TUTORIAL 01

Procedures used in construction of access road in irrigation scheme

The Gravel road are considered superior to earth roads as they can carry heavier traffic.
Its carriage way is constructed with gravels.
The construction of Earth Road may be divided in the following steps
(i) material; carry out soil survey to determine suitability of soil and suitable location of
borrow pits within economic haulage distances.
(ii) location; Establish the centre line and road edges alignment by driving wooden pegs.
Note: Reference pegs are driven to help the contractor to follow the desired vertical
profile of the road during construction.
(iii) preparation of subgrade
Various operation involved in the preparation of sub-grade are as follows;
a) Clearing site
b) Excavating and constructing of fills to bring the to a desired grade.
c) Shaping of the sub-grade.
(iv) pavement construction. The borrowed soil is dumped on the prepared sub-grade and
pulverised. The field moisture is checked and addition of water is added if necessary to bring it
up to OMC. Then mix, spread and rolled in layers not exceed 10cm to 15cm for compaction
based on the soil type, compaction amount and equipment available. Check required camber and
correct it if necessary to
(v) opening to trafic: The compacted earth road is allowed to dry for a few days before
opening to traffic.

Different types of access roads

Def: a public road affording access to a particular area (such as a military establishment or
source of raw materials) or to a through highway the route will have several access roads and
exits.

There are several classes of road depending on their pavement strength.

 Earth roads and Gravel roads.
 Soil stabilized roads.

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  Water bound macadam (WBM) roads.
 Bituminous or Black-top roads.
 Cement concrete roads.

Appropriate methods of road construction

(a).Surface dressing method:
Bituminous Surface Dressing (BSD) is provided over an existing pavement to save as thin
wearing coat. Done in Single coat or Double coat.
The main function of BSD are;
i) To provide a water proof seal to road surface.
ii) Arrest deterioration of an existing road surface.
iii) Skid resistance to an existing road surface.
iv) To provide a dust free and durable running surface.

(b).Premix method.
In this method the aggregate and the bituminous binder are mixed thoroughly before spreading
and compaction. Depending on the gradation of aggregates chosen, premix may be classified as.
i) Open graded mix,
ii) Semidese mix,
iii)Dense mix.
The common types of premix bituminous construction are
a. Bituminous Macadam,
b. Bituminous Carpet
c. Bituminous concrete

Labour based road construction Technology/procedures

construction procedure;
1. site clearance and setting out:
i) Heavy bushes clearing; involves cutting down and removing trees, digging roots and
removing root systems to prevent re-growth.

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 ii) Boulder removal; this can involve hand carrying small boulders, rolling clear, breaking
or digging and burying of large boulders.
iii) Top soil removal; is usually only needed where the topsoil is deep(10 – 15cm) very
organic and obviously much lower strength than the soil below.
v) Setting of Center line; Centerline and the width of the road, including side drain setting is
done before earth work.
2. Earthworks
Basically, earthworks involves digging drains and using the materials to built up the camber.
There are two situations to consider;
1. Flat Terrain.
2. Sloping terrain.

Different types of equipment’s used in access road construction

 Drilling machine with concrete mixer and pump – hand held rock drilling equipment
(road drilling machine) , small compact air compressor is the most commonly used in
road construction and maintenance to drill hard surface, to mix concrete and transfer to
concrete pouring
 Soil compactor – this used for compaction to remove air voids by applying force
 Wheel loader – is heavy equipment machine used in construction to move or load
materials such as soil, rock, sand, demolition debris.
 Excavator – are primarily used for landscaping , digging holes, and trenches, placing
large object and demolishing structures
 Bulldozer–is used for clearing ground, pushing materials like sand, rock, gravel during
construction
 Concrete mixer – is the machine that homogeneously combine cement, aggregate such as
sand and gravel and water to form concrete

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TUTORIAL 02
Explain the following:
Dams
A dam is a structure built across a river or stream to hold back water. People have used different
materials to build dams over the centuries. Ancient dam builders used natural materials such as
rocks or clay. Modern-day dam builders often use concrete. Manmade dams create artificial
lakes called reservoirs.
Types of dams
Embankment dams (earth and rockfill dams)
Earth dam built up by compacting successive layers of earth, using the most impervious
materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the upstream and
downstream sides.
Rock fill dams are a kind of dam that combines porous yet firmly packed gravel, sand, or silt in
one section with an area of concrete, metal, clay, or some other substance that completely blocks
water. Rock-fill dams are one of two types of embankment dams, the other being earthen dams.
Concrete dams
A concrete dam is the strongest type of dam built in modern times and may take several forms.
Concrete itself is a building material made from water, cement, sand and gravel, or aggregate.
Types of concrete dams include gravity dam, arch dams, arch-gravity dams etc.
Combined dams
Composite dams are a combination of concrete and embankment dams, Construction materials of
composite dams are the same used for concrete and embankment dams.
Dam structure and construction
Spillways are structures that either form part of a dam, or are found just beside one. They
are used, when a reservoir is full, to pass floodwater safely, and in a controlled way, over a dam,
around it or through it. While Stilling basins is a depression in a channel or reservoir deep
enough to reduce the velocity or turbulence of the flow, it also called still box.

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OUTLET WORKS
A set of outlet works is a device used to release and regulate water flow from a dam. Such
devices usually consist of one or more pipes or tunnels through the embankment of the dam,
directing water usually under high pressure to the river downstream.
INTAKE WORKS
a hydraulic-engineering installation for obtaining water from a source of supply in the reservoir,
and for purposes of hydroelectric power engineering, water supply, or irrigation.
Canals is a human-made waterway that allows boats and ships to pass from one body of water to
another. Canals are used also to transport water for irrigation and other human uses.
There are two types of canals: waterways and aqueducts. Waterways are the navigable parts of a
body of water, and can be located within a bay or open sea, can connect two or more
waterbodies, or may even form networks within a city. Aqueducts are used exclusively to
transport water for drinking, agriculture, and hydroelectric power.
Canal regulation works Canal regulators include the cross regulator and the distributary head
regulator structures for controlling the flow through a parent canal and its off-taking distributary.
Help to maintain the water level in the canal on the upstream of the regulator.
Main Regulation works may be listed as follows: Canal falls, Head regulator, Cross regulator,
Metres and Flumes and Canal escapes.
Canal fall is a solid masonry structure, which is constructed on the canal if the natural ground
slope is steeper than the designed channel bed slope.
Necessity of Canal Falls:
 When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed
slope cannot be maintained. It requires excessive earthwork in filling to maintain the
slope.

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  When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than the
permissible bed slope of canal. In that case also the canal falls are necessary
 In cross-drainage works, when the difference between bed level of canal and that of
drainage is small or when the F.S.L of the canal is above the bed level of drainage then
the canal fall is necessary to carry the canal water below the stream or drainage.

Types of Canal Falls include:

 Ogee falls
 Rapids
 Stepped falls
 Trapezoidal notch falls
 Well type falls
 Simple vertical drop falls
 Straight glacis falls
 Montague type falls
 English falls or baffle falls

Canal regulator (Head and cross regulator)

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A head regulator provided at the head of the off-taking channel, controls the flow of water
entering the new channel. While a cross regulator may be required in the main channel
downstream of the offtaking channel, and is operated when necessary so as to head up water on
its upstream side, thus to ensure the required supply in the off-taking channel even during the
periods of low flow in the main channel.
CANAL REGULATOR

Main functions of a head regulator:

 To regulate or control the supplies entering the off-taking canal
 To control the entry of silt into the off-taking canal
 To serve as a meter for measuring discharge.
Main functions of a cross regulator:
 To control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
 To help in heading up water on the upstream side and to fed the offtaking canals to their
full demand.
 Cross regulator is often combined with bridges and falls, if required.
Canal escape
It is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from an irrigation channel (main canal,
branchcanal, or distributary etc.) into a natural drain. The water in the irrigation channel may
become surplus due to:
 Mistake
 Difficulty in regulation at the head
 Excessive rainfall in the upper reaches
 Outlets being closed by cultivators as they find the demand of water is over

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Metering flumes
is an artificial channel section which is used to measure the discharge of a channel Flumes are of
different types and can be made up of materials such as aluminum, fiberglass, steel, wood etc.

Metering flumes are classified into following types:

 Submerged Venturi Flume

 Free flow Venturi Flume
 Parshall Flume
 Cut-throat Flume
Canal outlet and modules
A canal outlet or a module is a small structure built at the head of the watercourse so as to
connect it with a minor or a distributary channel. It acts as a connecting link between the system
manager and the farmers.

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Types of outlet/module
 Non-modular module
 Semi-modules or Flexible modules
 Rigid modules or Modular Outlets
TUTORIAL 03.
CROSS DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
AQUEDUCTis just like a bridge where a canal is taken over the deck supported by piers instead
of a road or railway.

SYPHON AQUEDUCTthe bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal
trough by providing sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.

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SUPER PASSAGE is just opposite of the aqueduct. In this case, the bed level of the drainage is
above the fully supply level of the canal. The drainage is taken through a rectangular or
trapezoidal trough of channel which is constructed on the deck supported by piers.

SIPHON SUPER PASSAGE It is just opposite siphon aqueduct. In this case, the canal passes
below the drainage trough. The section of the trough is designed according to high flood
discharge

LEVEL CROSSING is an arrangement provided to regulate the flow of water through the
drainage and the canal when they cross each other approximately at the same bed level.

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INLET AND OUTLET In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic
structure is constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective
directions. This arrangement is known as inlet and outlet.

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References

Design of Gravity Dams, Bureau of Reclamation, 1976

Henry H., Thomas. "Chute spillways, The Engineering of Large Dams". Retrieved 2010-07-05.
Lucian, G (1986). Earthquake analysis and response of concrete gravity dams. US Army Corps
of Engineers.
http://www.aboutcivil.org/canal-head-regulator.htm
https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/metering-flume-types/30706/

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