INTRODUCTION TO SOIL

CLASSIFICATION
Leushantha Mudaly
 What is Soil Classification?

• The process of grouping soil individuals into homogenous groups

with respect to defined objectives.
• Differences in soil properties and functions and between classes
can be highlighted.
 Why is Soil Classification Necessary?

• To correlate studies facilitating knowledge transfer.

• To generate soil maps, grouping areas of land – Soil management
strategies can be developed.
• Engineering industry - construction.
• Agriculture - suitable areas for crops.
• To study soil formation and behavior.
• Land resource assessment.
 11.1 THE SOIL PROFILE

• Combinations of soil factors and processes result in the formation

of a different set of horizons in each part of the landscape .
• This forms soil.
• Each soil is identified by the sequence of these
horizons.
• Exposure of the horizons is a soil profile.
• Master horizons make up the soil profile.

Dr. JH van der Waals

The Master Horizons
 The Master Horizons

• O Horizon: Composed of dead plant and animal residues. Generally

occur above the mineral soil or in an organic soil profile.
• A Horizon: The topmost mineral horizon. Darker colour due to OM.
Sometimes coarser texture.
• E Horizon: Horizon of ‘eluviation’. Maximum leaching occurs here.
Light colour. Mostly under forest, rarely under grasslands.
• B Horizon: Horizon of ‘illuviation’. Accumulation of materials washed in
from upper horizons. Humid – acc. sesquioxides. (Semi)Arid – salts.
Sufficient changes during soil formation.
• C Horizon: Unconsolidated material. Not necessarily same as parent of
solum. Not much bio activity. No sufficient development to be B.
Structural features similar to parent rock/geologic deposit.
• R Layer: Consolidated rock. Very little weathering has occurred.
 Transition Horizons

• Layers between master horizons that are dominated by properties

of one horizon but have characteristics of another.
• E.g. AE – A dominant, E present.
 Subordinate Distinctions

• Master horizons are indicated with a capital letter, lower case letter
indicate specific horizon characteristics.
• E.g. Bt = B with clay accumulation
• E.g. Bk = B with accumulation of carbonates.
• E.g. Bw = Young horizon
Terms Definitions
a Organic matter, highly decomposed
b Buried soil horizon
c Concretions or nodules
d Dense unconsolidated material
e Organic matter; intermediate decomposition
f Frozen soil
g Strong gleying (mottling)
h Illuvial accumulation of organic matter
i organic matter, slightly decomposed
j Jarosite (yellow sulfur material)
jj Cryoturbation (frost churning)
k Accumulation of carbonates
m cementation or induration
n accumulation of Na
o accumulation of Fe and Al
p Plowing or other disturbance
q Accumulation of silica
r weathered or soft bedrock
s illuvial accumulation of O.M. and Fe and Al oxides
ss slickensides (shiny clay wedges)
t accumulation of silicate clays
v plinthite (high iron, red material)
w distinctive color or structure
y accumulation of gypsum
z accumulation of soluble salts
 SUMMARY

• Soil genesis begins when horizons not present in the parent

material appear in the soil profile.
• Different combinations of the 4 soil forming processes and 5 soil
forming factors result in different horizons.
• Analysis of soil profiles provides information on climatic, biological
and geological conditions of that particular site.
 11.2 SOIL VARIATION AND
CLASSIFICATION

• Soil variability can occur from a few metres to kilometers.

• Important to consider spatial variability - influences land
management.
• Soil variability analysed in terms of the soil forming factors:
• Climate: Influences soil variability at very large scales (regions).
• Rainfall and Temperature: This can cause variability at shorter
distances (<1km).
• Parent Material: Usually at a large scale but can be associated with
small-scale differences.
• Organisms: Vegetation linked to soil variability – changes in
vegetation.
• Time – Temporal variability
 SCALES OF SOIL VARIABILITY
Small-Scale Soil Variability

• Soil properties can change over short distances (e.g. in a farm field
or soil individual).
• Soil individual – Polypedon (group of pedons).
• Pedon – Smallest unit classified.
• Small-scale variations relates to topography changes and parent
material thickness or to organisms (trees, humans).
• Analysis of small-scale variability is important to manage soil
fertility in an area. Some areas are more or less fertile than average.
 Medium-Scale Soil Variability

• Due to differences in a particular soil forming factor, e.g. parent

material or topography.
• Understanding these soil forming factors makes it possible to
group individual soils together in a sequence of land.
• Groups of soils include:
• Lithosequences: Occur across a sequence of parent material.
• Chronosequences: Occur across similar parent material varying in
age.
• Toposequences: Soils are arranged according to changes in relief.
• A catena is similar to a toposequence, however soils do not have to
share parent material. (Well drained at the top, poorly drained at the
bottom).
Plinthic Catena
 Soil Association

• Grouping of individual soils together in a landscape – SOIL

ASSOCIATION.
• Only require to occur in the same area.
• Soil associations are important to characterize landscapes across
large areas and to plan land use (general patterns observed).
 Large-Scale Variability

• Mainly due to climate and vegetation patterns but can be due to

parent material differences.
• Soils in hot humid regions differ to (semi-) arid regions.
• This type of variability has to be accounted for to determine natural
resources in a city/province/country.
11.3 SOIL SURVEYS
 Why Do We Do Soil Surveys?

• To make decisions regarding land use.

• Developed countries – guide for agricultural practices and urban
development.
• Developing Countries – Guidance on type and intensity of land use,
e.g. settlement and development schemes.
 Scale and Purpose

• Soil surveys are done at different scales with different purposes

and different methods.
• Large-scale surveys, e.g. reconnaissance surveys, can be done to
scales up to 1:500 000, while small-scale surveys, e.g. intensive
surveys, can be as small as 1:2 500.

• Reconnaissance Surveys (1:100 000 to 1:500 000):

• These cover cities/provinces/countries.
• They serve as a guide for land potential.
• Aerial photographs are used.
 Scale and Purpose

• Semi-Detailed Surveys (1:25 000 to 1:100 000):

• Slightly more detailed than reconnaissance surveys.
• Water resources looked at here.
• Areas for irrigation schemes and land settlement can be assessed with
this survey.

• Detailed Surveys (1:10 000 to 1:25 000) and Intensive Surveys

(1:2500 to 1:10 000):
• These provide a much more detailed analysis.
 Three More Surveys Used…

• Feasibility Surveys:
• Assess technical and economic aspects (is the development investment
feasible?).
• Detailed or semi-detailed surveys.
• Development Surveys:
• Assess appropriateness of the location.
• Planning stage.
• Intensive, detailed or semi-detailed surveys.
• Management Problem Surveys:
• Deal with specific problems, e.g. irrigation water application or location
of planting high-value crops. Info specific – soil depth, salinity, etc.
• Intensive surveys.
 What Information Is Provided In a Soil
Survey?

• Identification and classification of soil types in the area surveyed.

• Map soil distribution.
• Laboratory chemical analysis on samples from representative sites.
• Land capability map (with other information).
• Map of land use recommendations.
 Planning Decisions Based On A Soil Survey

The following needs to be considered:

• Type of land use (agriculture, grazing, forestry, water catchment
conservation, roads, villages, etc.).
• Type of crops to be grown on cultivated areas.
• Agricultural practices.
• The site and layout of the land.
• Possible hazards and precautions to avoid them.
 Soil Survey Procedures

• Computers and satellites play a large role but soil surveys start in
the pit.
• A soil pit can be dug by hand but is generally done with a backhoe
(back-actor), a type of excavating equipment.
 Soil Survey Procedures

• This allows people to enter and study colour, texture, structure and
other soil properties as well to differentiate between horizons. This
allows for classification.
 Soil Survey Procedures

• Chemical tests can be carried out in the field (e.g. pH, test for
carbonates and test for Mn oxides).
• Classification is done at this stage, which provides information on
the chemical, physical and mineralogical characterization of the
soil.
• Soil scientists that map the area, familiarize themselves with soils
they expect to find and use characteristics to distinguish them from
other soils in the area.
 Delineating Soil Boundaries

• Cannot dig pits randomly.

• Usually a map of the area is taken and a grid is made on the map to
determine where samples will be taken from.
• An efficient soil mapper looks at changes in vegetation, topography
and soil colour.
• A bare soil map can also be looked at to see where changes in
colour occur indicating differences in soil.
• Once sites are established, soil samples are taken with a soil auger.
Soil Auger
 Modern Technology For Soil Investigations

• Soil augering is the principle method used but intrusive and labour
intensive.
• There are several non-intrusive methods.
 1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

• Produces images of 0-30m of soil.

• Works by electromagnetic radiation.
• Linked to soil moisture content, salinity and density.
• Disadvantage: Not suitable for all soil (moisture, salt content and
clay types make reflectance difficult to interpret).
• Advantage: Cost-effective to determine soil or groundwater
boundaries.
 2. Electromagnetic Induction (EM)

• Measures conductivity of the soil for electromagnetic energy.

• Conductivity influenced by soil moisture, salinity and types of
clays.
• Disadvantage: Needs to be adapted for situation.
• Advantage: Provides useful information on subsurface features
and locates soil boundaries for maps.
 3. Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

• Soil surveyor‟s need to know their position in the landscape to take

samples.
• Satellite technology gives precise locations.
• GPS: Constellation of 27 earth-orbiting satellites (24 in use).
• Make two rotations of Earth daily.
• Four satellites need to be detected by a receiver to get an exact
location.
 Remote Sensing For Soil Investigations

• Get soil data without touching.

• Air photos used – Since 1935. Increase speed and accuracy of
mapping.
• Two types: Passive and Active
• Passive – detects natural radiation (sunlight), e.g. photos.
• Active – Emits energy to detect radiation
e.g. RADAR – uses radio waves to
to determine range, altitude,
direction or speed of objects.
 Remote Sensing Uses in Agriculture

• Measure reflectance of light energy from a crop canopy to detect

plant stress and correct it.
• Maps generated using remote sensing allow an estimate of the
extent of an important crop characteristic, e.g. water stress.
• Maps allow for location of similar areas in the field, which can be
used to determine what can be planted in the different areas.
 Ground Truth

• Send technicians into the field to verify satellite data.

• Involves the collection of calibrations, measurements, observations
and samples at predetermined sites.
11.4 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 WORLD REFERENCE BASE (WRB)

• FAO published world soil map (FAO 1971-1981).

• Precursor to the WRB.
• Purpose: Means for scientists to communicate, identify,
characterize and name major soils of the world.
• Harmonizes different classification systems, does not replace it.
 Structure of WRB

• Based on diagnostic horizons, properties and/or materials.

• Two levels
• First level: 32 RSGs recognized.
 Main differentiation is pedogenic processes resulting in
characteristic soil features, except when parent material dominant.
• Second level: 179 qualifiers.
 Noted as prefixes and suffixes in sequence of priority.
 Unique for each RSG.
 Differentiated according to secondary soil forming processes
affecting primary soil qualities.
 Qualifiers indicate features important for land use & management.
• 10 specifiers recognized (depth & intensity of qualifiers).
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 1. Organic Soils
 Histosols

• 2. Mineral Soils Conditioned by Man:

 Anthrosols
 Technosols

• Can be more than one RSG in a set – differentiated by certain

characteristics.
 Difference between anthrosols and
technosols

• Anthrosols:
 Result of long-term agricultural
practices.
 Show signs of fertilization
with manure.
 Plaggen layer – animal manure.
 Common in parts of Europe
(Holland & Germany).

World soils and their assessment, field trip, Holland, 2013

 Difference between anthrosols and
technosols

• Technosols:
 Contain man-made artefacts in a horizon.
 Common in urban soils (mine wastes and dumps).

World Soil Musuem, Wageningen

 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 3. Mineral Soils Conditioned by Parent Material:

 Major landforms in volcanic landscapes:
 Andosols (AN)
 Major landforms in landscapes with sands:
 Arenosols (AR)
 Major landforms in landscapes with smectites:
 Vertisols (VR)
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 4. Mineral Soils Conditioned by Topography:

 Major landforms in alluvial lowlands:
 Fluvisols (FL)
 Thionic Fluvisols (sulfuric horizon/sulfidic material):
 Gleysols (GL)
 Major landforms in mountains and formerly glaciated areas:
 Leptosols (LP) – Continuous rock 25cm; good for construction
 Regosols (RG) – No diagnostics; insufficient development
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 5. Mineral Soils Conditioned by Limited Age:

 Cambisols (CM)

• 6. Mineral Soils Conditioned by a Wet (Sub) Tropical Climate:

 Plinthosols (PT) – Contain plinthic horizon
 Ferralols (FR) – Enriched in Fe and Al
 Alisols (AL)
 Nitisols (NT)
 Acrisols (AC)
 Lixisols (LX)
(Separated by CEC differences & presence of argic horizon).
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 7. Mineral Soils Conditioned by a (Semi-) Arid Climate:

 Solonchaks (SC) – high salinity (CaCO3)
 Solonetz (SN) – high clay and Na content
 Gypsisols (GY) – Gypsym precipitates
 Durisols (DU) – accumulation of secondary silica
 Calcisols (CL) – calcic horizon dominant
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 8. Mineral Soils Conditioned by a Steppic Climate (Semi-arid and

continental)
 Chernozems (CH)
 Kastonozems (KS)
 Phaeozems (PH)

(Separated by base saturation % - % of the exchange site occupied by

base cations: Ca, Mg, K, Na)
 Reference Soil Groups (10 sets)

• 9. Mineral Soils Conditioned by a (Sub) Humid Temperate Climate:

 Podzols (PZ) – Accumulation of clays, Fe and Al
 Planosols (PL) – Abrupt transition in structure
 Albeluvisols (AB) – Argic horizon within 1m
 Luvisols (LV) – Argic horizon within 50cm
 Umbrisols (UM) – High BS up to 100cm

• 10. Mineral Soils Conditioned by Permafrost:

 Cryosols
 How to Classify in WRB

• Go through the key starting with the organic soils.

• When you find the RSG that fits, find the appropriate prefix.
• Once you find the one that fits, ignore the rest below.
• Find the appropriate suffixes (can be more than one).
 SOUTH AFRICAN SOIL TAXONOMY

• 1st: Binomial Soil Classification System (MacVicar et al., 1977).

• 2 classes – soil form and series.
• Developed further into SA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Classification
Working Group, 1991).
 Structure of the SA Classification System

Procedure to follow when identifying a soil:

 Demarcate master horizons in profile.
 Identify diagnostic horizons/materials.
 Establish soil form.
 Identify family differentiae.
 Establish soil family.
 Determine textural class of A (add to name or code of family).
 1. Topsoil Horizons (5)

• 5 diagnostic surface horizons:

 Organic O, Humic A, Vertic A, Melanic A & Orthic A.
• Differentiated by presence or absence of these features:
 Organic carbon content
 Signs of wetness
 Shrinking & swelling clays
 Darkness of colour
 Base status

• Diagnose A horizon by following the definitions.

 Topsoil Horizons (5)

• Organic O:
 Organic carbon content ≥ 10%
 Saturated for long periods of time

• Humic A:
 1.8 – 10% organic carbon
 Not structured

• Vertic A:
 Slickensides
 Structured
 Topsoil Horizons (5)

• Melanic A:
 Lacks slickensides
 Dark colour
 Structured

• Orthic A:
 Does not fit into any other horizon
 2. Subsoil Horizons (25)

• E Horizon:
 Bleached, washed out horizon (eluviation).

• G Horizon:
 Grey horizon with/without mottles.
 Saturated for long periods.

• Red Apedal B Horizon:

 Structureless.
 Colours defined as “red”.
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Yellow-Brown Apedal B Horizon:

 Only difference to red apedal B is colour.

• Red Structured B Horizon:

 Similar to red apedal B but structured.

• Soft Plinthic B Horizon:

 „Plinthos‟ – Greek (brick).
 Cut when wet.
 Mottles (accumulation of Fe & Mn).
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Hard Plinthic B Horizon:

 Similar to soft plinthic but cannot be cut.

• Prismacutanic B Horizon:
 Cutans present (clay skins, waxy, different colour to matrix).
 Abrupt transition between horizons:

• Pedocutanic B Horizon:
 Looks like prismacutanic B, except gradual transition.

• Lithocutanic B:
 Young soil –not much pedogenesis.
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Neocutanic B Horizon:
 Presence of cutans prevents from being red/yellow-brown apedal
B.

• Neocarbonate B Horizon:
 Presence Ca- or CaMg-CaCO3 prevents from being red
apedal/yellow-brown apedal/neocutanic B.

• Soft Carbonate B Horizon:

 Morphology dominated by carbonates.
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Hardpan Carbonate B Horizon:

 Cemented by Ca- or CaMg-CaCO3.

• Podzol B Horizon:
 Accumulation of extractable Fe and Al.

• Placic Pan:
 Thin layer occurring within 100mm of lower limit of podzol B.

• Regic Sand:
 Recent deposit by wind.
 Deserts.
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Stratified Alluvium:
 Stratifications resulting from alluvial or colluvial deposition.

• Dorbank:
 Cemented by silica

• Saprolite:
 Horizon of weathering rock.
 Often confused with lithocutanic B.
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Unconsolidated Material Without Signs of Wetness:

• Underlies podzol or pedocutanic B.
• Any combination of OM, clay, silt, sand & coarse fragments.

• Unconsolidated Material With Signs of Wetness:

• Same as without wetness except has grey colours & may have
mottles (signs of wetness).

• Unspecified Material With Signs of Wetness:

• Underlies red apedal/yellow-brown apedal/
neocutanic/neocarbonate B
 Subsoil Horizons (25)

• Hard Rock:
 Continuous hard layer of rock, cannot be cut.
 Occurs below Melanic/Orthic A.

• Man-Made Soil Deposit:

 Soils resulting from excavations.
 E.g. soil dumps from open cast mines.
 How To Classify Using The SA System

• 73 soil forms in SA system.

EXAMPLE:
• Orthic A/Neocuanic B/Unspecified Material With Signs of Wetness
• Tukulu Form (from key)
• Go to appropriate page and look at soil families (each has
diagnostic criteria)
• In our e.g.:
1. Is A horizon bleached/not (bleached colours under E)
2. B horizon red/non-red („red‟ colours defined in red apedal B)
3. B1 horizon luvic/non-luvic (inc. in clay content/not)
 How To Classify Using The SA System

• If , for e.g., it is a bleached A horizon that is non-red, with a luvic B

horizon, this would be a 1120 Olivedale.

• When naming the soil include texture of A horizon (e.g. sandy loam
texture):

Sandy loam Tukulu 1120 Olivedale

 COMPARISON OF SYSTEMS

• WRB:
• 2 levels, 32 taxons (RSGs) at highest level.
• SA Taxonomy:
• 2 levels, 73 taxons (soil forms) at highest level.

• Different countries, different systems-arrive at same conclusion.

• Lithocutanic B (SA), Entisol (USDA) & Cambisol (WRB) – indicate
young soils
• Vertic horizon, vertisols (ALL) – shrinking & swelling clays
• Organic O (SA), Histosols (USDA, WRB) – Soils formed in organic
material
 COMPARISON OF SYSTEMS

• Many similarities in characteristics used by different systems to

classify soils.

• WRB aims to harmonize classification systems.

• Classification - language enables communication in the scientific

community.