Introduction:
India-Pakistan relations are characterized by a complex and historically rooted dynamic that
has evolved since the partition of British India in 1947. Despite shared linguistic and cultural
ties, the relationship between these two nuclear-armed neighbors has been largely hostile,
marked by territorial disputes, wars, and cross-border terrorism.
Historical Background: The partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the creation of two
independent nations: India and Pakistan. This partition led to massive population displacement
and loss of life, particularly along religious lines, as Hindus and Muslims migrated to their
respective countries. India emerged as a secular republic with a Hindu majority, while Pakistan
became an Islamic republic with a Muslim majority, later losing its Hindu population following the
Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
Territorial Disputes: The most significant territorial dispute between India and Pakistan
revolves around the region of Jammu and Kashmir. This dispute has been the catalyst for
several wars and military conflicts between the two nations, with the exception of the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1971, which coincided with the Bangladesh Liberation War.
Military Standoff: The India-Pakistan border is heavily militarized, making it one of the most
volatile international boundaries. Despite attempts at diplomatic resolution through summits
such as Shimla, Agra, and Lahore, as well as various peace initiatives, the relationship remains
strained due to acts of cross-border terrorism.
Diplomatic Strategies: India has pursued a strategy of "minimalist engagement" with Pakistan,
focusing on maintaining a "cold peace" while sidestepping or cornering Pakistan in international
affairs. This approach allows India to prioritize other strategic challenges while managing its
relationship with Pakistan.
Cultural and Economic Factors: Despite linguistic and cultural ties, India-Pakistan trade
remains limited, with most trade routed through third-party countries due to formal restrictions
on direct trade routes. Public opinion in both countries reflects a largely negative perception of
each other's influence, further complicating diplomatic efforts.
The partition of British India in 1947 led to massive population exchanges and the
reconfiguration of princely states, significantly impacting the demographic and political
landscape of the region. While the partition initially did not envision population transfers,
communal violence and fears among religious minorities necessitated large-scale migration.
Additionally, the decisions of princely states regarding accession to either India or Pakistan
played a crucial role in shaping the relationship between the two newly formed nations.
Population Exchange: The partition split the province of Punjab and Bengal between India and
Pakistan, resulting in significant demographic shifts. In Punjab, where communal violence was
particularly intense, organized population transfers occurred, leading to the displacement of
millions. The violence in Punjab has been described as a retributive genocide, highlighting the
severity of the situation. Approximately 12 million people migrated across Punjab, with millions
of Muslims moving from East Punjab to West Punjab, and Hindus and Sikhs moving in the
opposite direction.
Princely States: British India's partition allowed princely states to choose between joining India
or Pakistan. Most Muslim-majority princely states opted for Pakistan, while Hindu-majority states
acceded to India. However, the decisions of certain princely states had significant implications
for the India-Pakistan relationship. These decisions often led to territorial disputes and conflicts,
contributing to ongoing tensions between the two nations.
1947-1948
Junagadh issue
Introduction: The Junagadh dispute emerged as a significant flashpoint in the India-Pakistan
relationship following the partition of British India in 1947. The princely state of Junagadh, with
its Hindu-majority population, acceded to Pakistan, sparking a contentious disagreement
between the two newly formed nations. This study note explores the conflicting perspectives,
actions taken by both sides, and the eventual resolution of the Junagadh crisis.
Background: Junagadh, located in the southwestern region of Gujarat, had an overwhelming
Hindu population but was ruled by a Muslim Nawab, Mahabat Khan. Despite being
geographically distant from Pakistan and surrounded by Indian territory, Junagadh acceded to
Pakistan on August 15, 1947. Pakistan confirmed the acceptance of the accession on
September 15, 1947, leading to immediate tensions with India.
Conflicting Perspectives: India rejected the legitimacy of Junagadh's accession, citing its non-
contiguity with Pakistan and the Hindu majority's desire to be part of India. Conversely, Pakistan
argued that Junagadh's ruler had the right to decide its fate and that the state's coastline could
maintain maritime links with Pakistan even within Indian territory.
Escalation and Annexation: Efforts to resolve the dispute amicably failed, escalating tensions
between India and Pakistan. India's Home Minister, Sardar Patel, expressed concerns about
communal unrest in Gujarat if Junagadh went to Pakistan. To prevent violence, India cut off
supplies, severed communications, and occupied Junagadh's principalities of Mangrol and
Babariawad. The Nawab fled to Pakistan, and the Junagadh court invited India to take over
administration, leading to Indian troops occupying the region on November 9, 1947.
Resolution: In February 1948, a plebiscite was held in Junagadh, resulting in an overwhelming
vote for accession to India. This outcome validated India's position and resolved the dispute,
although it further strained relations between India and Pakistan.
Kashmir Issue
Introduction: The Kashmir conflict is a long-standing territorial dispute between India and
Pakistan, rooted in the partition of British India in 1947. This study note provides an overview of
the events surrounding the accession of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir to India, the
subsequent conflict, and the efforts to resolve the dispute through international intervention.
Background: Jammu and Kashmir, a Muslim-majority princely state ruled by Hindu King
Maharaja Hari Singh, opted for independence at the time of partition. However, faced with
invasion by tribal militias supported by Pakistan, the Maharaja sought military assistance from
India. In October 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India, a decision supported by political leader
Sheikh Abdullah.
Escalation of Conflict: Pakistan refused to accept the state's accession to India and escalated
the conflict by supporting rebel forces and organizing invasions. Indian troops managed to push
back the invading tribes from the Kashmir Valley, but the conflict remained unresolved.
International Intervention: In December 1947, India referred the conflict to the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) to prevent a general war between India and Pakistan. The UNSC
passed Resolution 47, calling for the withdrawal of Pakistani nationals from Kashmir and the
demilitarization of the region. It also proposed conducting a plebiscite to determine the wishes of
the people.
Stalemate and Ceasefire: Despite the UNSC resolution, India and Pakistan could not agree on
suitable steps for demilitarization. Pakistan organized rebel forces in Azad Kashmir into a
military, while India insisted on their disbandment. As a result, no agreement was reached, and
the plebiscite never took place. A ceasefire was declared on January 1, 1949, but tensions
remained high, and sporadic clashes continued along the Line of Control.
Ongoing Conflict: The Kashmir conflict has persisted for decades, with both India and
Pakistan claiming sovereignty over the region. The Line of Control, established after the
ceasefire, remains a heavily militarized boundary, and efforts to resolve the dispute
diplomatically have yielded limited success.
Minorities Agreement 1950 (Liaquat – Nehru
Pact):
A part from large-scale migration from both India and Pakistan still there was large number of
religious minorities left in both the countries. To protect minorities and to encourage them to stay
their respective countries a Minorities Agreement was signed between Liaqat Ali Khan and
Nehru in 1950.
1960
The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan that was
brokered by the World Bank and signed in 1960. The treaty governs the distribution of waters
from the Indus River system, which includes the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers, among
others. Here are the key components and implications of the treaty
Partition and Conflict: The treaty came into existence against the backdrop of the partition of
British India in 1947, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan. The division of the Indus
River basin, which flows through both countries, raised concerns about water access and
potential conflict.
Division of Rivers: The treaty divided the six rivers of the Indus Basin into eastern and western
rivers. India was allocated control over the eastern rivers—Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej—while
Pakistan was given control over the western rivers—Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab.
Water Allocation: Under the treaty, India can use a portion of the water from the western rivers
for non-consumptive purposes, such as hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, and domestic
use. However, it must ensure that the flow of these rivers to Pakistan is not significantly
reduced.
Permanent Commission: The treaty established the Permanent Indus Commission, with
representatives from both India and Pakistan, to resolve disputes and address issues related to
the implementation of the treaty. The commission meets regularly to exchange data, discuss
any problems, and undertake necessary inspections.
Dispute Resolution Mechanism: The treaty outlines mechanisms for resolving disputes that may
arise between the two countries regarding water sharing. These include negotiation, mediation,
and arbitration, with the World Bank acting as a mediator if necessary.
International Supervision: The World Bank played a crucial role in facilitating the treaty
negotiations and continues to monitor its implementation. It also provides financial assistance
for the development of water infrastructure projects in both countries.
1965
Second Indo-Pak War
In 1965, India and Pakistan fought their second war, that was preceded by skirmishes that took
place between the two nations between April and September. There were thousands of
casualties on both sides in the war, and it witnessed the largest engagement of armored
vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. It ended after a UN mandated ceasefire
was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and the United States (US),
and the subsequent signing of the Tashkent Declaration.
1966
Tashkent Declaration
An agreement was concluded at Tashkent in 1966 between Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub
Khan, President Kosygen of USSR played the role of mediator. It was an agreement for cease-
fire. According to the agreement both India and Pakistan promised to resolve all dispute through
peaceful means and both were agreed to withdraw their forces before 1956 position. The peace
treaty made no mention to Kashmir problem.
1971-1972
Third Indo-Pak War
Pakistan, since independence, was geo-politically divided into two major regions, West Pakistan
and East Pakistan. East Pakistan was occupied mostly by Bengali people. After a Pakistani
military operation and a genocide on Bengalis in December 1971, following a political crisis in
East Pakistan, the situation soon spiralled out of control in East Pakistan and India intervened in
favour of the rebelling Bengali populace. The conflict, a brief but bloody war, resulted in the
independence of East Pakistan. In the war, the Indian Army invaded East Pakistan from three
sides, while the Indian Navy used the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant to impose a naval blockade of
East Pakistan. The war saw the first offensive operations undertaken by the Indian Navy against
an enemy port, when Karachi harbour was attacked twice during Operation Trident (1971) and
Operation Python. These attacks destroyed a significant portion of Pakistan's naval strength,
whereas no Indian ship was lost. The Indian Navy did, however, lose a single ship, when INS
Khukri (F149) was torpedoed by a Pakistani submarine. 13 days after the invasion of East
Pakistan, 93,000 Pakistani military personnel surrendered to the Indian Army and the Mukti
Bahini. After the surrender of Pakistani forces, East Pakistan became the independent nation of
Bangladesh.
Simla Accord
In 1972 an agreement was signed between Indra Gandhi and Z.A.Bhutto. According
to the terms of agreement India was agreed to release 90,000 P.O.W s captured by India in
1971 war. In returned Pakistan was agreed that it would not raised the issue of Kashmir on any
international forum.
1974
Indian Nuclear Test
In 1974 Indian government tested its nuclear device in Rajasthan. This explosion caused
serious military unbalanced and tension between India and Pakistan. Bhutto the Pakistani Prime
Minister also announced to start Pakistan’s nuclear program.
1980-1984
Issue of Khalistan
In early 1980s the struggle for the establishment of the separate Sikh state (Khalistan)
started by the Sikh separatist group. In October 1984 Indra Gandhi, the Indian Prime Minister
was killed by a Sikh group. Son of Indra Gandhi and Indian Prime Minister accused Pakistan for
providing assistance to the Sikh separatist and also involved Pakistan in the murder of Indra
Gandhi.
1987
Indian army exercise at Rajasthan
Indian army exercise at Rajasthan desert on the border of Pakistan in 1987 made war more
likely between the two countries than at any other time since 1971.General Zia the president of
Pakistan cleverly dealt the situation by using cricket diplomacy. He reached India for watching a
cricket match. It caused to release the tension between India and Pakistan. The relation
remained cool till the death of Zia-ul-Haq in 1988.
1989
Issue of Siachin Glacier
Siachin Glacier, which is one of the largest glaciers of the world, located in the north of Kashmir
of the joint border of India, China and Pakistan, was captured by India in 1984. Both India and
Pakistan were seemed to be the brink of another war, with Pakistani and Indian armies fighting
an undeclared war on Siachin. In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot, preemptively
occupying the Siachen Glacier and surrounding high-altitude positions. This operation aimed to
prevent Pakistan from establishing control over the region. The move escalated tensions
between the two countries and led to a prolonged military standoff.
Armed insurgency in the Kashmir
Armed insurgency in the Kashmir Valley began. Muslim political parties, after accusing the state
government of rigging the 1987 state legislative elections, formed militant wings.
Pakistan declares that it was providing "moral and diplomatic" support to the militants. However
it is widely believed internationally that Pakistan is actually complicit in stoking the insurgency by
providing funding, directions, shelter, weapons and training to fighters. India is convinced that
the armed attacks against its forces in Jammu & Kashmir are a clear manifestation of "cross-
border terrorism" by Pakistan in pursuit of its policy of 'bleeding India through a thousand cuts'.
Pakistan denies this.
Militant groups taking part in the fight in the Kashmir Valley continued to emerge through the
1990’s, their ranks bolstered by a large influx of battle-hardened "Mujahideen" who had earlier
taken part in the Afghan war against the Soviets.
Despite centuries of communal harmony in Jammu & Kashmir between Muslims, Hindus and
Buddhists, the minority Hindu community of Jammu & Kashmir (Kashmiri Pandits) in the
Kashmir Valley was targeted by the militants and forced to migrate.
Many pan-Islamic terrorist groups like the Lashkar-e-Taibah (LeT)
1998
India detonated five nuclear devices at Pokhran. Pakistan responded by detonating six nuclear
devices of its own in the Chaghai Hills. The tests resulted in international sanctions being placed
on both countries. Both countries became the newest Nuclear-armed nations.
1999
Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee travelled by bus to Lahore (newly opened Delhi–
Lahore Bus service) to meet Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. The two signed the Lahore
Declaration, the first major agreement between the two countries since the 1972 Simla
Agreement. Both countries reiterated that they remained committed to the Simla Agreement,
and agreed to undertake a number of Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) aimed at
improving bilateral relations.
In May, the Kargil conflict broke out when Pakistani forces intruded and occupied strategic
positions on the Indian side of the LoC, prompting an Indian counter offensive in which Pakistani
forces were pushed back to their side of the original LoC.
Kargil was the first armed conflict between the two neighbours since they officially conducted
nuclear weapons tests. Recognition of the potential for escalation of this conflict and its wider
implications caused the then US President Bill Clinton to summon Pakistani Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif and demand that he rein in his troops.
2001
On 13 December, an armed attack on the Indian parliament in New Delhi left 14 people dead.
LeT and JeM were held responsible for the attacks.
The attacks led to massing of India's and Pakistan's militaries along the LoC. The standoff
ended only in October 2002, after international mediation.
2004
Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Musharraf held direct talks at the 12th South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) summit in Islamabad in January, and the two
countries' Foreign Secretaries met later in the year. The year marked the beginning of the
Composite Dialogue Process, in which bilateral meetings were held between officials at various
levels of government (including Foreign Ministers, Foreign Secretaries, military officers, border
security officials, anti-narcotics officials and nuclear experts).
In November, on the eve of a visit to Jammu & Kashmir, the new Indian Prime Minister,
Manmohan Singh, announced that India will be reducing its deployment of troops there.
2008
On 26 November, in one of the most gruesome terrorist attacks the world has witnessed, armed
gunmen opened fire on civilians at several sites in Mumbai, India. The attacked places were
the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, the Oberoi Trident Hotel, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Train Terminus,
Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital, Nariman House Jewish Community Centre, Metro Cinema, St
Xavier's College and a lane near the Times of India office. More than 160 people were killed in
the attacks. An almost three-day siege of the Taj, where gunmen remained holed up until all but
one of them were killed in an Indian security forces operation, accounted for the bulk of the
casualties.
Ajmal Kasab, the only attacker captured alive, confessed that the attackers were members of
LeT. Tracking calls and communications all linked back to Pakistan, from where the entire attack
was plotted and directed.
In the wake of the attacks, India broke off talks with Pakistan.
2009
The Pakistani government admitted that the Mumbai attacks were planned on Pakistani soil, but
denied that the plotters were sanctioned or aided by Pakistan's intelligence agencies.
The Indian government continued to take a stern line with Pakistan, however, with its coalition
government saying that it was up to Pakistan to take the first step towards resumption of
substantive talks by cracking down on militant groups on its soil.
2013
In September, the Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met in New York on the sidelines of the
UN General Assembly. They agreed to end tension between the armies of both sides in the
disputed region of Jammu & Kashmir.
2014
On 1 May, Pakistan's Army Chief General Raheel Sharif called Kashmir the "jugular vein" of
Pakistan, adding that for lasting peace in the region the dispute should be resolved in
accordance with the wishes and aspirations of Kashmiris and in line with the United Nations
Security Council resolutions.
On 27 May, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi held talks with Pakistan's Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif in New Delhi. Both sides expressed willingness to begin a new era of bilateral
relations.
2015
India’s ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) party forms the government in Indian Administered
Jammu & Kashmir in coalition with the local People’s Democratic Party (PDP) in March. Mufti
Mohammad Sayeed, head of the PDP, is sworn in as Chief Minister.
In December, on his way back from Afghanistan, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi makes a
surprise visit to Lahore on Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's birthday and the wedding of his
granddaughter.
2016
JeM terrorists disguised as soldiers, carry out a deadly attack on Pathankot airbase in India’s
northwestern state of Punjab in January. The attack comes a week after Prime Minister Modi
made an impromptu visit to Pakistani counterpart Nawaz Sharif, in an effort to revive bilateral
talks.
In September, JeM terrorists storm an army base in Uri, in Indian Administered Jammu &
Kashmir, and kill 17 Indian soldiers.
On 29 September, India, in its first direct military response to the attack in Uri,
conducts ‘surgical strikes’ on suspected terrorists across the LoC in Pakistan Administered
Jammu & Kashmir.
2017
The Indian Army bombs Pakistani Army check posts in Nowshera along the LoC in May, which
according to Army spokesman, Ashok Narula, was done in order to prevent infiltration of
terrorists into Indian Administered Jammu & Kashmir.
Terrorists attack Hindu pilgrims in Jammu & Kashmir in July, killing at least seven and injuring
16, in the worst such attack since 2000.
In December, Indian Army commandos cross the LoC in Jammu & Kashmir and kill three
Pakistani soldiers, two days after four Indian Army men were shot dead in an ambush in Keri
sector of Rajouri.
2018
In January, the Indian Army claims that in total, it has killed 138 Pakistan Army personnel in
2017 in tactical operations and retaliatory cross-border firings along the LoC in Jammu &
Kashmir and lost 28 soldiers during the same period.
In May, after several months of deadly violence and cross-border firing along the LoC, India and
Pakistan agree to fully implement the ceasefire pact of 2003 in “letter and spirit” forthwith to stop
cross-border firing. Later during the month, Indian special forces foil an attack by Pakistan's
Border Action Team (BAT).
In June, the UN Office for the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) issues the first
ever UN report detailing human rights abuses in Kashmir titled “Report on the Situation of
Human Rights in Kashmir: Developments in the Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir from June
2016 to April 2018, and General Human Rights Concerns in Azad Jammu and Kashmir and
Gilgit-Baltistan”. This 49-page report of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra'ad Al
Hussein displays a pronounced pro-Pakistan bias in its assessment of the human rights
situation on the two sides of the LoC while UN designated terrorist organizations and terrorists
are classified ‘armed groups’ and ‘leaders’, as many as 38 times, in the report by the OHCHR.
2019
On 14 February, 40 members of the Indian Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) are killed in a
suicide bombing in Pulwama in Indian Administered Jammu & Kashmir. This is the deadliest
assault on Indian forces in the troubled region in decades.
On 15 February, JeM, a Pakistan based terrorist organization, claims the attack and releases a
video identifying the suicide bomber.
Two days later, India hikes tariffs on all imports from Pakistan to 200% with immediate effect.
On 18 February, days after orchestrating a devastating suicide bombing which left 40 Indian
security forces dead, JeM terrorists kill an Indian Army major and at least three other soldiers in
Jammu & Kashmir. Reportedly, two terrorists, including a commander of the JeM, thought to
have been a mastermind behind the attack on 14 February, are killed in an exchange of gunfire
with the Indian Army.
Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan on 19 February expresses his willingness to negotiate and
cooperate with India regarding the Pulwama attack on 14 February.
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi vows a strong response, saying that “…We will give a
befitting reply, our neighbour will not be allowed to destabilise us”.
Indian and Pakistani armies exchange fire on 25 February at the LoC in Jammu & Kashmir's
Rajouri district.
On 26 February, the Indian government carries out ‘non-military pre-emptive’ strikes targeting
Pakistan-based terrorist group JeM's ‘biggest training camp’ near Balakot in the Pakistani
province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. After initially denying that any such incident had occurred,
Pakistan subsequently acknowledges that Indian fighter aircraft had indeed penetrated deep
into Pakistani territory undetected and had dropped bombs near Balakot. Major General Asif
Ghafoor, spokesperson for the Pakistan armed forces, however, said that the strikes hit an
empty area.
On 27 February, the Pakistan Army warns that it will respond to India’s aerial bombing. The
Indian Air Force shoots down a Pakistani F-16 fighter, while Pakistan downs two Indian fighter
jets and captures one Indian pilot.
On 28 February, Imran Khan says that the captured Indian Air Force pilot would be released as
a “peace gesture”. Reports suggest that the Pakistani Prime Minister may have been under
international pressure, especially from the US.
In the first week of April, India and Pakistan trade fire in the region of Jammu & Kashmir, leaving
seven people dead.
2021
On 25 February, India and Pakistan reaffirmed their commitment to a cease-fire along the Line
of Control inJammu&Kashmir.
A joint statement released by the militaries of both countries said that their top officials had
agreed to a strict observance of the truce and to continue communicating through a hotline to
resolve potential misunderstandings.
The news of a renewed commitment to the cease-fire was particularly welcomed by
communities living along the de-facto border, LoC, who have borne the brunt of the skirmishes
from both sides.
On 3 May, Pakistan breached the ceasefire agreement by opening unprovoked fire in the
Ramgarh sector. Several other violations were also reported by both sides throughout 2021,
however, these have not hindered the stability of the region and the cease-fire has so far
remained active.
