● Secreted into the synaptic cleft.

Endocrine
● Secreted into the blood stream by

Endo - within. certain glands and cells.

● ● Travel through the blood to their target
● Krino - to secrete. cells.
● Composed of endocrine glands and
specialized endocrine cells located Functions of Endocrine System
throughout the body. Regulation of metabolism.
● Endocrine Glands -Secrete very small ●
Control of food intake and digestion.
amount of chemical messengers called ●
Modulation of tissue development.
hormones into the extracellular fluid. ●
Regulation of ion levels.
● Exocrine Glands -With ducts that carry ●
Control of water balance.
secretions to the outside of the body into a ●
Regulation of cardiovascular functions.
hollow organ such as stomach or ●
Control of blood glucose and other
intestines. Exocrine Secretions: saliva, ●
nutrients.
sweat, breastmlik, and digestive enzymes. Control of reproductive functions.
● Endocrinology -The study of endocrine ●
Stimulation of uterine contractions and
system. ●
milk release.
Classes of Chemical Messengers ● Modulation of immune system function.
● Chemical messengers allow cells to
communicate with each other to regulate Endocrine Glands and Their Hormone
body activities. Pituitary Gland
Autocrine ● Body’s master gland.
● Stimulates the cell that originally ● HYPOPHYSIS
secreted it. - Hypo: under.
● Secreted by white blood cell during - Physis: growth.
infection. Small gland about the size of a pea.
Paracrine ●
Housed in a depression of the sphenoid
● Act locally on neighboring cells.
●
● Secreted by one cell type into the
bone inferior to the hypothalamus of the
extracellular fluid and affect brain.
surrounding cells. ● Anterior Pituitary: Made up of epithelial
● Histamine release by white blood cells cells derived from the embryonic oral
during allergic reactions. cavity.
- Stimulates vasodilation in nearby blood Posterior Pituitary: Extension of the brain
vessels. ●
and composed of neurons.
Neurotransmitters Hormones control the function of many
● Secreted by neurons that activate an
●
adjacent cells. other glands in the body.
- Neuron - Ovaries
- Muscle Cell - Testes
- Glandular Cell - Thyroid Gland
- Adrenal Gland
 ● Hormones that influence: - Treatment: genetic engineered growth
- Growth hormone.
- Kidney Function Gigantism
- Birth - Exaggerated bone growth due to the
- Milk production by the mammary presence of excess growth hormone
glands. before bones finished growing in
Synthesized by cells in the anterior length.
●
pituitary. Acromegaly
Proteins that are transported in the blood - Excess hormone is secreted after
● growth in bone length is completed,
have a life span measured in minutes and growth continues in bone diameter only.
bind to membrane-boun receptors on - Facial features and hands become
their target cells. abnormally large.
● Mostly secreted by a separate cell type.
● Maby are tropic which stimulate the Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
secretion of other hormones from the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
target tissues. ● Binds to membrane-bound receptors on
Growth Hormone cells of the thyroid gland.
● Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone.
● Stimulates the growth of bones, muscles ● Stimulates growth of the thyroid gland.
and other organs. ● Rate of secretion is regulated by releasing
● Slows protein breakdown during periods hormone from the hypothalamus.
of food deprivation and favors lipid
breakdown. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
● Too little equates to abnormal ● Binds to membrane-bound receptors on
development of the pituitary gland. the cells of adrenal cortex.
● Secretion is controlled by hormones from ● Increases the secretion of cortisol or
the hypothalamus. hydrocortisone.
- Releasing hormone: stimulates ● Keep the adrenal cortex from
growth secretion. degenerating.
- Inhibiting hormone: inhibits ● Binds to melanocytes in the skin and
growth hormone secretion. increase skin pigmentation.
● Peak Levels ● Rate of secretion is increased by a
- Deep sleep releasing hormone from the
- Fasting hypothalamus.
- Exercise
Gonadotropins
Growth Hormone Abnormalities ● Bind to membrane-bound receptors on
Pituitary Dwarf the cells of the gonads (ovaries and
- The deficiency of growth hormone testes).
equates remains small although ● Regulate the growth, development and
normally proportioned. functions of the gonads.
● Major gonadotropins:
 - Luteinizing Hormone - Consequences are not obvious
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone until the condition becomes
● Absence of these Hormones: severe: liters of urine each day.
- Ovaries and testes decrease in
size. Oxytocin
- Oocytes and sperm cells will not ● Contraction of smooth muscle cells of
be produced. uterus.
- Hormones will not be secreted. ● Milk letdown from the breasts in lactating
women.
Prolactin
● Pro - precursor + lact - milk. Thyroid Gland
● Binds to membrane-bound receptors in Sheild-shaped gland.
cells of the breast. ●
One of the largest endocrine glands.
● Helps promote development of breats ●
Synthesize and secretes triiodothyronine
during pregnancy. ●
(T3), thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine (T4)
● Stimulates production of milk of following and calcitonin.
pregnancy. Made up of two lobes connected by a
● Responsible in homeostasis: regulation of ●
narrow band called isthmus.
the ion composition of the blood and Located on each side of the trachea, just
immune function. ●
inferior to the larynx.
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone ● Appears more red than the surrounding
Binds to membrane-bound receptors on tissues because it is highly vascular.
●
melanocytes. ● Requires iodine to synthesize thyroid
Synthesize melnanin. hormones.
● ● Contains numerous thyroid follicles:
synthesize T3 and T4.
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary ● Parafollicular cells or C cells: secrete
Antidiuretic Hormone cacitonin.
● Anti - against + uresis - urine.
● Binds to membrane-bound receptors in Abnormalities: Thyroid Hormone
the kidney tubules.
● Increases water reabsorption. Goiter
● Constrict blood vessels. ● Excess TSH due to loss of negative
● Also called vasopressin. feedback.
- Reduced ADH releasing: large ● Enlarged thyroid gland.
amounts of dilute urine. Hypothyroidism
● Diabetes Insipidus ● Lack of of thyroid hormones.
- Lack of ADH secretion. ● Decreased metabolic rate.
- Production of large amount of - Low body temperature.
dilute urine. - Weight gain.
- Reduced apetite.
 - Lethargy. - Vitamin D: stimulates
● Cretinism increased calcium
- Lack of thyroid hormones in absorption by intestinal
infants. epithelial cells.
- Developmental delay. - Increased blood calcium levels.
- Short stature. - PTH binds to receptors on
- Abnormally formed skeletal osteoclast: secrete
structures. substances that stimulate
Hyperthyroidism osteoclasts to reabsorb
● Elevated rate of thyroid hormone bone
secretion. - Decreases loss of calcium in the
● Increased metabolic rate. urine.
● Extreme nervousness.
● Chronic fatigue.
Abnormalities: Parathyroid Gland
Graves Disease
● Autoimmune disease that causes
hyperthyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism
● Abnormally high rate of parathyroid
● Occurs when the immune system
produces abnormal proteins that are secretion.
● Tumor in parathyroid gland.
similar in structure and function to TSH. ● Elevated level of parathyroid hormone:
● Exopthalmia
- Bulging of the eyes. - Increase bone reabsorption:
elevates calcium levels.
- Bones become soft, deformed,
Calcitonin and easily fractured.
Secreted if the blood concentration of - Nerve and muscle cells become
●
calcium is too high. less excitable: fatigue and
Lowers blood calcium level to return to muscle weakness.
● - Kidney Stone.
normal range.
● Binds membrane-bound receptors of Hypoparathyroidism
osteoclasts and inhibit them ● Abnormally low rate of parathyroid
- Reduces the rate of calcium hormone secretion.
● Injury to or surgical removal of thyroid
reabsorption from bone. and parathyroid glands.
● Low blood levels of parathyroid
Parathyroid Gland hormone:
Embedded in the posterior wall of the - Reductions in the rate of bone
●
thyroid gland. reabsoprtion and formation of
Secrete parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D: blood calcium levels
●
- Essential for the regulation of decrease.
blood calcium levels. - Nerves and muscles become
excitable and produce
- Increases active vitamin D spontaneous action potential that
formation through effects on cause frequent muscle cramps
membrane-bound receptors of and tetanus.
renal tubule cells in the kidneys.
 - Severe tetanus: affect respiratory ● Regulate ion balance in the blood.
muscles: breathing stops: death. ● Aldosterone
- Produced in greatest amount.
- Secreted under low blood pressure
condition.
- Returns blood pressure to its
normal range through modulation
Adrenal Gland of kidney function.
Two small glands located superior to each - Increases the rate of sodium
●
kidney. reabsorption by the kidney:
Adrenal Medulla increases blood level of sodium.
●
- Inner part of the adrenal glands. - Stimulates potassium excretion into
- Secretes Epinephrine and the urine. By the kidneys: lowers
Norepinephrine. blood levels of potassium:
● Adrenal Cortex alkalosis.
- Outer part of the adrenal gland. Glucocorticoids
- Secretes steroid hormones: Cortisol
- Mineralocorticoid. ●
Provide energy for cells by stimulating the
- Glucocorticoid. ●
increased use of lipids and proteins.
- Adrenal androgens. ● Lipid breakdown, reduce glucose and
amino acid uptake in skeletal muscle.
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla ● Stimulate synthesis of new glucose from
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine precursor molecules such as amino acids.
● Fight or flight hormones. ● Increase protein degradation.
● Prepare the body for intense physical ● Increase blood glucose levels and
activity. glycogen deposits in cells.
● Release of stored energy sources to ● Decrease the intensity of the inflammatory
support increased physical activity. and immune response.
● Increased blood pressure - Decrease the number of white
- Increased heart rate. blood cells.
- Constriction of blood vessels in - Secretion of inflammatory
skin and internal organs. chemicals from tissues.
● Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles.
● Increased metabolic rate of several Adrenal Androgens
tissues, especially skeletal muscle, ● Secreted by the inner layer of the adrenal
cardiac muscle and nervous tissue. cortex.
● Stimulate the development of male
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex secondary sex characteristics.
Mineralocorticoids ● Influence the female sex drive.
● Major secretory products of the zona
glomerulosa of adrenal cortex.
 Pancreas ● Inhibits the secretion of insulin and
● Exocrine Part glucagon.
● Endocrine Part ● Inhibits gastric tract activity.
Consists of Pancreatic Islets
Alpha Cells Abnormalities of the Pancreas
- Secrete Glucagon. Diabetes Mellitus
Beta Cells ● Much urine + honey or sweetened.
- Secrete Insulin ● Body’s inability to regulate blood
Delta Cells glucode within normal range.
- Secrete somatostatin. ● Type I Diabetes Mellitus
- Too little insulin is secreted from
(Regulate the blood levels of nutrients, the pancreas.
especially glucose.) - HYPERGLYCEMIA: tissues
cannot take up glucose
effectively, hence, blood
Hormones of the Pancreas glucose levels become very
Insulin high.
Secreted by beta cells of the pancreas - Glucose cannot enter the satiety
●
when blood glucose is elevated. center in the brain, hence, the
satiety center responds as if
● Secretion is also stimulated by: there were little blood glucose,
- Increased parasympathetic resulting in an exaggerated
stimulation associated with appetite.
digestion of a meal. - Excess glucose in the blood is
- Increased blood levels of amino secreted in the urine, hence,
acids. urine volume is greater than
Secretion is inhibited by: normal.
● - Dehydrated and thirsty.
- Low blood glucose levels. - Lack of energy.
- Stimulation of the sympathetic ● Type II Diabetes Mellitus
nervous system. - Too few insulin receptors in
Major target tissues: target cells or defective
●
- Liver, adipose tissues, muscles and receptors on target cells.
the hypothalamus that controls - Defective receptors does not
respond normally to insulin.
appetite (satiety).
Glucagon Testes and Ovaries
RELEASED when blood glucose levels are ● Produce sperm cells and ococytes.
●
low. ● Secrete reproductive hormones.
Bind to receptors in the liver: glycogen is ● Hormones produced play an important
●
converted into glucose. part in the development of sexual
● Secretion is reduced after a meal. characteristics.
Somatostatin Testosterone
● Released in response to food intake. ● Main reproductive hormone in the male.
● Secreted by the testes.
● Regulates the production of sperm cells.
● Development and maintenance of the
male reproductive organs and secondary
sexual characteristics.
Estrogen and Progesterone
● Reproductive hormone secreted by the
ovaries.
● Control the female reproductive cycle.
● Prepare the mammary glands for
lactation.
● Maintain pregnancy.
● Development of female reproductive
organs and secondary sexual
characteristics.
Thymus
● Lies the upper part of the thoracic cavity.
● Important in the function of the immune
system.
● Important early in life, because without
thymus, the immune system does not
develop normally and body is less
capable fighting infections.
● Secretes Thymosin
- Development of white blood cells
called T-cells.
- Helps protect the body against
infection by foreign organisms.
Pineal Gland
● Small pine cone shaped structure located
superior and posterior to the thalamus of
the brain.
● Produces hormone called melatonin.
- Inhibit reproductive hypothalamic
releasing hormone, gonadtropin
releasing hormones, that prevents
the secretion of LH and FSH.
- Amount of light controls the rate of
secretion.