. It is defined by: Gal for <0.05 Cj=1+280 for 0,05<®<0.3 Ct=140.6S for >0.3 Where: S is a factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of s=1.0 at the crest of a hill or escarpment and the value of S=O at the boundary on the topography affected zone, ® is the upwind slope in the wind direction. Compiled by Regasa Yadeta, Page 6MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 Factor S: Hills and ridges a Compiled by Regasa Yadeta Page 7MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 Pressure Coefficient: The shape factor takes into See eeie account the effect of shape of structure on The external pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and individual parts of building depend on the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the relevant tables for the appropriate building configuration as cpe.1 and cpe.10, respectively. For areas between 1m2 and 10m2, values are obtained by linear interpolation. That is: Coe =Cpe-t for Asim? C$oe= Cent H{ Cpe-10~ Cpe-t Ogio for 1m’J0m? The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to buildings. Values of external pressure coefficients for different cases are given in Table A.1 to Table A5 of EBCS-1, 1995. > Earthquake Loads A common dynamic loading that structures must resist is that associated with earthquake motions. Here, loads are not applied to the structure in the normal fashion. Instead, the base of the structure is subjected to a sudden movement. Since the upper portion of the structure resists motion because of its inertia, a deformation is induced in the structure. This deformation, in turn, induces a horizontal vibration that causes horizontal shear forces throughout the structure. It results from the acceleration of the supporting earth. Movement of the ground during EQ in the direction parallel to the ground surface has the most damaging effect on structures. The resulting earthquake loads are dependent on the nature of the ground movement and the inertia response characteristics of the structure. The computation of lateral loads due to EQ and load distribution to various levels of a building frame as of EBCS-8, 1995 (Ethiopian Building Code Standards part 8- Design of structures for Earthquake Resistance) is presented below. Ee Compiled by Regasa Yadeta, Page 8MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 F,=S,(7,).W S,(1) =a By Where: F, = Total lateral load on the structure (seismic base shear) S,(T,) = Ordinate of the design spectrum T, = Fundamental period W = Seismic dead load DL (+25% for storage and warehouses) a@=a,1, (a is the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of gravity, g) = importance of a structure (Be bes Shans $25 (f is the design response factor) y= accounts the ductility level (behavior factor) @,= Bed rock acceleration for the site S= _ Site coefficient. 1,=C,H’"; C,=0.075 H=height of the building above base in m (0.085, for steel moment resisting frames ,=10.075,0r for RC moment resisting frames, and eccentrically braced frames 0.050, for other buildings Thus, the total lateral load distributed to various level of the building frame is given by the F, formula. =F) wh Fi 2) hy h, = height of each floor level Dw, Fi =0077,F, w, = Weight of the structure at each floor level Therefore, F, at level i distributed in accordance with mass distribution on that level. The parameters ap, 1, S and are obtained as follows. i) Bed rock acceleration ( ay) eS Compiled by Regasa Yadeta. Page 9MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 Areas are sub divided into seismic zones depending on the local hazard. Zone 4 3 2 1 & 0.1 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.03 Examples of seismic zones of some towns of Ethiopia are shown in the following table. Zone 4 3 2 1 o ‘Awassa, Mekele, | Assela, | Addis Ababa, | Ambo, Axum, | Assossa, Towns | Nazreth, Asaita | Dila Dire-Dawa Jima, Jijiga | Bahir-dar, Gondor ii) Importance of a structure (1) I = 14 hospitals, fire stations, power plants 1.2 schools, halls, ... 1.0 ordinary buildings = 0.8—> buildings of minor importance iii) Site coefficient (S) For different soil types, the value of S is given:- ; Subsoil 4 - 1.0 — rock, stiff deposits of sand, gravel or over consolidated clay B -1.2-» deep deposits of medium dense sand, gravel or medium stiff clays, .. C -1.5 > loose cohesion less soil deposits with or without soft cohesive layers, iv) The behavior factor (y) It depends on the structural system: © for concrete structures ” $ 0-70 «for steel structures, it ranges from 0.17 to 1.0 © for timber structures it varies from 0.30 to 1.0 LOAD COMBINATIONS. Ultimate Design Load ‘The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of the relevant characteristic load combinations multiplied by their respective partial safety factors. Thus, the ultimate design load for the combination of dead and imposed loads will be expressed as follows: Partial Safety Factors for Load In practice the applied load may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the following reasons: a. Calculation errors b. Constructional inaccuracies c. Unforeseen increases in load. ee Compiled by Regasa ‘Yadeta, Page 10MeU CEng Lecture note | 2021 To allow for these the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor Yr to give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit state being considered. That is, Ultimate design load = y-x characteristic load Load combinations depend on the design philosophy adopted. Comb.) 1.35DL#1.SLL Comb.2) — DL+LL Comb.(3-34) DL+0.6LL+ EQ(x,y)in(L,R)+0.3 EQ(x,y)in(L,R) Comb.(35-37) Envelope. Compiled by Regasa Yadeta. Page 11