Internal Combustion Engines

School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal petroleum University

 Introduction
Engine: It is a device which transforms one form of energy
into another form.

Heat Engine: It is a device which converts the chemical

energy of fuel into thermal energy and uses this
energy to produce mechanical work.

Examples: petrol engine, diesel engine, jet engine, steam

engine, etc.
 Engine classifications
Two broad categories:
1. External combustion (EC) engines - the combustion of
fuel takes place outside the engine cylinder.
Example: Steam engine

Locomotive engine Jet Engine

 Engine classifications
2. Internal combustion (IC) engines - either the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder or products of combustion
enter into the cylinder as a working fluid.
Examples: petrol engine, diesel engine, jet engine, etc.

2 – Stroke Rotay Engine 4 – Stroke

Engine Engine
 IC engine terminology
Bore: The inside Diameter of the Cylinder is known as the Bore and it is
measured, generally in millimetre (mm).

Stroke: It is the distance travelled by the Piston from one of its dead centre
position to the other dead centre position.

Dead Centre: They corresponds to the positions occupied by the piston at

the end of its stroke where the centre line of the connecting rod and crank
are in the same straight line. For vertical engines these are known as Top
Dead Centre (T.D.C) and Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C) position. In
horizontal engines, these are known as Inner Dead Centre (I.D.C) and Outer
Dead Centre (O.D.C) position.

Top Dead Centre (TDC): In vertical engines, the top most position of the
Piston towards the cover end side of the cylinder is known as Top Dead
Centre.
 IC engine terminology
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): In Vertical Engines, the lower position of
the Piston towards the Crank end side of the cylinder is known as
Bottom Dead Centre.

Piston Displacement: It is also known as Swept Volume or

Displacement Volume. It is the volume through which the Piston sweeps
for its one Stroke. It is equal to the Area of cross section of the Piston
multiplied by its Stroke Length.

Clearance Volume: It is the Volume included between the Piston and

the Cylinder Head when the Piston is at its Top Dead Centre in Vertical
Engines and inner Dead Centre in Horizontal Engines. The Clearance
Volume is generally expressed as percentages of Swept Volume.

Compression ratio: it is a ratio of the cylinder volume to the clearance

volume.
IC engine terminology
 Working principle of IC engines
Four basic processes are involved in any IC engine

1. Suction (intake): either air-fuel mixture (in case of petrol

engines) or only air (in case of diesel engines) is taken into the
combustion chamber.
2. Compression: either air-fuel mixture or air is compressed.
3. Combustion: compressed fuel-air mixture is burned either by
providing spark (in case of petrol engines) or diesel injection (in
case of diesel engines).
4. Exhaust: gases generated during combustion are expelled out of
the combustion chamber.
Working principle of IC engines
 2-stroke IC engine
In 2-stroke engines, all four processes are completed in one
revolution of the crankshaft. Some processes are overlapping.

• The filling process – by the charge

compression in crankcase or by a blower
• Induction of compressed charges pushes the
burnet fuel products through the exhaust port
• No piston movement needed – for suction and
exhaust
• Two strokes – one for compressing the fresh
charge and the other is for expansion
2-stroke IC engine

FUEL
INTAKE
2-stroke IC engine

COMPRESSION
2-stroke IC engine
COMBUSTION & EXHAUST

In 2-stroke IC engines, combustion

and exhaust processes are taking
place almost together.
2-stroke IC engine

TWO
STROKE
OPERATION
 2-stroke IC engine
Advantages
• Simple construction and easy to design as number of components
are few.
• Less expensive.
• Light in weight.
• High power-to-weight ratio.
• Uniform power production.

Disadvantages
• Less fuel efficient as combustion and exhaust processes are
overlapping.
• More pollutant.
• Lower thermal and volumetric efficiency.
• Lubricant requirement is more.
 4-stroke IC engine
In 4-stroke engines, all four processes are completed two
revolutions of the crankshaft. All the processes take place one by
one.
 4-stroke IC engine
Advantages
• Fuel efficiency is high.
• Less pollutant emission.
• High thermal and volumetric efficiency.
• Lubricant requirement is less.

Disadvantages
• Complex construction and design, hence more expensive.
• Small power-to-weight ratio.
• Non-uniform power production.
 Pre requisites
• Reversible process: a process that can be reversed without leaving
any trace on the surroundings. i.e. both system and surroundings
return to their initial states at the end of the reverse process.
• Irreversible: Once having taken place; cant reverse themselves
(Mostly due to: Friction, heat transfer etc.)
• Reversible processes don’t occur in nature, they are idealized; two
reasons to study them: (i) Easy to analyze and (ii) Serve as idealized
models to which actual processes can be compared
• Internally reversible: No irreversibility within the boundaries of the
system during the process.
• Externally reversible: No irreversibility outside the boundaries of the
system during the process.

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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.
Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.

Thermal efficiency
of heat engines:
The analysis of many complex
processes can be reduced to
a manageable level by
utilizing some idealizations.

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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic
expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency
increases with an increase in the average temperature
at which heat is supplied to the system or with a
decrease in the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system.

P-v and T-s diagrams of

a Carnot cycle.
A steady-flow Carnot engine. 20
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered

to be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
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AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio

• Spark-ignition (SI) engines

• Compression-ignition (CI) engines

Nomenclature for reciprocating engines.

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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES

Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
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Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution

T-s diagram
of the ideal
Otto cycle.
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Thermal efficiency of the ideal
Otto cycle as a function of
compression ratio (k = 1.4). 25
26
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition (engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines
can be designed to operate at much higher compression
ratios than SI engines, typically between 12 and 24.

1-2 isentropic
compression
2-3 constant-
pressure heat
addition
3-4 isentropic
expansion
4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.

In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced

by a fuel injector, and only air is compressed
during the compression process.
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Cutoff
ratio

for the same compression ratio

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29
 Comparison of SI and CI engines
SI engine CI engine
It works on Otto cycle. It works on diesel or dual cycle.
Fuel should have higher self-ignition Fuel should have comparatively lower
temperature, e.g. petrol self-ignition temperature, e.g. diesel.
During suction, air-fuel mixture enters During suction, only air enters into the
into the combustion chamber. combustion chamber.
Carburetor is required to form air-fuel Fuel pump and injector are required for
mixture. diesel injection.
Throttle controls the quantity of air fuel Quantity of fuel is regulated in pump, air
mixture quantity is not controlled.
Spark is required for combustion. Combustion happens on its own.
Operating compression ratio is 6 - 10.5. Operating compression ratio is 14 - 22.
Due to light weight and homogeneous Due to heavy weight and heterogeneous
combustion – high speed engines combustion – low speed engines
Less expensive. More expensive
Fuel cost is more. Fuel cost is less.
Low thermal efficiency – low comp. rat. High thermal efficiency – low comp. rat.
Dual cycle: A more realistic QUESTIONS ???
ideal cycle model for modern, Diesel engines operate at
high-speed compression ignition higher air-fuel ratios than
engine. gasoline engines. Why?
Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel
engines are among the
most efficient power
producing devices (about
50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle. in diesel engines
compared to gasoline
engines.

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