Lecture3: Introduction to OS
Modified by: Dr Hossam Mahmoud Moftah
Associate professor – Faculty of computers and information
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes
/ threads
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Memory Management
To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory
All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
Memory management determines what is in memory and when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Mass-Storage Management
Mass storage: refers to the storage of large amounts of data
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling or (I/O) scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed – by OS or applications
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW
(read-write)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
CMOS: Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor
Main memory SRAM or DRAM
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent
value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in
hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices
from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts
of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Kernel Data Structures
Many similar to standard programming data structures
Singly linked list
Doubly linked list
Circular linked list
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Kernel Data Structures
Binary search tree
left <= right
Search performance is O(n)
Balanced binary search tree is O(lg n)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Kernel Data Structures
Hash function can create a hash map
Bitmap –a mapping from some domain to bits
Linux data structures defined in
include files <linux/list.h>, <linux/kfifo.h>,
<linux/rbtree.h>
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Traditional
Stand-alone general purpose machines
But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,
the Internet)
Portals provide web access to internal systems
Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Mobile
Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc
What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Distributed
Distributed computiing
Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
Network Operating System provides features between
systems across network
Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
Illusion of a single system
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Client-Server
Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer
Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes
Vast and growing industry
Emulation used when source CPU type different from target
type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
Generally slowest method
When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes
for exploration or compatibility
Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
QA testing applications without having multiple systems
Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
There is no general purpose host then (VMware ESX and
Citrix XenServer)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
Many types
Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,
plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems
Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers
Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS,
real-time OS
Use expanding
Many other special computing environments as well
Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
Processing must be done within constraint
Correct operation only if constraints met
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather
than just binary closed-source
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has
“copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of
Mac OS X), and many more
Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox
(open source and free on many platforms -
[Link]
Use to run guest operating systems for exploration
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
