ENVSCI 2.

Hunger

Lesson 1: Introduction to Environmental Science Soil scientists report that about two-thirds of all
agricultural lands show signs of degradation. In a world
of food surpluses, the United Nations estimates that
• What Is Environmental Science? some 925 million people are now chronically
undernourished, and at least 60 million face acute food
Humans have always inhabited two worlds. One shortages due to natural disasters or conflicts.
is the natural world of plants, animals, soils, air, and
water that preceded us by billions of years and of which 3. Clean Water
we are a part.
The other is the world of social institutions and Water may well be the most critical resource in
artifacts that we create for ourselves using science, the twenty first century. Already at least 1.1 billion
technology, and political organization people lack an adequate supply of safe drinking water,
and more than twice that many don’t have modern
Environment (from the French environner, sanitation. Water wars may well become the major
meaning to encircle or surround) can be defined as: source of international conflict in coming decades.
(1) The circumstances or conditions that surround an
organism or group of organisms; or 4. Energy
(2) The complex of social or cultural conditions that
affect an individual or community. Fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) presently
provide around 80 percent of the energy used in
Environmental science, then, is the systematic industrialized countries. However, problems associated
study of our environment and our proper place in it. with their acquisition and use—air and water pollution,
Environmental science is highly mining damage, shipping accidents, and geopolitics—
interdisciplinary, integrating natural sciences, social may limit what we do with remaining reserves.
sciences, and humanities in a broad, holistic study of the
world around us. 5. Air Pollution
Environmental science is mission-oriented. It
seeks new, valid, contextual knowledge about the natural Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen estimates that at
world and our impacts on it… least 3 million people die each year from diseases
triggered by air pollution. Worldwide, the United
Economist Barbara Ward pointed out, for an Nations estimates that more than 2 billion metric tons of
increasing number of environmental issues, the difficulty air pollutants (not including carbon dioxide or wind-
is not to identify remedies. blown soil) are emitted each year. Air pollution no
longer is merely a local problem.

• Current Conditions
There are also many signs of hope
Ed Abbey said, ―It is not enough to fight for the
land; it is even more important to enjoy it. While you 1. Population and Pollution
can, while it is still there. So get out there and mess
around with your friends, ramble out yonder and explore Clean technology, such as the solar panels and
the forests, encounter the grizzly, climb the mountains. wind turbines now being produced in China, help
Run the rivers, breathe deep of that yet sweet and lucid eliminate pollution and save resources. Population has
air, sit quietly for a while and contemplate the precious stabilized in most industrialized countries and even in
stillness, that lovely, mysterious and awesome space. some very poor countries where social security and
Enjoy yourselves, keep your brain in your head and your democracy have been established.
head firmly attached to your body, the body active and By 2050, the UN Population Division predicts
alive.‖ that all developed countries and 75 percent of the
developing world will experience a below-replacement
1. Climate Change fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman. This prediction
suggests that the world population will stabilize at about
Burning fossil fuels, making cement, cultivating 8.9 billion rather than 9.3 billion, as previously
rice paddies, clearing forests, and other human activities estimated.
release carbon dioxide and other so-called ―greenhouse
gases‖ that trap heat in the atmosphere. 2. Health
Climate changes caused by greenhouse gases are
very likely to result in increasingly severe weather The incidence of life-threatening infectious
events including droughts, floods, hurricanes, and diseases has been reduced sharply in most countries
tornadoes. during the past century, while life expectancies have
Canadian Environment Minister David nearly doubled on average. Since 1990, more than 800
Anderson has said that global climate change is a greater million people have gained access to improved water
threat than terrorism because it could threaten the homes supplies and modern sanitation.
and livelihood of billions of people and trigger
worldwide social and economic catastrophe.
3. Information and Education Lesson 2: Education for Sustainable Development

The increased speed at which information now The SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)
moves around the world offers unprecedented provide a lens through which to consider how we can
opportunities for sharing ideas. At the same time, positively impact the world around us. The SDGs were
literacy and access to education are expanding in most created in 2015 by the United Nations and are meant to
regions of the world. be achieved by the year 2030. With so many challenges
taking place throughout the world, the SDGs provide a
4. Sustainable Resource Use Around the World framework to pinpoint global and local issues that we
can help to address.
We are finding ways to conserve resources and
use them more sustainably. For example, improved
monitoring of fisheries and networks of marine protected 1. NO POVERTY
areas promote species conservation as well as human To end poverty in all its
development. forms everywhere by 2030.

5. Habitat Conservation

Nature preserves and protected areas have 2. ZERO HUNGER

increased nearly fivefold over the past 20 years, from To end hunger, achieve food
about 2.6 million km 2 to about 12.2 million km 2. This security and improved nutrition and
represents only 8.2 percent of all land area—less than promote sustainable agriculture.
the 12 percent thought necessary to protect a viable
sample of the world’s biodiversity—but is a dramatic
expansion nonetheless. 3. GOOD HEALTH AND WELL
BEING
6. Renewable Energy To ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all ages.
With mass production in China and progress in
thin film technology in the United States, prices for solar
panels dropped by 50 percent in 2010 making them 4. QUALITY EDUCATION
much more competitive with fossil fuels. The European Ensure inclusive and quality
Union has pledged to get 20 percent of its energy from education for all and promote lifelong
renewable sources by 2020. learning.
Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair laid
out even more ambitious plans to fight global warming
by cutting carbon dioxide emissions in his country by 60 5. GENDER EQUALITY
percent through energy conservation and a switch to To achieve gender equality and
renewables. empower all women and girls.
7. Carbon Markets and Standards

Cap and trade programs in which limits are

established on greenhouse gas emissions and companies 6. CLEAN WATER AND
can buy and sell discharge permits have been in place in SANITATION
Europe for several years and are stimulating both To ensure access to safe water
conservation measures and technological improvements. sources and sanitation for all.
In 2010, California, which would be the eighth
largest economy in the world, if it were an independent
country, established a similar program, the first of its
kind in America. 7. AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN
ENERGY
8. International Cooperation To ensure access to affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy
Currently, more than 500 international for all.
environmental protection agreements are now in force.
Some, such as the Montreal Protocol on Stratospheric
Ozone, have been highly successful. Others, such as the 8. DECENT WORK AND
Law of the Sea, lack enforcement powers. Perhaps the ECONOMIC GROWTH
most important of all these treaties is the Kyoto Protocol To promote inclusive and
on global climate change, which has been ratified by 191 sustainable economic growth,
countries including every industrialized nation except employment and decent work for all.
the United States.
9. INDUSTRY, INNOVATION AND
INFRASTRUCTURE
To build resilient infrastructure,
promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation.
 10. REDUCE INEQUALITIES Lesson 3: matter, energy and life in the ecosystem
To reduce inequalities within and
among countries. Cells, organisms, and the ecosystem are living
Inequalities based on income, systems, demonstrating influx,out flux and utilization of
sex, age, disability, sexual orientation, specific atoms and energy.
race, class, ethnicity, religion and opportunity continue Living systems process matter and energy, and
to persist across the world, within and among countries. assemble and disassemble biomolecules by the transfer
of atoms and energy.
11. SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND
COMMUNITIES
To make cities inclusive, safe, • MATTER
resilient and sustainable.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes space.
It is made up of elements, each of which is a
12. R ESPONSIBLE fundamental substance that has a unique set of properties
CONSUMPTION & PRODUCTION and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
To ensure sustainable chemical means.
consumption and production pattern. Some matter is composed of one element, such
as gold or silver, but most matter consists of
compounds: combinations of two or more different
elements held together in fixed proportions.
13. CLIMATE ACTION Just four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
` Taking urgent action to tackle and nitrogen— make up about 96% of your body weight
climate change and its impacts. and that of most other living things.

SOLID, LIQUID, GAS (forms of matter)

14. LIFE BELOW WATER • ATOM

To conserve and sustainably
use the world’s oceans, seas and The most basic building block of matter is an
marine resources. atom: the smallest unit of matter into which an element
can be divided and still retain its chemical properties.
The idea that all elements are made up of atoms
15. LIFE ON LAND is called the atomic theory and is the most widely
To sustainably manage accepted scientific theory in chemistry.
forests, combat desertification, halt Three different types of subatomic particles:
and reverse land degradation, and halt protons (+p), neutrons (n) with no electrical charge, &
biodiversity loss. electrons (-e).
Each atom consists of an extremely small and
dense center called its nucleus—which contains one or
16. PEACE, JUSTICE, AND more protons and, in most cases, one or more neutrons.
STRONG INSTITUTIONS
Promote peaceful and Atomic number, equal to the number of protons in the
inclusive societies for sustainable nucleus of its atom.
development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, Mass number, the total number of neutrons and protons
accountable and inclusive institutions in its nucleus.
at all levels.
Isotopes, forms of an element having the same atomic
17. PARTNERSHIP FOR THE number but different mass numbers.
GOAL
To revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable • ION
development. Second building block of matter – an atom or
groups of atoms with one or more net positive or
negative electrical charges. An ion forms when an atom
gains or loses one or more electrons.

Cations are ions that are positively charged. An atom

that loses one or more of its electrons becomes an ion
with one or more positive electrical charges.

Anions are ions that are negatively charged. When an

atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes an ion with
one or more negative electrical charges.
Nitrate ion (NO3-) - a nutrient essential for plant Matter Comes to Life through Genes, Chromosomes,
growth. and Cells

pH is used as a measure of acidity, based on the amount The bridge between non-living and living matter
of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) lies somewhere between macromolecules and cells—
contained in a particular volume of a solution. the fundamental structural units of life.

Neutral solution - has an equal number of H+ and OH- Each of these distinct pieces of DNA contains
instructions, called genetic information, for making
Acidic solution - more hydrogen ions than hydroxide specific proteins. Each of these coded units of genetic
ions and has a pH less than 7. information concerns a specific trait, or characteristic
passed on from parents to offspring during reproduction
Basic solution - more hydroxide ions than hydrogen in an animal or plant
ions and has a pH greater than 7.
Genetic information coded in your chromosomal
DNA is what makes you different from an oak leaf, an
• MOLECULES alligator, or a flea, and from your parents. In other
words, it makes you human, but it also makes you
A combination of two or more atoms of the unique.
same or different elements held together by forces called
chemical bonds. Molecules are the basic units of some
compounds (called molecular compounds) • MATTER QUALITY
Is a measure of how useful a form of matter is to
humans as a resource, based on its availability and
Organic Compounds Are the Chemicals of Life concentration, or amount of it that is contained in a
given area or volume.
Table sugar, vitamins, plastics, aspirin,
penicillin, and most of the chemicals in your body are High-quality Matter - highly concentrated, is typically
organic compounds, which contain at least two carbon found near the earth’s surface, and has great potential for
atoms combined with atoms of one or more other use as a resource.
elements.
All other compounds are called inorganic Low Quality Matter - not highly concentrated, is often
compounds. One exception, methane (CH4), has only located deep underground or dispersed in the ocean or
one carbon atom but is considered an organic compound. atmosphere, and usually has little potential for use as a
resource.

Types of organic (carbon-based) compound:

Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and Nuclear
Hydrocarbons - compounds of carbon and hydrogen Changes
atoms.
Ex. Methane and octane Physical change, its chemical composition, or the
arrangement of its atoms or ions within molecules does
Chlorinated hydrocarbons - compounds of carbon, not change.
hydrogen, and chlorine atoms. A piece of aluminum foil cut into small pieces is
Ex. insecticide DDT still aluminum foil. When solid water (ice) melts or
liquid water boils, none of the H2O molecules are
Simple carbohydrates (simple sugars) - certain types changed.
of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The molecules are simply arranged in different spatial
Ex. Glucose (physical) patterns.

Larger and more complex organic compounds, essential Chemical change, or chemical reaction, there is a
to life, are composed of macromolecules. change in the arrangement of atoms or ions within
molecules of the substances involved.
Some of these molecules, called polymers, are formed Chemists use chemical equations to represent
when a number of simple organic molecules what happens in a chemical reaction.
(monomers) are linked together by chemical bonds, For example, when coal burns completely, the
somewhat like rail cars linked in a freight train. solid carbon (C) in the coal combines with oxygen gas
(O2) from the atmosphere to form the gaseous
compound carbon dioxide (CO2).
Three major organic polymers:

Complex carbohydrates consist of two or more In addition to physical and chemical changes, matter
monomers of simple sugars such as glucose. can undergo three types of nuclear changes:

Proteins formed by monomers called amino acids. 1. Natural Radioactive Decay

Isotopes spontaneously emit fast-moving
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) formed by monomers subatomic particles, high-energy radiation such as
called nucleotides. gamma rays, or both.
The unstable isotopes are called radioactive isotopes or 3. Convection (the movement of heat within liquids and
radioisotopes. gases from warmer to cooler portions).

2. Nuclear Fission Electromagnetic radiation, another form of kinetic

A nuclear change in which the nuclei of certain energy, energy travels in the form of a wave as a result
isotopes with large mass numbers (such as uranium-235) of changes in electric and magnetic fields.
are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by
neutrons; each fission releases two or three neutrons plus There are many different forms of electromagnetic
energy. radiation, each having a different wavelength (distance
Each of these neutrons, in turn, can trigger an between successive peaks or troughs in the wave) and
additional fission reaction. Multiple fissions within a energy content.
certain amount of mass produce a chain reaction, which
releases an enormous amount of energy. 1. Short wavelengths
Energy from nuclear fission comes from Gamma rays, X rays, and ultraviolet (UV)
unstable atom to two more stable atoms radiation, have a higher energy content.

3. Nuclear Fusion 2. Longer wavelengths

A nuclear change in which two isotopes of light Visible light and infrared (IR) radiation. Visible
elements, such as hydrogen, are forced together at light makes up most of the spectrum of electromagnetic
extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a radiation emitted by the sun.
heavier nucleus. A tremendous amount of energy is
released in this process. Fusion of hydrogen nuclei to
form helium nuclei is the source of energy Potential Energy
in the sun and other stars. Which is stored and potentially available for use.
Examples of potential energy include a rock held in your
hand, an unlit match, the chemical energy stored in
Law of Conservation of Matter gasoline molecules, and the nuclear energy stored in the
A scientific law known as the law of nuclei of atoms.
conservation of matter: when a physical or chemical
change occurs, no atoms are created or destroyed. Energy quality is a measure of an energy source’s
capacity to do useful work.
This law means there is no ―away‖ as in ―to
throw away.‖ Everything we think we have thrown away High-quality energy is concentrated and has a high
remains here with us in some form. We can reuse or capacity to do useful work. Examples are very high-
recycle some materials and chemicals, but the law of temperature heat, nuclear fission, concentrated sunlight,
conservation of matter means we will always face the highvelocity wind, and energy released by burning
problem of what to do with some quantity of the wastes natural gas, gasoline, or coal.
and pollutants we produce
Low-quality energy is dispersed and has little capacity
to do useful work. An example is heat dispersed in the
• ENERGY moving molecules of a large amount of matter (such as
the atmosphere or an ocean) so that its temperature is
Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer low.
heat. Work is done when something is moved.
The amount of work done is the product of the
force applied to an object to move it a certain distance First Law of Thermodynamics
(work = force x distance). Law of conservation of energy also known as
the first law of thermodynamics: When energy is
There are two major types of energy: moving energy converted from one form to another in a physical or
(called kinetic energy) and stored energy (called chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed.
potential energy).
This scientific law tells us that when one form of
energy is converted to another form in any physical or
Kinetic Energy chemical change, energy input always equals energy
Moving matter has kinetic energy because it has output. No matter how hard we try or how clever we are,
mass and velocity. Examples are wind (a moving mass we cannot get more energy out of a system than we put
of air), flowing water, and electricity (flowing electrons). in. This is one of nature’s basic rules.
Another form of kinetic energy is heat: the total
kinetic energy of all moving atoms, ions, or molecules Energy consumption, means converting energy from
within a given substance. one form to another with no energy being destroyed or
created in the process.
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by
three different methods: First law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot
be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to
1. Radiation (the emission of electromagnetic energy) another, you may be tempted to think there will always
be enough energy.
2. Conduction (the transfer of kinetic energy between
substances in contact with one another)
Second Law of Thermodynamics On land, precipitation often is the limiting abiotic factor.
When energy changes from one form to another, Lack of water in a desert limits plant growth. Soil
we always end up with lower-quality or less usable nutrients also can act as a limiting factor on land.
energy than we started with. This lower-quality energy
usually takes the form of heat given off at a low 2. Salinity
temperature to the environment. There it is dispersed by the amounts of various inorganic minerals or
the random motion of air or water molecules and salts dissolved in a given volume of water.
becomes even less useful as a resource.

In other words, energy always goes from a more Producers and Consumers Are the Living
useful to a less useful form when it is changed from one Components of Ecosystems
form to another. No one has ever found a violation of
this fundamental scientific law. It is another one of The organisms that transfer energy and nutrients
nature’s basic rules. from one trophic level to another in an ecosystem can be
broadly classified as producers and consumers.
Second law of thermodynamics also means we can
never recycle or reuse high-quality energy to perform
useful work. Once the concentrated energy in a serving Producers, sometimes called autotrophs (self-feeders),
of food, a liter of gasoline, or a chunk of uranium is make the nutrients they need from compounds and
released, it is degraded to lowquality heat that is energy obtained from their environment.
dispersed into the environment.
A few producers, mostly specialized bacteria,
can convert simple inorganic compounds from their
Energy Efficiency or Energy Productivity environment into more complex nutrient compounds
Is a measure of how much useful work is without using sunlight, through a process called
accomplished by a particular input of energy into a chemosynthesis.
system.

Scientists estimate that only 16% of the energy used in Consumers, or heterotrophs (―otherfeeders‖), that
the United States ends up performing useful work. The cannot produce the nutrients they need through
remaining 84% is either unavoidably wasted because of photosynthesis or other processes and must obtain their
the second law of thermodynamics (41%) or nutrients by feeding on other organisms (producers or
unnecessarily wasted (43%). other consumers) or their remains. In other words, all
consumers (including humans) are directly or indirectly
Thus, thermodynamics teaches us an important dependent on producers for their food or nutrients.
lesson: the cheapest and quickest way to get more
energy is to stop wasting almost half the energy we use. There are several types of consumers:
• Primary consumers, or herbivores (plant eaters),
mostly by feeding on green plants.
Ecosystem Dynamics
Are governed by physical laws, including the • Secondary consumers, or carnivores (meat eaters), all
law of conservation of matter and the laws of of which feed on the flesh of herbivores.
thermodynamics. The recycling of matter is
the basis of the cycles of elements that occur in the • Third- and higher-level consumers are carnivores
ecosystems. However, compared to matter, energy does such as tigers, wolves etc., mostly feeding on the flesh of
not cycle other carnivores.

• Omnivores such as pigs, foxes, cockroaches, and

Components of the Ecosystem humans, play dual roles by feeding on both plants and
animals.
1. Abiotic
consists of nonliving components such as water, • Decomposers, primarily certain types of bacteria and
air, nutrients, rocks, heat, and solar energy. fungi, are consumers that release nutrients from the dead
bodies of plants and animals and return them to the soil,
2. Biotic water, and air for reuse by producers.
consists of living and once living biological
components— plants, animals, and microbes. Biotic • Detritus feeders, or detritivores, feed on the wastes
factors also include dead organisms, dead parts of or dead bodies of other organisms, called detritus (―di
organisms, and the waste products of organisms. TRItus,‖ meaning debris). Examples include small
organisms such as mites and earthworms.

Several Abiotic Factors Can Limit

Population Growth In natural ecosystems, most consumers feed on
more than one type of organism, and most organisms are
1. Limiting Factor Principle eaten or decomposed by more than one type of
Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can consumer. Because of this, organisms in most eco
limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other systems form a complex network of interconnected food
factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance. chains called a food web.
 Trophic levels can be assigned in food webs just 4. Nitrogen Cycle
as in food chains. Food chains and webs show how Nitrogen is a crucial component of proteins,
producers, consumers, and decomposers are connected many vitamins, and nucleic acids such as DNA.
to one another as energy flows through trophic levels in However, N2 cannot be absorbed and used directly as a
an ecosystem. nutrient by multicellular plants or animals.

Fortunately, two natural processes convert or fix

Usable Energy Decreases with Each Link in a Food N2 into compounds useful as nutrients for plants and
Chain or Web animals. One is electrical discharges, or lightning, taking
place in the atmosphere. The other takes place in aquatic
Each trophic level in a food chain or web systems, soil, and the roots of some plants, where
contains a certain amount of biomass, the dry weight of specialized bacteria, called nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
all organic matter contained in its organisms. complete this conversion as part of the nitrogen cycle.

The percentage of usable chemical energy transferred as The nitrogen cycle consists of several major steps.
biomass from one trophic level to the next is called
ecological efficiency. It ranges from 2% to 40% (that is, Nitrogen fixation
a loss of 60–98%) depending on what types of species specialized bacteria in soil and blue green algae
and ecosystems are involved, but 10% is typical (cyanobacteria) in aquatic combine gaseous N2 with
hydrogen to make ammonia (NH3).
Energy flow pyramids explain why the earth can
support more people if they eat at lower trophic levels by Ammonification
consuming grains, vegetables, and fruits directly, rather vast armies of specialized decomposer bacteria
than passing such crops through another trophic level convert this detritus into simpler nitrogen-containing
and eating grain eaters or herbivores such as cattle. inorganic compounds such as ammonia (NH3) and
water-soluble salts containing ammonium ions (NH4+).

Cycles in the Earth Denitrification

specialized bacteria in waterlogged soil and in
1. Biogeochemical Cycle (literally, life-earth-chemical the bottom sediments of lakes, oceans, swamps, and
cycles) or nutrient cycles. bogs convert NH3 and NH4+ back into nitrite and nitrate
The elements and compounds that make up ions, and then into nitrogen gas (N2) and nitrous oxide
nutrients move continually through air, water, soil, rock, gas (N2O). These gases are released to the atmosphere to
and living organisms in ecosystems and in the biosphere begin the nitrogen cycle again.
in cycles.
5. Phosphorus Cycle
2. Hydrologic Cycle or Water Cycle Phosphorus circulates through water, the earth’s
collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s crust, and living organisms in the phosphorus cycle.
fixed supply of water. The water cycle is a global The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to the water,
cycle because there is a large reservoir of water in the carbon, and nitrogen cycles.
atmosphere as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the
oceans. As water runs over exposed phosphorus-
containing rocks, it slowly erodes away inorganic
The water cycle is powered by energy from the compounds that contain phosphate ions (PO43-). The
sun and involves three major processes— dissolved phosphate can be absorbed by the roots of
plants and by other producers. Phosphorous is
Evaporation (changes liquid water into water vapor in transferred by food webs from such producers to
the atmosphere), consumers, eventually including detritus feeders and
decomposers.
Precipitation (gravity draws the water back to the earth’s
surface as rain, snow, sleet, and dew), 6. Sulfur Cycle
Much of the earth’s sulfur is stored underground
Transpiration (a process where about 90% of the water in rocks and minerals, including sulfate (SO42-) salts
that reaches the atmosphere evaporates from the surfaces buried deep under ocean sediments.
of plants)
Sulfur also enters the atmosphere from several
3. Carbon Cycle natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)—a colorless,
Carbon is the basic building block of the highly poisonous gas with a rotten-egg smell—is
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, DNA, and other organic released from active volcanoes and from organic matter
compounds necessary for life. It circulates through the broken down by anaerobic decomposers in flooded
biosphere, the atmosphere, and parts of the hydrosphere, swamps, bogs, and tidal flats. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a
in the carbon cycle. colorless and suffocating gas, also comes from
volcanoes.
The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide
(CO2) gas, which makes up 0.038% of the volume of the These droplets and particles fall to the earth as
atmosphere and is also dissolved in water. Carbon components of acid deposition, which along with other
dioxide is a key component of nature’s thermostat. air pollutants can harm trees and aquatic life.
Lesson 4: BIODIVERSITY & BIOMES 7. Pollution
Biodiversity also is affected by pollution of land,
Biodiversity is a measure of variation and water, or air. Soil that is contaminated with oil,
richness of living organisms at a particular scale. chemicals, or other pollutants can harm plants or limit
plant growth. Because plants provide valuable habitat for
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the many species, any reduction in plant growth can limit
variety of the earth’s species, the genes they contain, the biodiversity.
ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem
processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that • Water Pollution
sustain all life. Biodiversity is a vital renewable Water dwelling organisms are easily harmed by
resource. So far, scientists have identified about 1.8 pesticides, chemicals, oil, and other pollutants that
million of the earth’s 4 million to 100 million species, contaminate the water. Water pollutants often come from
and every year, thousands of new species are identified. factories, ships, or runoff from roads, lawns, and farms.

Species diversity is the most obvious, but not the only, • Air Pollution
component of biodiversity. A form of water pollution known as acid rain is
caused by air pollution. Acid rain forms when sulfur
Genetic diversity. The earth’s variety of species dioxide and nitrogen oxide released by industries and
contains an even greater variety of genes. Genetic automobiles combine with water vapor in the air. Air
diversity enables life on the earth to adapt to and survive pollution from factories, power plants, and automobiles
dramatic environmental changes. can harm sensitive tissues of many organisms.

Ecosystem diversity. The earth’s variety of deserts, 8. Global Warming

grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, and Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) is released into the
wetlands is another major component of biodiversity. atmosphere when wood, coal, gas, or any other fuel is
Each of these ecosystems is a storehouse of genetic and burned. It might lead to climatic changes that could
species diversity. affect biodiversity. For example, portions of the polar ice
caps could melt, causing floods in coastal ecosystems
Functional diversity. The variety of processes such as around the world.
matter cycling and energy flow taking place within
ecosystems (as species interact with one another in food 9. Ozone Depletion
chains and webs. This depletion allows increased amounts of UV
radiation that can harm living organisms to reach Earth’s
surface. For humans, it could mean more cases of skin
What reduces biodiversity? cancer. Ozone depletion occurs over much of Earth.

1. Loss of Species
Human activities probably contributed to most BIOMES
of these extinctions. As the human population grows, Large geographic areas that have similar
many more species could be lost. climates and ecosystems are called biomes.

2. Endangered Species Terrestrial Biomes

To help prevent extinctions, it is important to Although all local environments are unique, it is
identify species that could soon disappear. A species in helpful to understand them in terms of a few general
danger of becoming extinct is classified as an groups with similar climate conditions, growth patterns,
endangered species. and vegetation types. We call these broad types of
biological communities’ biomes.
3. Threatened Species
If a species is likely to become endangered in
the near future, it is classified as a threatened species. Major Biomes

4. Habitat Loss 1. Tundra

If the habitats of many species are lost, The tundra is a cold, dry, treeless region,
biodiversity might be reduced. Habitat loss is a major sometimes called a cold desert. For some of these
reason why species become threatened or endangered. months, the Sun never appears above the horizon and it
is dark 24 hours a day. The average daily temperature is
5. Divided Habitats about –12°C. For a few days during the short, cold
Biodiversity can be reduced when a habitat is summer, the Sun is always visible.
divided by roads, cities, or farms. Small patches of
habitat usually have less biodiversity than large areas. 2. Taiga
It is a cold, forest region dominated by cone-
6. Introduced Species bearing evergreen trees. Although the winter is long and
When species from another part of the world are cold, the taiga is warmer and wetter than the tundra.
introduced into an ecosystem, they can have a dramatic
effect on biodiversity. An introduced species is a species 3. Temperate Deciduous Forest
that moves into an ecosystem as a result of human Temperate regions usually have four distinct
actions. Introduced species often have no competitors or seasons each year. Annual precipitation ranges from
predators in the area so their populations grow rapidly. about 75 cm to 150 cm and is distributed throughout the
year. Temperatures range from below freezing during ecosystems include oceans, seas, a few inland lakes such as
the winter to 30°C or more during the warmest days of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, coastal inlets, and estuaries.
summer.
1. Open Oceans
Below about 200 m is the dark zone of the ocean.
4. Tropical Rain Forest Animals living in this region feed on material that floats down
Warm temperatures, wet weather, and lush plant from the lighted zone, or they feed on each other. A few
growth are found in tropical rain forests. These forests organisms are able to produce their own food.
are warm because they are near the equator. The average
temperature, about 25°C, doesn’t vary much between 2. Coral Reefs
night and day. Coral reefs are formed over long periods of time from
the calcium carbonate shells secreted by animals called corals.
5. Desert When corals die, their shells remain.
The driest biome on Earth is the desert.
Deserts receive less than 25 cm of rain each year and 3. Seashores
The intertidal zone is the portion of the shoreline that
support little plant life. Some desert areas receive no rain is covered with water at high tide and exposed to the air
for years. When rain does come, it quickly drains away. during low tide. Organisms that live in the intertidal zone,
Any water that remains on the ground evaporates such as star fish, and shells, must be adapted to dramatic
rapidly. changes in temperature, moisture, and salinity and must be
able to withstand the force of wave action.
6. Grassland
Most grasslands have a dry season, when little or 4. Estuaries
no rain falls. This lack of moisture prevents the The area where a river meets an ocean and contains a
development of forests. Grasslands are found in many mixture of freshwater and salt water is called an estuary (ES
places around the world, and they have a variety of chuh wer ee). Other names for estuaries include bays, lagoons,
harbors, inlets, and sounds. They are located near coastlines
names. and border the land.

Marine Ecosystem Freshwater Ecosystem

Oceans cover nearly three-fourths of the earth’s In a land environment, temperature and precipitation
surface, and they contribute in important, although often are the most important factors that determine which species
unrecognized, ways to terrestrial ecosystems. can survive. In aquatic environments, water temperature, the
amount of sunlight present, and the amounts of dissolved
Upwelling currents circulate nutrients from the ocean floor oxygen and salt in the water are important. Earth’s freshwater
back to the surface. Along the coasts of ecosystems include flowing water such as rivers and streams
South America, Africa, and Europe, these currents support and standing water such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands.
rich fisheries.
1. Rivers and Streams
Vertical stratification is a key feature of aquatic ecosystems. Flowing freshwater environments vary from small,
Light decreases rapidly with depth, and communities below gurgling brooks to large, slow-moving rivers.
the photic zone (light zone, often reaching about 20 m deep) Currents can quickly wash loose particles downstream,
must rely on energy sources other than photosynthesis to leaving a rocky or gravelly bottom. Naturally fast-flowing
persist. Temperature also decreases with depth. streams usually have clearer water and higher oxygen content
than slow-flowing streams.
Ocean systems can be described by depth and proximity to 2. Lakes and Ponds
shore: Pond or lake water hardly moves. It contains more
plants than flowing-water environments contain.
Benthic communities occur on the bottom, and pelagic (from Lakes are larger and deeper than ponds. They have
―sea‖ in Greek) zones are the water column. more open water because most plant growth is limited to
shallow areas along the shoreline.
Epipelagic zone (epi = on top) has photosynthetic organisms. A pond is a small, shallow body of water. Because
ponds are shallow, they are filled with animal and plant life.
Below this are the mesopelagic (meso = middle) Sunlight usually penetrates to the bottom. The warm, sunlit
water promotes the growth of plants and algae.
Bathypelagic (bathos = deep) zones. 3. Wetlands
Are regions that are wet for all or most of the year.
The deepest layers are the abyssal zone (to 4,000 m) and They are found in regions that lie between landmasses and
hadal zone (deeper than 6,000 m). water. Other names for wetlands include swamps, bogs, and
fens. Some people refer to wetlands as biological
Shorelines are known as littoral zones supermarkets. They are fertile ecosystems, but only plants that
are adapted to waterlogged soil survive there.
Areas exposed by low tides are known as the intertidal zone.

Saltwater Ecosystems

About 95 percent of the water on the surface of Earth

contains high concentrations of various salts. The amount of
dissolved salts in water is called salinity. The average ocean
salinity is about 35 g of salts per 1,000 g of water. Saltwater