USN

THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING, MYSURU – 8

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

---------- Semester B.E Degree Examination, May - 2024

Time: 3hrs Max. Marks: 100

Note: Answer all the questions.

Q. Cognt. COs Questions Mar

No. Level ks
1.a) L2 CO1 Explain Classful IP Addressing with an example.

b) L3 CO1 Compare between IPv4 and IPv6 headers with an example.

2.a)
b)
OR
2.c)
d)

3.a)
b)

4.a)
b)
OR
4.c)
d)

5.a)
b)

6.a) L1 CO1 Extension headers. 2

b) L1 CO2 Physical Multicast Support 2
c) L1 CO3 OSPF 2
d) L1 CO4 SCTP packet format. 2
e) L1 CO5 POP3 2
---***---
Answer 1 a
In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D,
and E. Each class occupies some part of the address space.
the first few bits show class of the address. If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first
byte defines the class.

Class A
IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.

Class B
IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-
sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10.

Class C
IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
Class D
IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting.

Class E
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E range from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have any subnet
mask.

Answer:1 b

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a device
to the Internet.
 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
  IPv4 addresses are unique.
 They are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one,
connection to the Internet.
 The address space of IPv4 is 4,294,967,296.

The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:

01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010

IPv4 address in both binary and dotted-decimal notation.

each byte (octet) is 8 bits, each number in dotted-decimal notation is a value ranging from 0 to 255.

 An IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is 128 bits long.

 IPv6 specifies hexadecimal colon notation.

 128 bits is divided into eight sections, each 2 bytes in length.

 Two bytes in hexadecimal notation requires four hexadecimal digits.
 the address consists of 32 hexadecimal digits, with every four digits separated by a colon.

128 bits = 16 bytes = 32 hex digits

Answer 2 a

In belove mentioned Figure, the system on the left (A) has a packet that needs to be delivered to
another system (B) with IP address 141.23.56.23. System A needs to pass the packet to its data link
layer for the actual delivery, but it does not know the physical address of the recipient. It uses the
services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to send a broadcast.
ARP request packet to ask for the physical address of a system with an IP address of 141.23.56.23.
This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but only system B.
System B sends an ARP reply packet that. includes its physical address.
Now system A can send all the packets it has for this destination.
by using the physical address, it received.
2b

An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variable-size data section.

Although the general format of the header is different for each message type, the first 4 bytes are
common to all.
As Figure shows, the first field, ICMP type, defines the type of the message. The code field specifies
the reason for the message type. The last common field is the checksum field.
header is specific for each message type.
The data section in error messages carries information for finding the original packet that had the
error.
In query messages, the data section carries extra information. based on the type of the query.

2c.

distance learning and video-on-demand.

The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a one of the protocols that is involved in
multicasting. IGMP is a companion to the IP protocol.

Group Management
For multicasting on the Internet, we need routers that can route multicast packets.

The routing tables of these routers must be updated by using one of the multicasting.
routing protocols

IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that manages group membership.

In any network, there are one or more multicast routers that distribute multicast packets to hosts or
other routers. The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers.

A multicast router may receive thousands of multicasts packets every day for different.
groups.

If a router has no knowledge about the membership status of the hosts, it must broadcast all these
packets.

This creates a lot of traffic and consumes bandwidth. A better solution is to keep a list of groups in
the network for which there is at least one loyal.
member.

IGMP helps the multicast router create and update this list.

IGMP Messages

IGMP Operation

A multicast router connected to a network has a list of multicast addresses of the groups with at least
one loyal member in that network.
For each group, there is one router that has the duty of distributing the multicast packets destined for
that group. This means that if there are three multicast routers connected to a network, their lists of
group ID are mutually exclusive.

2c.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) finds the logical address for a machine.
that knows only its physical address.
 Each host or router is assigned one or more logical (IP) addresses, which are unique and independent of
the physical (hardware) address of the machine.

To create an IP datagram, a host or a router needs to know its own IP address or addresses. The IP
address of a machine is usually read from its configuration.
file stored on a disk file.
The machine can get its physical address (by reading its NIC) which. is unique locally.
It can then use the physical address to get the logical address by using the RARP protocol.
A RARP request is created and broadcast on the local network.
Another machine on the local network that knows all the IP addresses will respond with a RARP reply.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):

 A protocol used to map an IP address to a physical (MAC) address.

 To obtain the MAC address of a network device when only its IP address is known.
 Client broadcasts its IP address and requests a MAC address, and the server responds
with the corresponding MAC address.
 Widely used in modern networks to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP):

 A protocol used to map a physical (MAC) address to an IP address.
 To obtain the IP address of a network device when only its MAC address is known.
 Client broadcasts its MAC address and requests an IP address, and the server responds
with the corresponding IP address.
 Rarely used in modern networks as most devices have a pre-assigned IP address.

3a.

4a.
UDP (USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL):

 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a connectionless and unreliable transport
protocol.
 It does not add anything to the services of IP except to provide process-to process
communication instead of host-to-host communication.
 it performs very limited error checking.
 UDP is a very simple protocol using a minimum of overhead.
 If a process wants to send a small message and does not care much about reliability, it can
use UDP.
 Sending a small message by using UDP takes much less interaction between the sender and
receiver than using TCP or SCTP.
 An acknowledgment segment is present.
 TCP (transport layer protocol):

 The second transport layer protocol is called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
 TCP like UDP, is a process-to-process (program-to-program) protocol.
 Unlike UDP, TCP is a connection-oriented protocol; it creates a virtual connection between
two TCPs to send data.
 TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms at the transport level.
 TCP is called a connection-oriented, reliable transport protocol. It adds connection-oriented
and reliability features to the services of IP.
 No acknowledgment segments.
4b

SCTP Services:

services offered by SCTP to the application layer processes.

1. Process-to-Process Communication SCTP uses all well-known ports in the TCP space.

2. Multiple Streams: SCTP allows multistream service in each connection, if one of the
streams is blocked, the other streams can still deliver their data.

3. Multihoming: The sending and receiving host can define multiple IP addresses in each end
for an association. In this fault-tolerant approach, when one path fails, another interface can
be used for data delivery without interruption.

4. Full-Duplex Communication:
When a process at site A wants to send and receive data from another process at site B, the
following occurs: 1. The two SCTPs establish an association between each other. 2. Data are
exchanged in both directions. 3. The association is terminated.

5. Reliable Service: is a reliable transport protocol. It uses an acknowledgment mechanism to

check the safe and sound arrival of data.

SCTP Features:

1. Transmission Sequence Number: Data transfer in SCTP is controlled by numbering the

data chunks. SCTP uses a transmission sequence number (TSN) to number the data chunks.
2. Stream Identifier: In SCTP, there may be several streams in each association. Each stream
in SCTP needs to be identified by using a stream identifier (SI).

3. Stream Sequence Number: data chunk arrives at the destination SCTP, it is delivered to the
appropriate stream and in the proper order in addition to an SI, SCTP defines each data chunk
in each stream with a stream sequence number (SSN).

4. Packets: data are carried as data chunks; control information is carried as control chunks.
Several control chunks and data chunks can be packed together in a packet.

4d.

CONGESTION CONTROL:
Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion, before it
happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened.
Open-Loop Congestion Control:
In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens. In
these mechanisms, congestion control is handled by either the source or the destination.

Closed-Loop Congestion Control:

The technique of backpressure refers to a congestion control mechanism in which a congested node
stops receiving data from the immediate upstream node or nodes. This may cause the upstream node
or nodes to become congested, and they, in turn, reject data from their upstream nodes or nodes.

5a.

The client/server programs can be divided into two categories: those that can be directly used by the
user, such as e-mail, and those that support other application programs. The Domain Name System
(DNS) is a supporting program that is used by other programs such as e-mail.
Figure shows an example of how a DNS client/server program can support an e-mail program to
find the IP address of an e-mail recipient.
A user of an e-mail program may know the e-mail address of the recipient; however, the IP protocol
needs the IP address.
The DNS client program sends a request to a DNS server to map the e-mail address to the
corresponding IP address.

To store the entire host file in a single computer and allow access to this centralized information to
every computer that needs mapping. It would create a huge amount of traffic on the Internet.

is to divide this huge amount of information into smaller parts and store each part on a different
computer. the host that needs mapping can contact the closest computer holding the needed
information. This method is used by the Domain Name System (DNS).

NAME SPACE
the names must be unique because the addresses are unique. A name space that maps each address to
a unique name can be organized in two ways.