Electrical Engineering 1

(UK: 04-28604, Dubai: 04-30326)

Lecture 1
Sinusoidal Waveforms
Learning Outcomes
• Identify a sinusoidal waveform and measure its
characteristics
o Period
o Frequency
o Relate the period and the frequency
• Determine the various voltage and current values of a sine
wave
• Describe angular relationships of sine waves
• Mathematically analyze a sinusoidal waveform

2
The Sinusoidal Waveform
• An electrical signal is a voltage or current that changes in some consistent
manner with time.

• The voltage or current fluctuates according to a certain pattern called a

waveform.

Graph of one cycle of a sine wave

3
The Sinusoidal Waveform
• The electrical service provided by the power company is in the form of
sinusoidal voltage and current.
• When a sinusoidal voltage source 𝑉𝑠 is applied to a resistive circuit, an
alternating sinusoidal current results.
• When the voltage changes polarity, the current correspondingly changes
direction as indicated.

Alternating current and voltage

4
The Sinusoidal Waveform
• The voltage (or current) varies with time.

• The figure shows the symbol for sinusoidal voltage source.

Graph of one cycle of a sine wave Symbol for a sinusoidal voltage source

5
Period of a Sine Wave
• The time required for a sine wave to complete one full cycle is called the period
(𝑇).
• The period is always a fixed value for a given sine wave.
• The period of a sine wave can be measured from a zero crossing to the next
corresponding zero crossing.
• The period can also be measured from any peak in a given cycle to the
corresponding peak in the next cycle.

The period of a sine wave is the same for each cycle Measurement of the period of a sine wave.

6
Frequency of a Sine Wave
• Frequency (𝑓) is the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in one second.
• The more cycles completed in one second, the higher the frequency.
• Frequency (𝑓) is measured in units of hertz.
• The sine wave in part (a) completes two full cycles in one second.
• The one in part (b) completes four cycles in one second.
• The sine wave in part (b) has twice the frequency of the one in part (a).

Illustration of frequency

7
Relationship of Frequency and Period
• The formulas for the relationship between frequency (𝑓) and period (𝑇) are as
follows:

1
𝑓=
𝑇
Or

1
𝑇=
𝑓

• There is a reciprocal relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑇.

8
Example 1
• Which sine wave in the figure has a higher frequency?
• Determine the frequency and the period of both waveforms.

9
Example 1 - Solution
• The sine wave in part (b) has the higher frequency because it completes more cycles in 1 s
than does the sine wave in part (a).
• In Figure (a), three cycles are completed in 1 s; therefore,

𝑓 = 3 𝐻𝑧
• One cycle takes 0.333 s (one-third second), so the period is

𝑇 = 0.333 𝑠 = 333 𝑚𝑠

• In Figure (b), five cycles are completed in 1 s; therefore,

𝑓 = 5 𝐻𝑧

• One cycle takes 0.2 s (one-fifth second), so the period is

𝑇 = 0.2 𝑠 = 200 𝑚𝑠

10
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Values
• Instantaneous Value is the voltage (or current) at
any point in time on a sine wave. Instantaneous values

• Peak Value is the value of voltage (or current) at

the positive or the negative maximum (peak) with
respect to zero.

• Peak-to-Peak Value is the voltage or current from Peak values

the positive peak to the negative peak.

• Peak-to-peak voltage or current values are

represented by 𝑉𝑝𝑝 or 𝐼𝑝𝑝 .
Peak-to-peak value

𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 2𝑉𝑝 and 𝐼𝑝𝑝 = 2𝐼𝑝

11
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Values
• RMS Value
• The term 𝑟𝑚𝑠 stands for root mean square.
• Most ac voltmeters display 𝑟𝑚𝑠 voltage.
• The 240 V at your wall outlet is an 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value.
• The 𝒓𝒎𝒔 value of a sinusoidal voltage is equal to the dc voltage that produces
the same amount of heat in a resistance as does the sinusoidal voltage.

When the same amount of heat is produced in both setups, the sinusoidal voltage has
an 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value equal to the dc voltage.

12
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current Values
• The peak value of a sine wave can be converted to the corresponding 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value
using the following relationships for either voltage:

𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

1 𝑇 2 2 1 2𝜋 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝑇 0 𝑝 2𝜋 0 𝑝

• or current:

𝐼𝑝
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

13
Sine Wave Angles
• The angular measurement of a sine wave is based 360° or (2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑) for a
complete cycle.

• A half-cycle is 180° or (𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑); a quarter-cycle is 90° or (𝜋Τ2 𝑟𝑎𝑑).

14
Phase of a Sine Wave
• The figure shows one cycle of a sine wave to be used as the reference.

• When the sine wave is shifted left or right with respect to this reference, there is
a phase shift.

Phase reference

15
Phase of a Sine Wave
• The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of that
sine wave relative to a reference.
• In part (a), there is a phase angle of 90° between sine wave A and sine wave B.
• The positive peak of sine wave B occurs later than the positive peak of sine wave A.
• sine wave B is said to lag sine wave A by 90° or (𝜋Τ2 𝑟𝑎𝑑).
• sine wave A leads sine wave B by 90°.

Illustration of a phase shift

16
Example 2
What are the phase angles between the two sine waves in parts (a) and (b) of the figure
below.

17
Example 2 - Solution
• In Figure (a) the zero crossing of sine wave A is at 0° and the corresponding zero
crossing of sine wave B is at 45°.
• There is a 45° phase angle between the two waveforms with sine wave B
lagging sine wave A.
• In Figure (b) the zero crossing of sine wave B is at −30° and the corresponding
zero crossing of sine wave A is at 0°.
• There is a 30° phase angle between the two waveforms with sine wave B
leading sine wave A.

18
The Sine Wave Formula
• The general expression for the sine wave curve in
the figure is

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
• When a sine wave is shifted to the right of the
reference (lagging) by a certain angle, 𝜙 where the
reference is the vertical axis, the general expression
is

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 − 𝜙

• When a sine wave is shifted to the left of the

reference (leading) by a certain angle, 𝜙, the
general expression is

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 + 𝜙

19
Example 3
Determine the instantaneous value at the reference point on the horizontal axis for each
voltage sine wave in the figure.

20
Example 3 - Solution
• Sine wave A is the reference.
• Sine wave B is shifted left by 20° with respect to A, so it leads.
• Sine wave C is shifted right by 45° with respect to A, so it lags.

𝑣𝐴 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 = 10 𝑉 sin 90° = 10 𝑉 1 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑣𝐵 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 + 𝜙𝐵 = 5 𝑉 sin 110° = 5 𝑉 0.9397 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟎 𝑽

𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 − 𝜙𝐶 = 8 𝑉 sin 90° − 45° = 8 𝑉 0.7071 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟔 𝑽

21
 Electrical Engineering 1
(UK: 04-28604, Dubai: 04-30326)

Lecture 2
Phasor Representation
Learning Outcomes

• Use a phasor to represent a sine wave

• Apply the basic circuit laws to resistive ac circuits

23
Introduction to Phasors
• Phasors are useful for representing sine
waves in terms of their magnitude and
phase angle and also for the analysis of
reactive circuits.

• In electronics, a phasor is a type of

vector but the term generally refers to Magnitude of 2
quantities that vary with time, such as Phase angle of 45°
sine waves.

• The length of the phasor “arrow”

represents the magnitude of a quantity.

• The angle, 𝜃 (relative to represents the

angular position, as shown in part (a) for Magnitude of 3 Magnitude of 1
a positive angle. Phase angle of 180° Phase angle of −45°

24
Phasor Representation of a Sine Wave
• A full cycle of a sine wave can be represented by rotation of a phasor through
360 degrees.
• Figure shows how the phasor traces out the sine wave as it goes from 0° to
360°.
• This concept can be related to the rotation in an ac generator.
• The length of the phasor is equal to the peak value of the sine wave (observe
the 90° and the 270° points).
• The angle of the phasor measured from 0° is the corresponding angular point
on the sine wave.

Sine wave represented by rotational phasor motion.

25
Phasors and the Sine Wave Formula
• The figure shows a voltage phasor at an angular position of 45° and the
corresponding point on the sine wave.
• The instantaneous value of the sine wave at this point is related to both the
position and the length of the phasor.
• The length of the phasor is the peak value of the sinusoidal voltage, 𝑉𝑝 .
• The instantaneous value of the voltage can be expressed as

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃
• A similar formula applies to a sinusoidal current.

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑝 sin 𝜃

26
Positive and Negative Phasor Angles
• Positive angles are measured anticlockwise from 0°.
• Negative angles are measured clockwise from 0°.
• For a given positive angle 𝜃 the corresponding negative angle is 𝜃 − 360° as
illustrated in Figure (a).
• In part (b), the angle of the phasor in this case can be expressed as +225° or
− 135°.

Positive and negative phasor angles

27
Phasor Diagrams
• A phasor diagram can be used to show the relative relationship of two or more
sine waves of the same frequency.
• A phasor in a fixed position is used to represent a complete sine wave.
• The two sine waves in figure (a) can be represented by a phasor diagram, as
shown in part (b).
• Sine wave B leads sine wave A by 30°and has less amplitude than sine wave A,
as indicated by the lengths of the phasors.

Example of a phasor diagram representing sinusoidal

waveforms

28
Example 1
• Use a phasor diagram to represent the sine waves in figure.

29
Example 1 – Solution
• The phasor diagram representing the sine waves is shown in the Figure.

• The length of each phasor represents the peak value of the sine wave.

30
Angular Velocity of a Phasor
• The phasor rotates through 2𝜋 radians in a time equal to the period, 𝑇, the
angular velocity can be expressed as

2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
1
• Since 𝑓 = 𝑇
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

• When a phasor is rotated at an angular velocity 𝜔 then 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 is the angle

through which the phasor has passed at any instant.

• Substituting 2𝜋𝑓 for 𝜔 results in

𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

31
Angular Velocity of a Phasor
• With this relationship between angle and time, the equation for the
instantaneous value of a sinusoidal voltage:

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃
• Can be written as

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

• The unit of 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 is the radian

32
Analysis of ac Circuits
• If a sinusoidal voltage is applied across a resistor, there is a sinusoidal current.
• The current is zero when the voltage is zero and is maximum when the voltage is
maximum.
• When the voltage changes polarity, the current reverses direction.
• The voltage and current are said to be in phase with each other.

A sinusoidal voltage produces a sinusoidal current

33
Analysis of ac Circuits
• When using Ohm’s law in ac circuits, both the voltage and the current must be
expressed consistently, that is, both as peak values, both as 𝑟𝑚𝑠 values
• Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws apply to ac circuits as well as to dc circuits.
• The figure illustrates Kirchhoff’s voltage law in a resistive circuit that has a
sinusoidal voltage source.
• The source voltage is the sum of all the voltage drops across the resistors, just as
in a dc circuit.

Illustration of Kirchhoff’s voltage law in an ac circuit.

34
Power in a Resistive Circuit
• Power in resistive ac circuits is determined the same as for dc circuits except
that you must use 𝑟𝑚𝑠 values of current and voltage.

• The general power formulas are restated for a resistive ac circuit as

35
Example 2
For the given circuit
• Determine the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 voltage across each resistor and the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 current.
• Determine the total power.
• (The source voltage is given as an 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value).

36
Example 2 – Solution
• The total resistance of the circuit is

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 1 × 103 Ω + 560 Ω = 1560 Ω = 1.56 kΩ

• Use Ohm’s law to find the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 current

𝑉𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠 120 𝑉
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.0769 A = 76.9 mA
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1560 Ω
• The 𝑟𝑚𝑠 voltage drop across each resistor is

𝑉1 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅1 = 76.9 mA 1 kΩ = 76.9 V

𝑉2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅2 = 76.9 mA 560 Ω = 43.1 V

• The total power is

2 𝑅
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 −3 2
𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 76.9 × 10 A 1560 Ω = 9.23 W
37
Summary
• A phasor diagram can be used to show the relative
relationship of two or more sine waves of the same
frequency.

• When using Ohm’s law in ac circuits, both the voltage and

the current must be expressed consistently.

• Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws apply to ac circuits as

well as to dc circuits.

38
 Electrical Engineering 1
(UK: 04-28604, Dubai: 04-30326)

Lecture 3
Capacitors and Phasors
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the basic construction and characteristics of
a capacitor

• Discuss various types of capacitors

• Analyse capacitive ac circuits

40
Capacitor
• The capacitor is an electrical device that stores electrical charge, thereby
creating an electric field that, in turn, stores energy.
• The measure of the energy-storing ability of a capacitor is its capacitance.
• When a sinusoidal signal is applied to a capacitor, it produces an opposition to
current, which depends on the frequency of the applied signal.
• This opposition to current is called capacitive reactance.

Axial-lead tubular plastic-film dielectric capacitors

Radial-lead mica capacitor

A ceramic disk capacitor

41
Typical ceramic capacitors
Capacitor
• A capacitor is constructed of two
parallel conductive plates separated by
an insulating material called the
dielectric.
The basic capacitor

• The Electrolytic Capacitors are

polarized so that one plate is positive
and the other negative.

• Variable capacitors are used in a circuit

when there is a need to adjust the
Typical “tear drop” shaped
capacitance value either manually or tantalum electrolytic capacitor.
automatically.

• Adjustable capacitors used for very fine

adjustments in a circuit are called
Symbol for a
trimmers. variable capacitor.
Examples of trimmer capacitors

42
Capacitance
• The amount of charge that a capacitor can store per unit of voltage across its plates is
capacitance, C.

• The more charge per unit of voltage that a capacitor can store, the greater its
capacitance, as expressed by the following formula:

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
where 𝐶 is capacitance in Farad, 𝑄 is charge in Coulomb and 𝑉 is voltage in Volts.

• Most capacitors that are used in electronics work have capacitance values that are
specified in microfarads (µ𝐹) and picofarads (𝑝𝐹).

(1 µ𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹) and (1 𝑝𝐹 = 10−12 𝐹)

43
How a Capacitor Stores Energy
• The energy stored in the electric field is directly related to the size of the
capacitor and to the square of the voltage:

1 2
𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉
2

• The capacitance 𝐶 is in Farads and voltage 𝑉 is in Volts, the energy 𝑊 is in

Joules.

The electric field stores energy in a capacitor 44

Capacitors in ac Circuits
• A capacitor blocks dc.
• A capacitor passes ac but with an amount of opposition, called capacitive
reactance, that depends on the frequency of the ac.
• Instantaneous current, 𝑖, is the instantaneous rate of change of charge, 𝑞, with
respect to time, 𝑡.
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
• In terms of instantaneous quantities 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣
• Hence,

𝑑𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• The instantaneous capacitor current is equal to the capacitance times the

instantaneous rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor.

45
Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage in a Capacitor

• Consider what happens when a sinusoidal voltage is applied across a capacitor,

as shown in Figure (a).
• The voltage waveform has a maximum rate of change 𝑑𝑣Τ𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the
zero crossings and a zero rate of change 𝑑𝑣Τ𝑑𝑡 = 0 at the peaks, as indicated
in Figure (b).

A sine wave applied to a capacitor

46
Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage in a Capacitor

• The phase relationship between the current and the

voltage for the capacitor can be established from

𝑑𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• When 𝑑𝑣 Τ𝑑𝑡 = 0 , 𝑖 is also zero because 𝑖 = 𝐶 0 .

• When 𝑑𝑣 Τ𝑑𝑡 is a positive-going maximum, 𝑖 is a

positive maximum.

• When 𝑑𝑣 Τ𝑑𝑡 is a negative-going maximum, 𝑖 is a

negative maximum.

• Current always leads the capacitor voltage by 𝟗𝟎°.

Phase relation of 𝑉𝐶 and 𝐼𝐶 in a capacitor

47
Capacitive Reactance, 𝑿𝑪
• Capacitive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal current, expressed in ohms.
• When frequency increases:

• If 𝑑𝑣Τ𝑑𝑡 is constant and 𝐶 is varied:

The higher frequency waveform (𝐴) has a greater slope at its

• Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 is: zero crossings, corresponding to a higher rate of change.

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝜔𝐶
• Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 is in Ohms when 𝑓 is in Hertz and 𝐶 is in Farads.

48
Ohm’s Law
• The reactance of a capacitor is analogous to the resistance of a resistor.
• Both are expressed in Ohms.
• Both 𝑅 and 𝑋𝐶 are forms of opposition to current.
• Ohm’s law applies to capacitive circuits as well as to resistive circuits; and it is
stated as follows for the Figure:
𝑉𝑠
𝐼=
𝑋𝐶

• When applying Ohm’s law in ac circuits, you must express both the current and
the voltage in the same way, that is, both in 𝑟𝑚𝑠, both in peak.

49
Example 1
Determine the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 current in the Figure.

50
Example 1 - Solution
• First, determine the capacitive reactance:

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 2.84 kΩ
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 10 × 103 Hz 0.0056 × 10−6 F

• Then apply Ohm’s law:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 5V
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 1.76 mA
𝑋𝐶 2.84 kΩ

51
Summary
• A capacitor is composed of two parallel conducting plates
separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.

• Energy is stored by a capacitor in the electric field between the

plates.

• A capacitor blocks constant dc – CIRCUIT BASICS LAB

• Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 , is inversely proportional to frequency

and capacitance.

• Current leads voltage by 90° in a capacitor - – CIRCUIT BASICS LAB

52
 Electrical Engineering 1
(UK: 04-28604, Dubai: 04-30326)

Lecture 4
Inductors
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the basic construction and characteristics of an
inductor

• Discuss various types of inductors

• Analyse inductive ac circuits

54
Inductor
• An inductor is a passive electrical component
formed by a coil of wire and which exhibits the
property of inductance.

• Current through the coil produces an magnetic

field. Interaction of magnetic lines of force in two
adjacent loops of a coil.

• The net direction of the total magnetic field

creates a north and a south pole.

A coil of wire forms an inductor.

Symbol for inductor

55
Inductance
• When there is current through an inductor, a magnetic field is established.

• When the current changes, the magnetic field also changes.

• A changing current produces a changing magnetic field around the inductor.

• The changing magnetic field causes an induced voltage across the coil in a
direction to oppose the change in current.

• This property is called self-inductance but is usually referred to as simply

inductance, symbolized by 𝐿.

56
Inductance
• Inductance is a measure of a coil’s ability to establish an induced voltage as a
result of a change in its current, and that induced voltage is in a direction to
oppose the change in current.

• The Unit of Inductance is Henry (H).

• The Henry is a large unit, so in practical applications, millihenries (𝑚H) and

microhenries (𝜇H) are the more common units.

57
Inductance
𝑑𝑖
• The inductance (𝐿) of a coil and the time rate of change of the current 𝑑𝑡
determine the induced voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 .

𝑑𝑖
• The induced voltage is directly proportional to 𝐿 and , as stated by the
𝑑𝑡
following formula:

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡

• This formula indicates that the greater the inductance, the greater the induced
voltage.

𝑑𝑖
• The faster the coil current changes (greater 𝑑𝑡), the greater the induced voltage.

58
Example 1
Determine the induced voltage across a 1 henry (1 H) inductor when the current is
changing at a rate of 2 A/s.

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 =𝐿 = 1 H 2 A/s = 𝟐 𝐕
𝑑𝑡

59
Energy Storage
• An inductor stores energy in the magnetic field created by the current.

• The energy stored is expressed as follows:

1 2
𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼
2

• The energy stored is proportional to the inductance and the square of the
current.

where current (𝐼) is in Amperes and inductance (𝐿) is in Henries, energy (𝑊) is in
Joules

60
Winding Resistance
• When a coil is made of a certain material, for example, insulated copper wire,
that wire has a certain resistance per unit of length.

• This inherent resistance is called the dc resistance or the winding resistance

𝑅𝑤 .

• In many applications, the winding resistance may be small enough to be ignored

and the coil can be considered an ideal inductor.

• In other cases, the resistance must be considered.

Winding resistance of a coil 61

Winding Resistance
• Inductors are made in a variety of shapes
and sizes.

• They fall into two general categories: fixed

and variable, see the Figure. Symbols for fixed and variable inductors.

• Both fixed and variable inductors can be

classified according to the type of core
material.

• Three common types are the air core, the

iron core, and the ferrite core, see the
Inductor symbols
Figure.

62
Winding Resistance
• A wide variety of inductors exist, and some are shown in the figure.
• Small fixed inductors are frequently encapsulated in an insulating material that
protects the fine wire in the coil.
• Encapsulated inductors have an appearance similar to a resistor.

Typical inductors

63
Inductors in ac Circuits
• An inductor passes ac with an amount of opposition called inductive reactance
that depends on the frequency of the ac.

• The expression for induced voltage in an inductor is:

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡

64
Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage in an Inductor

• If the rate of change of current is zero, the

voltage is zero
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖Τ𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 0 = 0 V .

• When 𝑑𝑖Τ𝑑𝑡 is a positive going zero crossing,

𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 is a positive maximum.

• When 𝑑𝑖Τ𝑑𝑡 is a negative-going zero

crossing, 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑 is a negative maximum.
A sinusoidal current always induces a sinusoidal
voltage in inductive circuits.

• This phase relationship is shown in figure (a).

• The voltage leads the current by 90°.

Phase relation of 𝑉𝐿 and 𝐼𝐿 in an inductor.

65
Inductive Reactance, 𝑿𝑳
• Inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 is the opposition to sinusoidal current in ohms.
• When frequency increases:

• If 𝑑𝑖Τ𝑑𝑡 is constant and 𝐿 is varied:

Slope indicates rate of change

• Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 is:

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
• Where inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 , is in ohms when 𝑓 is in hertz and 𝐿 is in henries.

66
Ohm’s Law
• The reactance of an inductor is analogous to the resistance of a resistor.
• 𝑋𝐿 , just like 𝑋𝐶 and 𝑅, is expressed in ohms.
• Since inductive reactance is a form of opposition to current, Ohm’s law applies
to inductive circuits as well as to resistive circuits and capacitive circuits; and it is
stated as follows:
𝑉𝑠
𝐼=
𝑋𝐿

• When applying Ohm’s law in ac circuits, you must express both the current and
the voltage in the same way, that is, both in 𝑟𝑚𝑠, both in peak.

67
Example 2
• Determine the rms current in Figure.

68
Example 2 – Solution
• Convert 10 kHz to 10 × 103 Hz and 100 mH to 100 × 10−3 H
• Calculate 𝑋𝐿

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 10 × 103 Hz 100 × 10−3 H = 6283 Ω

• Apply Ohm’s Law to determine the rms current:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 5V
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 796 𝜇A
𝑋𝐿 6283 Ω

69
Summary
• Inductance is a measure of a coil’s ability to establish an induced
voltage as a result of a change in its current.

• An inductor opposes a change in the current passing through it.

• The amount of induced voltage is directly proportional to the

inductance and to the rate of change in current.

• Energy is stored by an inductor in its magnetic field.

• Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 , is directly proportional to frequency and

inductance.

70
 Electrical Engineering 1
(UK: 04-28604, Dubai: 04-30326)

Lecture 5
Combinations of Resistors and Capacitors
Learning Outcomes
• Use complex numbers to express phasor quantities

• Describe the relationship between current and voltage in a

series RC circuit

• Determine the impedance of a series RC circuit

• Analyse a series RC circuit

72
The Complex Number System
• In the complex plane, the horizontal axis is called the real axis, and the vertical axis is called the
imaginary axis.
• In electrical circuit work, a ±𝑗 prefix is used to designate numbers that lie on the imaginary axis.
• The positive real axis represents zero degrees.
• The +𝑗 axis represents 90°.
• The negative real axis represents 180°
• The −𝑗 axis is the 270° point, and, after a full rotation of 360° you are back to the positive real axis.
• The plane is divided into four quadrants.

The complex plane Angles on the complex plane

73
The Complex Number System
• A phasor quantity is represented in rectangular
form by the algebraic sum of the real value (𝐴)
of the coordinate and the 𝑗 value (𝐵) of the
coordinate as follows:

𝐴 ± 𝑗𝐵

Examples of phasors specified by

• Phasor quantities can also be expressed in rectangular coordinates
polar form, which consists of the phasor
magnitude (𝐶) and the angular position relative
to the positive real axis 𝜃 as follows:

𝐶∠ ± 𝜃

Examples of phasors specified by polar values

74
Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form
• The magnitude of the phasor is

𝐶= 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
• The angular position, 𝜃 for parts (a) and (d) is

±𝐵
𝜃= tan−1
𝐴
• The angular position, 𝜃 for parts (b) and (c) is

𝐵
𝜃 = ±180° ∓ tan−1
𝐴
• The general formula is

±𝐴 ± 𝑗𝐵 = 𝐶∠ ± 𝜃

75
Conversion from Polar to Rectangular Form
• To get the rectangular form, you must find
sides 𝐴 and 𝐵 of the triangle, using the rules
from trigonometry stated below:

𝐴 = 𝐶 cos 𝜃

𝐵 = 𝐶 sin 𝜃

• The polar to triangular formula is

𝐶∠𝜃 = 𝐴 + 𝑗𝐵 Polar components of a phasor

76
Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• Impedance is the total opposition to sinusoidal current.
• Impedance unit is the ohm.
• The impedance of a series RC circuit consists of resistance and capacitive
reactance.
• It causes a phase difference between the total current and the source voltage.
• The impedance consists of a magnitude component and a phase angle
component.

Illustration of sinusoidal response with general phase relationships of

VR, VC, and I relative to the source voltage.
VR and I are in phase while VR and VC are 90 out of phase.

77
Phasor Diagram of Series RC Circuits

I I
VR
VR VR

VC

VC VC V
V

78
Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• In a purely resistive circuit, the impedance is simply equal to the total
resistance.
• In a purely capacitive circuit, the impedance is equal to the total capacitive
reactance.
• The impedance of a series RC circuit is determined by both the resistance and
the capacitive reactance.
• The magnitude of the impedance is symbolized by 𝑍.

Three cases of impedance

79
Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• Capacitive impedance is a phasor quantity and is expressed as a complex
number in rectangular form as

−𝑗 1
𝒁𝑪 = −𝑗𝑋𝐶 = =
𝜔𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶

• where boldface 𝒁𝑪 designates a phasor quantity (representing both magnitude

and angle) and 𝑋𝐶 is just the magnitude.

80
Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• In the series RC circuit as shown in the Figure, the total impedance is the phasor
sum of R and −𝑗𝑋𝐶 and is expressed as

1 𝑗𝜔𝐶 + 1 𝜔𝐶𝑅 − 𝑗
𝒁 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅 + = =
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶

Impedance in a series RC circuit.

81
Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• 𝑅 and 𝑋𝐶 in the diagram of Figure (a), with 𝑋𝐶 appearing at a −90° angle with
respect to 𝑅.
• This relationship comes from the fact that the capacitor voltage in a series 𝑅𝐶
circuit lags the current, and thus the resistor voltage, by 90°.
• Since 𝒁 is the sum of 𝑅 and −𝑗𝑋𝐶 its representation is as shown in Figure (b).
• A repositioning, as shown in part (c), forms a right triangle called the impedance
triangle.
• The angle 𝜃 is the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current.

Development of the impedance triangle for a series RC circuit 82

Impedance of Series RC Circuits
• From right-angle trigonometry (Pythagorean theorem), the magnitude (length)
of the impedance can be expressed in terms of the resistance and reactance as

𝜔 2 𝐶 2 𝑅2 + 1
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 =
𝜔𝐶

• The phase angle, 𝜃 is expressed as

𝑋𝐶 −1
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅

• The phasor expression for impedance in polar form is

𝑋𝐶
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ∠ −tan−1
𝑅

83
Ohm’s Law
• The application of Ohm’s law to series 𝑅𝐶 circuits involves the use of the phasor
quantities of 𝑍, 𝑉, and 𝐼.
• For phasor quantities both magnitude and angle are included.
• The three equivalent forms of Ohm’s law are as follows:

𝑽 = 𝑰𝒁

𝑽
𝑰=
𝒁

𝑽
𝒁=
𝑰

• Multiplication and division are most easily accomplished with the polar forms.

84
Example 1
The current in the Figure is expressed in polar form as 𝐈 = 0.2 ∠0°.
Determine the source voltage expressed in polar form, and draw a phasor diagram
showing the relation between source voltage and current.

85
Example 1 – Solution
• The capacitive reactance is

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 15.9 kΩ
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 1000 Hz 0.01 𝜇F

• The total impedance in rectangular form is

𝒁 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 10 kΩ − 𝑗15.9 kΩ

• Converting to polar form yields

𝑋𝐶 15.9 kΩ
𝒁= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 = 10 kΩ 2 + 15.9 kΩ 2∠ − tan−1
𝑅 10 kΩ
= 18.8∠ − 57.8° kΩ

86
Example 1 – Solution
• Use Ohm’s Law to determine the source voltage:

𝑽𝐬 = 𝑰𝒁 = 0.2∠0° mA 18.8∠ − 57.8° kΩ = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟔∠ − 𝟓𝟕. 𝟖° 𝐕

• The magnitude of the source voltage is 3.76 V at an angle of −57.8° with

respect to the current.

• The voltage lags the current by −57.8° as shown in the phasor diagram.

87
Example 2
For the series RC circuit in the figure below, determine the magnitude of the total
impedance and the phase angle for each of the following values of input
frequency:
a) 10 KHz
b) 20 KHz
c) 30 KHz

88
Example 2 – Solution
• For 𝑓 = 10 KHz

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 1.59 kΩ
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 10 kHz 0.01 𝜇F

• The total impedance in rectangular form is

𝒁 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 1 kΩ − 𝑗1.59 kΩ

• Converting to polar form yields

𝑋𝐶 1.59 kΩ
𝒁= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 = 1 kΩ 2 + 1.59 kΩ 2∠ − tan−1
𝑅 1 kΩ

= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 kΩ∠ − 𝟓𝟕. 𝟖°

89
Example 2 – Solution
• For 𝑓 = 20 KHz

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 796 Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 20 kHz 0.01 𝜇F

• The total impedance in rectangular form is

𝒁 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 1000 Ω − 𝑗796 Ω

• Converting to polar form yields

𝑋𝐶 796 Ω
𝒁= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 = 1000 Ω 2 + 796 Ω 2∠ − tan−1
𝑅 1000 Ω

= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 kΩ∠ − 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓°

90
Example 2 – Solution
• For 𝑓 = 30 KHz

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = 531 Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 30 kHz 0.01 𝜇F

• The total impedance in rectangular form is

𝒁 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 1000 Ω − 𝑗531 Ω

• Converting to polar form yields

𝑋𝐶 531 Ω
𝒁= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 = 1000 Ω 2 + 531Ω 2∠ − tan−1
𝑅 1000 Ω

= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 kΩ∠ − 𝟐𝟖°

91
Example 2 – Solution
• For 𝑓 = 10 KHz

𝒁 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 kΩ∠ − 𝟓𝟕. 𝟖°

• For 𝑓 = 20 KHz

𝒁 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 kΩ∠ − 𝟑𝟖. 𝟓°

• For 𝑓 = 30 KHz

𝒁 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 kΩ∠ − 𝟐𝟖°

92
Combinations
• Lots of chance to practice in the examples for the week
• Kirchoff’s laws work with phasors and therefore combinations work

1 1 1 1
𝒁𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝒁1 + 𝒁2 + 𝒁3 = + +
𝒁𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝒁1 𝒁2 𝒁3

• Just as we have conductance, we also have admittance

1
𝒀=
𝒁

• This can make the complex number algebra easier, sometimes

1 1 1 1
= + + 𝒀𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝒀1 + 𝒀2 + 𝒀3
𝒀𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝒀1 𝒀2 𝒀3

93
Phase Relationships of Current and Voltages
• In a series 𝑅𝐶 circuit, the current is the same through both the resistor and the
capacitor.

• The resistor voltage is in phase with the current, and the capacitor voltage lags
the current by 90°.

• There is a phase difference of 90° between the resistor voltage, 𝑉𝑅 , and the
capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝐶 , as shown in the waveform diagram.

Phase relation of voltages and current in a series RC circuit

94
Phase Relationships of Current and Voltages
• From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the
applied voltage.
• Since 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶 are not in phase with each other, they must be added as phasor
quantities, with 𝑉𝐶 lagging 𝑉𝑅 by 90° as shown in Figure (a).
• 𝑉𝑠 is the phasor sum of 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶
𝑽𝐬 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑗𝑉𝐶
• This equation can be expressed in polar form as
𝑉𝐶
𝑽𝐬 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 𝑉𝑅

• The magnitude of the source voltage is

Voltage phasor diagram for a series RC circuit
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2

• The phase angle between the resistor voltage and the source voltage is

𝑉𝐶
θ = −tan−1
𝑉𝑅
95
Phase Relationships of Current and Voltages
• Since the resistor voltage and the current are in phase, 𝜃 also represents the
phase angle between the source voltage and the current.

• Figure below shows a complete voltage and current phasor diagram that
represents the waveform diagram.

Voltage and current phasor diagram for the

Phase relation of voltages and current in a series RC circuit. waveforms.

96
Summary
• A complex number represents a phasor quantity.
• The rectangular form of a complex number consists of a real part
and a j part of the form 𝐴 + 𝑗𝐵
• The polar form of a complex number consists of a magnitude and
an angle of the form 𝐶∠ ± 𝜃
• When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an RC circuit, the current
and all the voltage drops are also sine waves.
• The resistor voltage is always in phase with the current.
• In an RC circuit, the impedance is determined by both the
resistance and the capacitive reactance combined.
• The magnitude of the impedance of a circuit can be determined
by measuring the applied voltage and the total current and then
applying Ohm’s law.

97