Warm-up

1) What strand is continuously replicated?

2) Draw a DNA molecule with a replication fork and

represent the leading and lagging strand
3) What are the fragments placed into the lagging strand?
4) What do the following enzymes do?
a) Ligase
b) Helicase
c) DNA polymerase

5) What is the difference between Topoisomerase and the

SSBP’s?
 Welcome Research! Warm-up
1) Where does the process of replication occur? Why is
DNA unable to leave there?
2) What are some differences between DNA and RNA?
3) What is the Complementary strand to 5’-ATGCATG-3’

Is this template strand a leading or lagging strand?

4) How might RNA be made (transcribed) from DNA?

5) Why would we want to make proteins in translation?
 Click on sections to
navigate or Jump Ahead!
★ Transcription
★ Translation
★ Codon Wheel
★ Mutations
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The Protein-making Process
 Protein Synthesis (Gene Expression) Notes
Proteins (Review)
• Proteins make up all living materials
• Proteins are composed of amino acids – there are 20
different amino acids
• Different proteins are made by combining these 20
amino acids in different combinations
• Proteins are manufactured (made) by the ribosomes
•Function of proteins:
1. Help fight disease
2. Build new body tissue
3. Enzymes used for digestion and other chemical
reactions are proteins
(Enzymes speed up the rate of a reaction)
4. Component of all cell membranes
MAKING PROTEINS
Step 1: Transcription
 Transcription

● Transcription is the first step in gene expression. It involves copying a gene's DNA sequence to make
an mRNA molecule. This will CARRY the code!
● Transcription is performed by enzymes called RNA polymerases, which link nucleotides to form an
RNA strand (using a DNA strand as a template).
● Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
● In eukaryotes, RNA molecules must be processed after transcription: they are spliced and have a 5' cap
and poly-A tail put on their ends.
● Transcription is controlled separately for each gene in your genome.
Making a Protein—Transcription
• First Step: Copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA
called Transcription
Why? DNA has the genetic code for the protein that needs to be
made, but proteins are made by the ribosomes—ribosomes are
outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm.
DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double stranded), but RNA
can leave the nucleus (single stranded).
• Part of DNA temporarily unzips and is used as a
template to assemble complementary nucleotides
into messenger RNA (mRNA).
• mRNA then goes through the pores of the nucleus with
the DNA code and attaches to the ribosome.
MAKING PROTEINS
Step 2: Translation
Making a Protein—Translation
• Second Step: Decoding of mRNA into a protein is called
Translation.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids from the
cytoplasm to the ribosome.
These amino acids come from the food we eat. Proteins we
eat are broken down into individual amino acids and then
simply rearranged into new proteins according to the
needs and directions of our DNA.
•A series of three adjacent bases
in an mRNA molecule codes for a
specific amino acid—called a
codon.

•Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides Amino acid

that are complementary to the
codon in mRNA.

•Each tRNA codes for a different

amino acid.
Anticodon
• mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and tRNA carrying
amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
• Amino acids are joined together to make a protein.

Polypeptide = Protein
 CAC/CCA/UGG/UGA
___________/___________/___________/____________
2nd Base
1st Base

3rd Base
Find the signs on the Start and Stop codons.
Use one of the codon charts on the next page to find the amino acid
sequence coded for by the following mRNA strands.

CAC/CCA/UGG/UGA

___________/___________/___________/____________

AUG/AAC/GAC/UAA

___________/___________/___________/____________
 AUG/AAC/GAC/UAA

Methionine Asparagine Aspartic Acid Stop

___________/___________/___________/____________
Protein
Synthesis
 Welcome! Warm up 2/14
1) What amino acid chain is made from this mRNA strand:
AUG GAG UUU GUA UAA

2) Why is it important to read the codon to figure out which

amino acid it codes for?

3) If DNA reads: ATC GCC GAT TAT, what would be the

complementary mRNA strand?

4) If I took the mRNA from #1 and deleted the last U,

what would happen?

5) What are the 3 types of RNA and how do they

work/what do they do?
Answers!
 Welcome! Warm up - 2/15
1) What are the three main phases of transcription as well as
translation?
2) What is the difference between Translation and Transcription?
3) How many base pairs code for an amino acid and what is this
called?
4) How do you read a Codon Wheel?

5) What protein will I make with this DNA Strand? Show all
steps involved.

5’-TAC CCC ATG CAC ACT-3’

36
Tasks for today!

With group revise SRP choice to fit guidelines in Slides on

schoology.

Complete your copies and MASTER copy of Approval form-

Needs detail!
Conferences to follow with approval form

Mutations Simulation On schoology- HW if not finished

Here are some examples of Final Projects for the SRP!

Click Here
 Mutations
Mutations in our DNA and
what they can do!

We will discuss the types of

mutations, what they will look
like, and possible outcomes!
Mutations
● Mutations create new or unique DNA sequences, and thus are the ULTIMATE
source of genetic variation in all forms of life.
● Mutations are changes in the genetic material of a cell or virus.
○ Somatic mutations occur in somatic (body) cells. They are passed on by
mitosis but not to sexually produced offspring.
○ Germline mutations occur in germ line cells that give rise to gametes (egg
and sperm cells). A gamete with a mutation passes it onto the new
organism at fertilization (i.e. it is inherited)
● Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or silent (have no effect).
Types of Mutations
● Substitution Mutations: A single Base is swapped for another one. Changing the
resulting protein in some way.
○ These lead to Silent (no change in AA)), Nonsense (early stop), or Missense (1
changed AA

● Insertion/Deletion Mutations create a shortened sequence that is missing a base or

elongate the sequence by adding a base.
○ These are known as Frameshift Mutations
Base-Pair Substitutions
● A base-pair substitution replaces one nucleotide
and its partner with another pair of nucleotides.
● They can cause silent, missense, or nonsense
mutations.
○ A silent mutation still codes for the same
amino acid (no change to the protein).
○ Missense mutations still code for an amino
acid, but not the correct one.
○ Nonsense mutations change an amino acid
codon into a stop codon, nearly always
leading to a nonfunctional protein
Base-Pair Insertions and Deletions
● Insertions and deletions are additions or losses
of nucleotide pairs in a gene
● These mutations have a disastrous effect on the
resulting protein more often than substitutions
do.
● Insertion or deletion of nucleotides may alter the
reading frame, producing a frameshift mutation.
○ A frameshift mutation changes all of the
codons translated after the point of
mutation, and thus changes all the
corresponding amino acids.
 Chromosomal Mutations
A chromosome rearrangement is a structural change in a
chromosome such as a deletion, translocation, inversion, or
insertion/duplication.
Mutagens
● Spontaneous mutations occur with no outside influence. This could be a result
of replication errors by DNA polymerase—most are repaired but some become
permanent.
● Mutagens, however, are physical or chemical agents that can cause mutations.
● Examples of mutagens include:
○ Radiation (such as X-rays or ultraviolet radiation from the sun)
○ Harmful chemicals (such as some bromine, benzene, and nitrous acid).
○ Mutagens are also found in the chemical defenses of some plants and
fungi.
Mutagens
Effects of Mutations
● Mutations can have benefits:
○ Provides the raw material for evolution in the form of genetic diversity
○ Diversity may benefit the organism immediately—if mutation is in somatic
cells
○ Mutations in germ line cells may cause an advantageous change in offspring
● Mutations can be harmful if they result in loss of function of genes or other DNA
sequences needed for survival.
○ Harmful mutations in germ line cells can be passed to offspring.
○ Harmful mutations in somatic cells can lead to cancer.
● Mutations can have no effect (silent) if they have no effect on a protein.
○ Either the changed codon encodes the same amino acid, or the mutation
occurred in a non-coding segment of DNA (DNA that is not part of a gene).
Mutations are the primary
source of genetic variation.

Whether a mutation is
detrimental, beneficial, or
neutral depends on the
environmental context.
Sample Application Questions

● What is the transcript of the following DNA?

○ ATG CGT CAC
● What does a real protein require?
● If a mutation causes an early stop, what is that called?
● If I have the Anticodon ACU, what is the DNA that ultimately
coded for it?
● Why does a cell need to run transcription?
● What is a peptide bond? Where does it get formed?
 Warm up
1) A cancer researcher finds out that a patient has a
malfunctioning gene. It has one amino acid in the
protein that is wrong. What mutation is that?
2) My mRNA is: AUG CCA CUC UCA GGG UGA

mutated is: AUG CCU CUC UCA GGG UGA

What happened?

3) A hemoglobin protein is 141 amino acids long. If base

376 in the sequence is wrong, how many amino acids are
correct?
4) Explain why frameshift mutations are more detrimental
(bad) than a point mutation.
52
 Warm up
On the Review worksheets, answer the questions and glue
into your notebook. Feel free to cut off all paper other than
questions.

When done, obtain a blank piece of paper. Put name on it.

On the front, split into 4 sections.

On the back split into two sections.

FRONT

BACK
53
On the front side of the paper, Please Draw to the best of
your ability and label the following diagrams.
Nucleotide DNA replication

On the back side of the paper,

create the following.
tRNA Translation

DNA code, to mRNA, to protein

(normal) Then compared to that...
Mutation-Silent
Mutation-Missense
Mutation-Nonsense
Mutation-Frame Shift

Chromosomal mutations
Drawn and Labeled.