CMSC 124

Design and Implementation of Programming Languages

CNM Peralta
Institute of Computer Science
University of the Philippines Los Baños
A (Brief?) History of
Programming Languages
(Or how 0’s and 1’s gave way to mov ax, bx, and onward to
public static void main(String args[]).)

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The first programming language was called

Plankalkül
designed by Konrad Zuse.

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Plankalkul
•Fairly complete
•Features:
̶ the usual data types (integer, floating-point, etc.)
̶ arrays and [nested] records (similar to C struct)
̶ Iterative statement similar to Ada’s for
̶ Conditional statement if, but no else clause
̶ Mathematical expressions showed current
relationships between variables
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Programming Languages
Plankalkul
Problem: Each statement consisted of 2-3 lines
A + 1 => A
4 5
1.n 1.n

A[5] = A[4] + 1

…which can be a bit intimidating.

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In the beginning there were
machine languages
but…

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Machine languages were
error-prone
and
tedious
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Programming Languages
They made use of
numeric codes
to specify instructions

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Programming Languages
Furthermore…
absolute addressing
was used to reference data and other
instructions.

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Such problems prompted the development of
assemblers
and
assembly languages
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Programming Languages
Problem: Most problems required
floating-point arithmetic
and
indexing
for arrays
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Programming Languages
Thus, new, higher-level languages
were developed,
the first of which was called
Short Code
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Programming Languages
Short Code
It was developed by

John Mauchly in 1949

for the BINAC computer.

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Programming Languages
Short Code was interpreted,
and was estimated to be
50 times slower
than machine code.

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Programming Languages
 Some other languages at this time were
Speedcoding
and the
UNIVAC “Compiling” System

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Speedcoding was developed by

John Backus in 1954.

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It was intended for the

IBM 701.

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Programming Languages
Grace Hopper at UNIVAC
developed compiling systems named

A-0, A-1, and A-2.

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Programming Languages
These compiling systems

expanded pseudocode to machine

code subprograms

making source programs shorter.

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Programming Languages
And then…
With the introduction of the
IBM 704 in 1954
came the development of
FORTRAN.
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The IBM 704 supported both
floating-point arithmetic
and
indexing
in hardware, eliminating the need to
interpret and simulate such operations
using software.
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Programming Languages
FORTRAN stands for

“Formula Translator”

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At the time, computers…
• had small memories
• were used for scientific computations
• had no way of being programmed efficiently
• were so expensive that the priority was speed

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FORTRAN evolved over the years,

starting with FORTRAN 0.

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Programming Languages
FORTRAN 0 was described in
“The IBM Mathematical FORmula TRANslating
System: FORTRAN,”

but was modified during implementation to

eventually produce FORTRAN 1.
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Programming Languages
FORTRAN 1 was released in 1957 and featured
Input/output formatting
Variable names with up to 6 characters
User-defined subroutines
If statements
Do loops

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Claim: Source code compiled using
FORTRAN would produce machine code
that is half as efficient as hand-produced
machine code.

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Truth: The claim was, for the most
part, achieved.

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FORTRAN II appeared in 1958, adding several
features, the most significant of which was
the
independent compilation of
subroutines.
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FORTRAN was updated continuously over the
next years, with FORTRAN IV (aka, FORTRAN
66) being quite popular during the 1960’s.

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Programming Languages
The first functional programming
language was invented particularly for
list processing, which was used in
Artificial Intelligence.

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Allen Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert Simon
at RAND Corporation first came up with the
concept of list processing in 1956.

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The language they described was

IPL-I (Information Processing

Language I).

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Although IPL-I (and consequently, IPL-II) did
not see widespread use, they showed the
feasibility and usefulness of list processing.

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IBM also implemented the
Fortran List Processing Language
(FLPL)
as an extension to FORTRAN.

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John McCarthy developed LISP in
1958, called pure LISP because it was
purely functional.

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LISP was meant to cover ground that FLPL
failed to:
Recursion
Conditional expressions
Dynamic storage allocation
Implicit deallocation
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Eventually, LISP was adapted to two dialects
commonly used today:
SCHEME (1970’s)
and
Common LISP (1994)
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Problem: Although languages were now
high-level, they were still
machine-dependent.

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Programming Languages
The first effort to design a universal
programming language for
scientific applications resulted in ALGOL
60.

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On May 10, 1957, several computing groups
petitioned the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) to form a committee to
study the possibility of creating a
machine-independent programming
language.
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The Society for Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics
(German abbrev. GAMM) also wrote ACM
to collaborate, and in April 1958, a joint
language project was agreed upon.

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The first meeting, held in 1958,
took place in Zurich.

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The committee had several goals for the
new language.

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1.
Syntax should be as close as possible to
mathematical notation,
and programs should be
readable
with little explanation.
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2.
Language must be able to
describe algorithms
in printed publications.

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3.
Source code should be
mechanically translatable
to machine language.

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After the joint meeting, the language was first
called International Algorithmic Language
(IAL) but was eventually renamed to

ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language).

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ALGOL can be thought of as a
descendant of FORTRAN.

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 ALGOL
generalized
FORTRAN.
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1.
ALGOL formalized the concept
of
data types.

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2.
Added the idea of
compound statements.

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3.
Identifiers could have
any length.

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4.
Number of array dimensions
was unrestricted (in FORTRAN,
at most 3).

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5.
Lower bound of arrays could
be
user-specified.
(in FORTRAN, lower bound=1)
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6.
Nested selection
statements

were allowed.
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The resulting report described
ALGOL 58, which was used by three
implementation efforts.

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1.
The MAD Language was
implemented at the
University of Michigan.

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2.
NELIAC was introduced by the

U.S. Naval Electronics Group.

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3.
JOVIAL (Jules’ Own Version of the
International Algorithmic Language)
was developed by System Development
Corporation and became the official
scientific language of the U.S. Air Force for
25 years.

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JOVIAL was the only ALGOL 58-
based language that saw
widespread use.

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Other companies, like IBM and SHARE
opted to remain using FORTRAN for
several reasons.

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1.
Developing the first-
generation compilers was hard.

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2.
Training users to use the new
language proved difficult.

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3.
Persuading programmers to
use the new language was
difficult as well.

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In 1959, ALGOL 58 was heavily debated
upon, and the ALGOL Bulletin and
Communications of the ACM both
published suggested modifications for
the language.

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The committee met again in 1960 in
Paris and made modifications to
the ALGOL 58 definition.

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1.
Block structure
was introduced.

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2.
The pass-by-value and pass-by-
name parameter passing schemes
were introduced.

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3.
Recursion
was allowed.

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4.
Stack-dynamic arrays

were allowed.

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People of note include Peter Naur,
who published the ALGOL Bulletin
and became heavily involved in the
development of ALGOL.

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Naur used Backus’ Normal
Form (BNF) to formally describe
ALGOL for the 1960 meeting.

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Further improvements were made
in a 1962 meeting held in Rome.

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ALGOL never saw widespread use in the
US (even in Europe, it was not the
dominant language), due to several
problems.

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1.
Some features turned out to be
too flexible,
hampering a complete understanding and
an efficient implementation of the
language.
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2.
Lack of
input and output
statements.

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3.
During the time, the use of BNF was
considered strange and complicated
(though today, it is simple and elegant).

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4.
Entrenchment of FORTRAN and
lack of support from IBM.

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Even after the 1962 meeting, ALGOL
had too many ambiguities and
obscurities to be considered fully
complete.

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The programming languages
described so far have been aimed at
scientific computing applications.

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“Mathematical programs should be
written in mathematical notation, data
processing programs should be written
in English statements.”
- Grace Hopper, December 1953
Remington-Rand UNIVAC
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One of the first programming
languages for business applications
was FLOW-MATIC for UNIVAC, in
1957.

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However, FLOW-MATIC was
designed exclusively for UNIVAC’s
computers.

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IBM also designed COMTRAN
(Commercial Translator).

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First formal meeting for a language
for business applications was held
in the Pentagon, by the
Department of Defense on May
28-29, 1959.
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The language, then called CBL
(Common Business Language)
was to have the following general
characteristics.

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1.
It should use

as much English as
possible.
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2.
Must be easy to use even at the
expense of power.

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3.
Should not be restricted by
implementation problems.

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The COBOL 60 specification was
completed in December 1959 by the
Short Range Committee and
published in April 1960.

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The language was standardized by ANSI
(American National Standards
Institute) in 1968, and it continues to
evolve today (latest standard released
in 2002).

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COBOL introduced a number of
new concepts.

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1.
Hierarchical structures

(which first appeared in Plankalkul’s

design) was first implemented in COBOL.

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2.
First language to allow connotative
variable names with up to 30
characters, including a word-
connecting character (the hypen
‘-’).
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3.
The
DEFINE verb
was the first high-level construct for
macros.
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COBOL’s strongest characteristic
was its Data Division, while the
weakest was its Procedure
Division.

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Every variable is defined in detail in the
Data Division, including the number of
digits, the placement of the decimal
point, etc.

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Main weakness of Procedure Division
was its lack of functions; prior to the
1974 standard, there were no
parameters passed between
subprograms.

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It was the first programming language
mandated for use by the
Department of Defense, which helped
in its eventual widespread use.

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In 1963, John Kemeny and Thomas
Kurtz decided to design a new language
aimed at the liberal arts students of
Dartmouth College.

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The new language had several goals.

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1.
It must be

easy for non-science

students to use.
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2.
It must be

easy and friendly.

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3.
It must provide
fast turnaround
for homework.

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4.
It must allow

free and private access.

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5.
User time must be
considered more than
computer time.

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Goals 2, 3, and 4 led to the
timesharing
aspect of BASIC.

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The first program in timeshared BASIC
was completed on May 1, 1964.

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BASIC was a
very limited language
but was very
easy to learn.
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An executing program could not
get input from the user.

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The original language had 14
different statement types, and a
single-data type (floating-
point).

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It was the first widely-used language
that was
used through terminals
connected to a remote computer.

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All of the programming languages so far
have been used for specific
application areas (scientific
computing, list processing, business
applications, etc.).

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The first large-scale attempt to design a
language for more than one
application area resulted in

PL/I.
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WHY?
An overlap between scientific
computing applications and business
applications was developing.

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Originally named
FORTRAN VI,
its association with FORTRAN was
dropped as it was developed.

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The design of PL/I that was eventually
implemented was published in 1964, and
it was in 1965 that it was officially
called PL/I (before it was the NPL –
New Programming Language).

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Basically, PL/I had the best of what
FORTRAN, ALGOL 60, and COBOL 60
had to offer.

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ALGOL 60’s recursion and block
structure, FORTRAN IV’s separate
compilation with communication
through global data, and COBOL 60’s
data structures, I/O, and report
generating facilities were
incorporated with several new
features.
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1.
Concurrently executing
subprograms

were allowed.
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2.
Exception detection
and
run-time error handling.

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3.
Use of recursion for subprograms
could be disabled to more efficiently
link nonrecursive subprograms.

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4.
Pointers

were included as a data type.

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5.
Cross-sections of arrays

could be referenced.

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Though, PL/I’s constructs for pointers,
exception handling and concurrency
were flawed, it still enjoyed some
success in terms of usage.

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Dynamic typing and dynamic storage
allocation were used in
APL
and
SNOBOL.
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Dynamic Typing – variables are
untyped
Ex. Javascript, etc.

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APL (A Programming Language)
was designed by Kenneth Iverson at
IBM in 1960.

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SNOBOL was designed in the early 1960’s
at Bell Laboratories for text
processing, e.g., string pattern
matching.

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Around 1962-1964,
Kristen Nygaard
and
Ole-Johan Dahl
developed SIMULA I.
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SIMULA I was intended for

simulations.

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It was first implemented in 1964 for
the UNIVAC 1107.

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SIMULA was later extended by both
Nygaard and Dahl resulting in SIMULA 67
in March 1967.

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SIMULA 67 extended ALGOL 60,
using ALGOL’s concepts of block
structure and control
statements, and introduced
coroutines.
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Coroutines – subprograms that can
restart at the position
where they previously
stopped

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To support coroutines, the
class construct
was developed.

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The development of classes would
eventually give way to data
abstraction, which is the foundation of
object-oriented programming.

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ALGOL saw an update in 1968,
redesigned by van Wijngaarden,
et al, resulting in ALGOL 68.

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ALGOL 68’s redesign had a primary design
criterion:
Orthogonality

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Orthogonality – small number of
primitive constructs
can be combined in a
small number of ways
to build control and data
structures.
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As a result, ALGOL 68 allowed

user-defined data types.

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Another first for ALGOL 68 was its introduction
of

Implicit-heap dynamic arrays

which will be discussed later.

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ALGOL 68 was never as popular
as PL/I due in large part to IBM’s
support of PL/I.

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Despite never growing in popularity,
ALGOL did have several descendants,
particularly in imperative languages,
some of which may be familiar to you.

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Niklaus Wirth and C. A. R. Hoare
developed ALGOL-W, which was basically
ALGOL 60 with their modifications.

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ALGOL-W was implemented in Stanford
University and was used primarily for
instructional purposes at a few
universities.

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ALGOL-W’s primary contributions were
the
value-result method
for parameter passing and, the
case statement.
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Later, Wirth came up with

Pascal
in 1970.

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Pascal was designed specifically for

instructional purposes.

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By the mid-1970’s, it was the most
widely-used language for its
purpose.

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Pascal’s success it attributed to its
simplicity
and
expressivity.
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Pascal remained popular until the mid-
1990’s when newer languages with more
features began to gain widespread use, like
Ada and C++.

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In 1972, Dennis Ritchie, from Bell
Laboratories, designed and
implemented C.

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C was originally intended for

systems programming.

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 C is descended from several
programming languages.

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CPL was developed at Cambridge
University in the early 1960’s.

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BCPL, a simple systems language,
was also developed at Cambridge
by Martin Richards in 1967.

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B was designed and implemented by
Ken Thompson (Bell Laboratories)
under the UNIX system (which was
implemented using assembly).

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C also utilized some constructs
from

ALGOL 68.
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Problem: B and BCPL were both
untyped.

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Thus, Ritchie developed a new
language that was based on B,
called NB. Eventually, Ritchie
renamed it C.

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Problem: C lacked type checking.

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Despite this, C was popular in the
1980’s due to its inclusion in UNIX.

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Prolog was developed in the early
1970’s by
Alain Colmerauer
and
Phillippe Roussel,
and Robert Kowalski.
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Prolog stands for

PROgramming LOGic.

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The concept of Logic Programming
uses formal logic notation to
communicate computational
processes to the computer.

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The formal logic notation used in
Prolog as well as other current
logic programming languages is
Predicate Calculus.
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The inferencing process used in logic
programming languages is called
Resolution,
developed by Robinson in 1965.

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In logic programming, the user provides
relevant information for the inferencing
process using predicate calculus, and
resolution is used to provide the
result.

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Programs in logic programming do not
specify how to compute a result; it just
describes the necessary form
and/or characteristics of the result.

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The first Prolog interpreter was
developed in
1972.

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A common use of Prolog was as an
intelligence database.

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However, until now, logic programming
languages are not widely used for a
couple of reasons.

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1.
Since logic programming is
nonimperative, it is
highly inefficient
compared to imperative languages.

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2.
It is only effective in a
small number of application areas.

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An object-oriented version of
Prolog, called Prolog++, was
developed by Moss in 1994.

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In 1974, the Army, Navy, and Air
Force independently proposed the
development of a single language for
embedded systems.

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Embedded system – computer
hardware is
embedded in a
device that it will
control.

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Problem: Over 450 languages were in
use in the Department of
Defense because each
defense contractor defined
a new language for every
contract.
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As a result, software applications were

rarely reused.

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This problem resulted in the single, most
extensive and expensive language
design effort ever undertaken, eventually
developing the programming language
Ada.
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The process of designing Ada started in
January 1975 when Malcolm Curie,
formed the High-Order Language
Working Group (HOLWG) with
representatives from military services
the UK, France, and Germany.
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HOLWG came up with the
Strawman requirements document
in April 1975. This document was
updated continuously until June
1978, resulting in the Steelman
document.
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Out of all the proposals for the new
language, the Cii Honeywell/Bull
language design proposal was chosen, by
a French group led by Jean Ichbiah.

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Jack Cooper proposed the name
Ada for the language in Spring,
1979.

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The final design and rationale for Ada
was published by ACM, and upon
receiving suggestions for modifications,
the Department of Defense released
the Stoneman document in February,
1980.
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The language design was then updated
and completed in July 1980 in the Ada
Language Reference Manual which
was updated in 1982.

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The final, official design for Ada
was released in 1983 by Goos and
Hartmanis.

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 Ada had four major
contributions.

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1.
Packages supported
encapsulation of data,
specifications of data types, and
procedures, providing support for
data abstraction.
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2.
Extensive
exception handling,
where users can gain control when
an exception is encountered.
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3.
Support for
generic program units,
i.e., procedures can be made for an
unspecified data type.

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4.
Concurrent execution of special
program units, using the
rendezvous mechanism.

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 Ada embodied the concepts of
software engineering and
language design of the late
1970’s.
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Problem: Development of a compiler
for such a large and complex
language was difficult; the
first truly usable compilers for
Ada appeared in 1985.

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Ada was updated in 1995 (Ada 95)
and 2005 (Ada 2005).

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 Ada 95 introduced two new
features.

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1.
Type derivation extended to allow
new components to be added to
those inherited from a base class,
allowing
inheritance.
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2.
Dynamic binding of subprogram
calls to subprogram definitions through
subprogram dispatching based on the
tag value of derived types through
classwide types provided for
polymorphism.
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Ada 95’s popularity suffered partly
because the DoD stopped
requiring it for military software
systems.

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More importantly, C++, which was
released before Ada 95, was gaining
widespread acceptance for object-
oriented programming.

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Ada 2005 added more features, such as
interfaces, synchronized interfaces,
and more control over scheduling
algorithms.

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Ada is still widely used in commercial
and defense avionics, air traffic
control, and rail transportation,
among others.

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The first language to fully support
object-oriented programming is
Smalltalk.

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Alan Kay, employed at the Xerox
Palo Alto Research Center
under the Learning Resource
Group, conceptualized Smalltalk.

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The first release of Smalltalk to the
public was called Smalltalk 80 in
1980.

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In Smalltalk,
everything is an object,
even integer constants.

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Object abstraction is done using
classes similar to those of SIMULA
67.

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Smalltalk syntax is different in its use of
messages
instead of arithmetic and logic expressions,
and conventional control statements.

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Smalltalk’s impact lies in its promotion
of the use of
graphical user interfaces
and
object-oriented programming.
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In 1980, Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell
Laboratories modified C to add type
checking and conversion, and (more
importantly) classes, developing
C with Classes
in 1983.
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C with classes was updated in 1984,
including virtual methods, dynamic
binding of method calls, method
name and operator overloading,
and reference types, and was called
C++.
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 C++ has evolved over the years, with
support for several features being
added through different versions.

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 nd
The 2 release of C++ added
multiple inheritance
and
abstract classes.

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 rd
The 3 release of C++ added
templates
and
exception handling.

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The current version of C++ was
standardized in 1998.

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When Microsoft released the .NET
computing platform in 2002, it
included a new version of C++, called
Managed C++.

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Unlike standard C++, Managed C++ does
not support multiple inheritance
because .NET does not support it.

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C++ supports both procedural and
object-oriented programming due
to its support for both functions and
methods.

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 C++ remains popular today due to
several factors.

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1.
Good and inexpensive
compilers
are available.

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2.
Backward compatibility
with C.

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3.
It was the only suitable object-
oriented programming language
for large commercial projects at the
time.

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Problem: C++ is very large and
complex, has similar
drawbacks as PL/I, and
inherited C’s insecurities.
Ada and Java are much safer
languages.
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Some related languages to C++ are
Objective-C,
Delphi,
and Go.
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Objective-C was designed by
Brad Cox and Tom Love and
first appeared in 1983.

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Objective-C basically
added Smalltalk messaging
to C.

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Objective-C is the main
programming language for the OSX
and iOS operating systems by
Apple.

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Like C++, Objective-C has all
of C’s insecurities.

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Delphi was created by adding
object-oriented support to
Pascal.

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Delphi was designed by Anders
Hejlsberg, who also became the
lead designer of C#.

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Since Pascal is less complex, more
elegant, and safer than C, the same
goes for Delphi relative to C++.

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Go, designed by Rob Pike, Ken
Thompson, and Robert Grisemer at
Google was developed from 2007 until
its release in late 2009.

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Development was prompted by the
slowness of the compilation of
large C++ programs in Google.

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As a result, the compiler for Go is
extremely fast.

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Problem: C and C++, due to
aforementioned insecurities,
were considered unreliable
for embedded systems for
consumer electronics.

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In 1990, Sun Microsystems
determined a need for a programming
language for embedded systems on
consumer electronics.

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The resulting language, by a design
team led by James Gosling, was
Java,
and it was based on C++.
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Though Java was intended for embedded
systems, when it was released in 1995,
it became widely used in Web
programming with the advent of
graphical web browsers.

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 Main Reason: Java Applets

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Although based on C++, Java
smaller,
simpler,
and more reliable.

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 Java has several features that are
different from those of C++.

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1.
Predefined classes
for arrays.

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2.
No pointers,

but its reference types allow some

capabilities of pointers.

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3.
Stand-alone programs are not
possible in Java since all
subprograms are methods
defined under a class.

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4.
Java only supports single
inheritance, but simulates some
benefits of multiple inheritance
using
interfaces.
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5.
Java does not have
structs and
unions.

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6.
Implicit storage deallocation,
a.k.a. garbage collection, frees
programmers from deleting objects
explicitly.

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7.
Implicit type conversions are only
allowed if they are widening, i.e., int to
float conversion is allowed, float to in
conversion is not.

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Java also supports concurrency using
threads, and the synchronized
modifier for methods and blocks.

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The price of Java’s portability has
always been the cost of
interpretation, and for a time, Java
programs were 10 times slower than
equivalent C programs.

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Just-in-Time (JIT) compilers are now
being used to compile Java code to
machine code before execution making
them competitive with other compiled
languages.

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 The use of Java increased
faster than any other
programming language.

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Microsoft eventually developed
their own spin-off of C++, which
they called
C#.
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C# was released in January 2002
along with the .NET development
platform.

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Aside from C++, C# also takes
some concepts from Delphi and
Visual BASIC.

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The lead designer of C#,
Anders Hejlsberg,
also designed Turbo Pascal and
Delphi.

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Purpose of C#: Component-based
software
development.

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All languages under the .NET framework
use the Common Type System (CTS),
utilizing a common class library.

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All types that in all five languages inherit
from
[Link],

much like [Link] in

Java.
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C# utilized C++ concepts that
Java removed, except for
multiple inheritance.

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However, although some viewed this
inclusion of C++ features as a backward
step, C# designers did improve on
most C++ features that they included.

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 C# also has some features that
are different from Java.

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1.
Conversion between primitive
and object types is partially
implicit.

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2.
Rectangular arrays

are supported.

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3.
A foreach statement, similar to
that of Perl, PHP, and Java 5.0

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 Scripting
Languages

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Scripting languages have been
developing for the last 25 years.

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At first, scripting languages were made
up of a small collection of commands
interpreted as calls for system
subprograms for utility functions, file
management, and simple file
filtering.
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Eventually, variables, control
flow statements, functions, and
other capabilities were added,
resulting in programming languages.

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The first scripting language was
sh (for shell).

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The most powerful and widely used is
ksh,
developed by David Korn at Bell
Laboratories.

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 A handful of scripting programming
languages developed over time.

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Perl was developed by
Larry Wall
as a combination of sh and awk.

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Although Perl is still considered a
scripting language, it is actually
more similar to imperative
languages.

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Javascript

was developed by Brendan Eich

at Netscape.

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Javascript was developed due to a need
for
computations with HTML documents

at the client side.

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One of its major uses is for
dynamically creating and
modifying HTML documents using
the
Document Object Model (DOM).
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PHP was developed by
Rasmus Lerdorf
of the Apache group in 1994.

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Originally PHP stood for
Personal Home Page,
but it now stands for PHP:
Hypertext Preprocessor.

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PHP is an HTML-embedded
server-side scripting language
for Web applications.

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Though initially without support for
object-oriented programming, the
current versions of PHP have
object-oriented concepts.

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Python was initially designed by
Guido van Rossum
at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum
in the early 1990’s.

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 Python is used for similar
purposes as Perl.

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One of its most interesting features
is
extensibility.

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Ruby, developed by
Yukihiro Matsumoto,
was released in 1996.

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Ruby was developed because although
Perl and Python had support for OOP,
neither of them was a pure object-
oriented programming language.

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Ruby is a pure object-oriented
language, much like Smalltalk.

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It is also the first programming
language that was developed in
Japan and is now widely used in
the United States.

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Lua, designed in the early 1990’s by
Roberto Ierusalimschy, et al, at the
Pontifical University of Rio de
Janeiro in Brazil is a procedural and
functional scripting language.

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Lua’s design was influenced by
Scheme, Icon and Python.

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The rise in the use of Lua is thanks
to the gaming industry starting
in 2006-2007.

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