Electrotechnology
N3
Chapter 1: Direct current machines
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
The general construction of a four-pole dc machine, which could be a
generator or motor, is shown below. The main frame is referred to as the
yoke and is made of a magnetic material. The armature core is made of
laminated iron sheets.
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Chapter 1: Direct current machines (continued)
ARMATURE WINDINGS
In general, armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on
the manner in which the windings (coils) are connected to the commutator.
The two groups are:
• Lap windings; and
• Wave windings.
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Chapter 1: Direct current machines (continued)
ARMATURE REACTION
Armature reaction is the distortion of the main flux entering and leaving the
armature, caused by the flux set up by armature conductors when they carry
current.
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Chapter 1: Direct current machines (continued)
COMMUTATION
Commutation is the reversal of the emf and current in the short-circuited coil
during its transfer from one commutator segment to the next.
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Chapter 2: Generator and motor principles
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
In general, dc machines are capable of acting either as a generator or as a
motor. If a conductor is moved downwards, the emf is in such a direction that
the current produced, sets up an upward force.
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Chapter 2: Generator and motor principles (continued)
EMF GENERATED IN ARMATURE WINDINGS
When an armature rotates through one revolution, each conductor cuts the
magnetic flux leaving each north pole and entering the south poles.
Total emf generated between brushes = emf /conductor × conductors/path:
2𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍
∴ 𝐸𝐸 =
𝑐𝑐 × 60
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Chapter 3: Direct current generators
SEPERATELY EXCITED GENERATOR
Large dc generators are sometimes separately excited, as this allows easy
control of the field current and hence of the voltage generated. The field
excitation is supplied from an independent dc source such as a battery or
separate dc generator.
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Chapter 3: Direct current generators (continued)
SHUNT GENERATOR
The shunt generator may be used for supplying excitation to ac generators or
in other applications where the distance from the generator to its load, is
short. It is also used for charging batteries.
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Chapter 3: Direct current generators (continued)
SERIES GENERATOR
A series generator is a self-excited generator with armature, field windings
and load, all connected in series, therefor𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = series
field current.
A series generator is it suitable for use as a booster for long transmission
lines or feeder cables where it is necessary to compensate for the voltage
drop caused by the resistance of the long conductors.
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Chapter 3: Direct current generators (continued)
COMPOUND GENERATOR
A generator which has both a series and a shunt field winding, is called a
compound generator. Compound generators are used more extensively than
other types of generators because they may be designed to have a wide
variety of characteristics. Over-compounded generators are commonly used
in generating stations that are some distance from the loads that they supply.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors
THE DC MACHINE AS A MOTOR
If a dc machine is supplied with electrical energy from an external source, the
forces set up owing to the current in the armature conductors, cause the
armature to rotate and the machine acts as a motor.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
TORQUE OF A DC MOTOR
The torque is proportional to the flux per pole x the armature current:
𝑇𝑇 ∝ Ф𝐼𝐼
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
EFFECT OF A LOAD
A motor is loaded when it overcomes a torque opposing its motion. Assume
that the supply pd is constant and, for simplicity, that the flux per pole is
independent of the load. When a load is applied, the armature slows down,
but as soon as it does, the back emf decreases and allows a larger armature
current to flow.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
TYPES OF MOTORS
There are:
• Separately and shunt excited motors;
• Series motor; and
• Compound wound motors.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎
Since the speed, 𝑁𝑁 ∝ , it can be seen that the speed of a dc motor can;
𝜙𝜙
• Be reduced below normal speed by reducing the voltage across the
armature, and
• Be increased by reducing the flux per pole which is of course proportional
to the field current.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
The direction of rotation of dc motors may be changed by reversing the
direction of the current through the field windings or the armature windings,
but not both. If the currents through both field windings are reversed, the
direction will remain the same.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
MOTOR STARTERS
The armature current of a motor is limited by the back emf and armature
circuit resistance:
𝑉𝑉 − 𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎
There is no back emf at starting, only the armature resistance will be
available to limit the armature current.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
COMPARING DC MOTORS TO AC MOTORS - ADVANTAGES
Direct current motors have the following advantages over ac motors:
• Speed control over a wide range is easier and cheaper to obtain.
• They can be operated directly from storage batteries as with motor vehicle
starter motors, underground locomotives and battery driven vehicles.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
COMPARING DC MOTORS TO AC MOTORS - DISADVANTAGES
Direct current motors have the following disadvantages over ac motors:
• They require more care and maintenance owing to the commutator.
• Their initial cost is high.
• They are not as robust.
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Chapter 4: Direct current motors (continued)
OVERLOAD COILS
Adjustable hydraulic time delay mechanisms are used in apparatus such as
motor starters.
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines
LOSSES
The energy losses in dc machines may, for convenience, be divided into
three classes:
• Electrical losses;
• Iron losses; and
• Mechanical losses.
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines (continued)
EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a machine may be defined as the ratio of the input power to
that of the output power:
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂 = × 100%
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines (continued)
ROPE BRAKE
The pulley of the rope brake is usually water
cooled. A belt or rope is fixed at one end with
a spring balance connected between the fixed
end and the pulley. Weights, measured in
newtons, are suspended at the other end.
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines (continued)
PRÖNY BRAKE
The principle of the Pröny brake is similar to that of the rope brake. A spring
balance is fitted to one end of the brake and weights measured in newtons,
suspended at the other end.
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines (continued)
SWINBURNE METHOD
The Swinburne method is also known as the summation of losses method.
Considering a shunt machine, and running it as a motor at rated speed and
voltage, the losses may be estimated with the aid of a voltmeter and
ammeters.
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Chapter 5: Efficiency of DC machines (continued)
HOPKINSON OR BACK-TO-BACK TEST
Some form of Hopkinson test is generally used when it is necessary to test a
large machine on full load. This requires a second machine of the same or
approximately similar size. The two machines are coupled to each other and
one is run as a motor driving the other as a shunt excited generator.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory
DIRECT CURRENT
When a current flows in one direction only, it is known as direct current (dc).
This occurs when the polarity of the power supply terminals remain the
same. Primary and secondary cells and batteries as well as dc generators
are common power sources for direct current.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
ALTERNATING CURRENT
In the case of alternating current, the current reverses its direction at a
constant rate. This occurs as a result of the constant reversal of polarity at
the output terminals of the power supply.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
GENERATION OF A SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING EMF
The emf can be represented by a sine wave, which represents a two-pole
generator with the armature rotating in an anticlockwise direction through a
uniform magnetic field.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
AVERAGE AND EFFECTIVE VALUE OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY
The effective (or rms) value of an alternating current. The effective value of
an alternating current is that value of alternating current, which produces the
same amount of heat energy, at the same rate as a direct current would, if
passed through an identical resistance.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
To find the average and/or effective value of a non-sinusoidal waveform, use
is made of the midordinate rule.
𝑒𝑒1 +𝑒𝑒2 +⋯𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑛𝑛
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
RESISTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
The current flowing through a pure resistor is governed by Ohm’s law for
every instant of time, for every point on the cycle. This means that the current
waveform for a purely resistive circuit is exactly the same shape as the
waveform of the applied pd and is in phase with it.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
INDUCTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
A self-induced emf is produced in an inductor, whenever the current through
it changes. When an alternating current flows through a pure inductor, the
value of the current is continually changing and so produces a self-induced
emf at every instant.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
CAPACITANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
A capacitor is a device for storing electric charge. The charge on the plates is
always proportional to the pd between them, thus, as this pd varies, current
must flow either into or out of the capacitor in order to maintain the correct
charge. The greater the rate of change of the pd, the greater the rate of
change of current will be.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit containing a a resistor R, an inductance, and a capacitor C,
connected across a supply voltage V can be shown:
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
POWER IN A SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUIT
When there is a phase displacement between the pd and current, the actual
power in watts is less than the product of the pd and the current (VI), which is
expressed in volt-amperes. In this case, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
In a parallel circuit, the supply voltage V, will be common to all the
components but the resulting current I, will be divided among the
components, combine after flowing through them, and return to the supply
again.
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Chapter 6: Alternating current theory (continued)
THREE-PHASE AC SYSTEMS
Consider a three-phase circuit as merely a combination of three single-phase
circuits. With this approach, current, voltage and power relations of balanced
three-phase circuits may be studied by the application of single-phase rules
to the component parts of the three-phase circuit.
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Chapter 7: Transformers
TRANSFORMERS IN GENERAL
The principal elements of a transformer are;
• The magnetic circuit,
• The windings,
• The cooling system and in larger transformers,
• The oil tanks, and
• Protection devices.
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Chapter 7: Transformers (continued)
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS
The energy losses in transformers occur in the windings and the iron core.
These losses appear in the form of heat and are lost in the atmosphere.
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Chapter 7: Transformers (continued)
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
The transformer consists of a
primary and secondary winding,
electrically separate from each
other, but magnetically coupled by
means of a laminated iron core.
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Chapter 7: Transformers (continued)
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
With three-phase systems, three single-phase transformers may be used to
step the voltage up or down. This can be done through a delta-delta, star-
star connection, delta-star or star-delta connection.
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Chapter 7: Transformers (continued)
AUTO-TRANSFORMERS
An auto-transformer is a transformer which has the primary and secondary
windings connected electrically, as well as magnetically. It can be used as a
step-down transformer, the entire winding forms the primary winding and only
a section forms the secondary winding.
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Chapter 7: Transformers (continued)
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument transformers are often used with ac circuits to reduce the currents
and voltages to safe practical values. By making use of instrument
transformers, instruments can be standardised.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments
CONSTRUCTION
Essentially a measuring instrument comprises;
• A fixed field system,
• A controlling system,
• A damping system, and
• A pointer attached to a moving system and pivoted in jewelled bearings.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments (continued)
AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS
There is no essential difference between an ammeter and a voltmeter.
In both, the deflection is caused by the magnetic effect of a current, which in
the case of the ammeter, is the current to be measured, and in the case of a
voltmeter, a current proportional to the pd to be measured. The construction
is therefore similar, except for details depending on the difference of the size
of the currents.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments (continued)
PERMANENT MAGNET, MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT
In a permanent magnet, the coil is free to move in airgaps, between the soft
iron pole pieces and soft-iron core. The functions of the iron core are;
• To intensify the magnetic field, by reducing the length of
the airgap, across which the magnetic flux has to pass;
• To give a radial magnetic flux, of uniform density, which
in turn results in a uniform scale.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments (continued)
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT
As the coil through which the current flows, is fixed, it can be used to
measure relatively large currents directly, when used as an ammeter. There
are two types of moving iron instruments, namely the attraction type and the
repulsion type.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments (continued)
DYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS
Dynamometer type instrument is similar to the moving coil instrument, except
that the permanent magnet is replaced by one or two fixed coils.
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Chapter 8: Measuring instruments (continued)
CONNECTION OF INSTRUMENTS
The different types of connections are:
• Direct connection;
• Two wattmeter method for three-phase supplies; and
• Indirect connection.
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Chapter 9: Electronics
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
At the centre of the atom is the nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons
bound by extremely powerful nuclear forces. Rotating in orbits
around the nucleus are electrons.
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Electronics (continued)
CONDUCTORS
In some elements, the orbiting electrons in the outer shell are loosely
bonded. This means that the attraction that the positive nucleus has on those
electrons, is relatively small. These loosely bonded electrons are known as
free electrons. Elements which have free electrons are classed as good
conductors.
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Electronics (continued)
INSULATORS
Many elements and substances offer great resistance to ionising. This
means that they have no free or loosely bound electrons in their structure.
No random movement of electrons take place. When a potential difference
exists between two points, separated by such a material, there will be no
current flow. These materials are known as insulators.
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Electronics (continued)
SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor may act either as a conductor, allowing an easy flow of
electric current, or as an insulator, blocking the flow of current, depending
upon various physical influences. This is due to the atomic structure which
causes the valence electrons to be held in inter-atomic bonds known as
covalent bonds.
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Electronics (continued)
THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
When P-type and N-type materials are joined by means of a special
manufacturing process, diffusion takes place. This P-N junction is commonly
known as a diode.
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Electronics (continued)
DIODES AS RECTIFIERS
As single-phase circuits, diodes can be used as half wave and full wave
rectifiers. The bridge circuit is the most commonly used circuit for obtaining
full wave.
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Electronics (continued)
TRANSISTORS
The transistor is a three-layer
semiconductor crystal with alternate
layers of P-type and N-type impurities.
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Electronics (continued)
TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS FOR AMPLIFICATION
Common emitter can be characterised as both current and voltage are
amplified and therefore this can be regarded as a power amplifier. The output
signal is inverted with respect to the input signal.
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Electronics (continued)
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
The SCR is a four-layer PNPN semiconductor device with three terminals
namely an anode, cathode and gate. The SCR will only conduct in one
direction as is the case with the rectifying diode, but a triggering pulse must
be applied to the gate to start the conduction.
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Electronics (continued)
CATHODE RAY TUBE
The cathode ray tube is used in the cathode ray oscilloscope and is used for
studying wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for
measuring quantities such as voltage, current, power and frequency.
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Electronics (continued)
LOGICS
Logics makes use of combinations of switches in series or parallel in order to
obtain a required switched condition at the output end. Three basic switching
combinations or gates are employed:
AND switching OR switching NOT switching
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Electronics (continued)
NUMBER SYSTEMS
All counting systems use a given number of digits depending on the system
used. For example, the decimal system uses 10 digits ranging from 0 to 9.
Logic circuits, which are the basis of digital systems, can only handle two
digits, namely 0 and 1. It is necessary to be able to convert the standard
quantities to binary in order to use such circuits.
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