0|P a g e Chemistry Notes

Chemistry Notes
Science Double Award
4-5

L. Kelaotswe BGCSE

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TOPICS
1 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES, APPARATUS, METHODS OF COLLECTION OF
GASES

2 MATTER

3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

4 CHEMICAL BONDING

5 PERIODIC TABLE

6 CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

7 THE MOLE; CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS, QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

9 ENERGY CHANGES

10 RATE OF REACTIONS

11 CARBON CHEMISTRY

12 REDOX REACTIONS

13 ELECTROLYSIS

14 METALS

15 NON - METALS; CHLORINE, NITROGEN, CARBON & CARBONATES

16 CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT; WATER, AIR, RECYCLING, SOURCES OF

ENERGY

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APPARATUS COMMONLY USED IN A CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

Preparing gases in the lab

You might have to prepare a gas in the lab, one day. The usual way to make a gas is to displace it from a solid or
solution, using apparatus like this.
The table below gives some examples.

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A. METHODS OF COLLECTING GASES

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DRYING GASES

B. SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

1. Separating immiscible liquids

2. Simple Distillation
This is a way to obtain the solvent from a solution.
It could be used to obtain water from salt water, for example. Like this:
1 Heat the solution in the flask. As it boils, water vapour rises into the condenser, leaving salt behind.
2 The condenser is cold, so the vapour condenses to

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water in it.
3 The water drips into the beaker. It is called distilled water. It is almost pure.

3. Fractional Distillation
This is used to separate a mixture of liquids from each other.
It makes use of their different boiling points. You could use it to separate a mixture of ethanol and water, for
example.
These are the steps:
1 Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78 °C, the ethanol begins to boil. Some water evaporates too. So a
mixture of ethanol and water vapours rises up the column.
2 The vapours condense on the glass beads in the column, making them hot.
3 When the beads reach about 78 °C, ethanol vapour no longer condenses on them. Only the water vapour
does. So water drips back into the flask. The ethanol vapour goes into the condenser.
4 There it condenses. Pure liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
5 Eventually, the thermometer reading rises above 78 °C – a sign that all the ethanol has gone. So you can
stop heating.

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4. Evapouration
You can obtain many solids from their solutions by letting crystals form.
The process is called crystallisation. It works because soluble solids tend
to be less soluble at lower temperatures.

5. Paper chromatography

This method can be used to separate a mixture of substances.

For example, you could use it to find out how many different dyes there are in black ink:

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The dyes in the ink have different solubilities in water. So they travel across the paper at different rates. (The most soluble
one travels fastest.) That is why they separate into rings. The filter paper with the coloured
rings is called a chromatogram. (Chroma means colour.)
Paper chromotography can also be used to identify substances. For example, mixture X is thought to contain substances A,
B, C, and D, which are all soluble in propanone.

Note that you must use a pencil to draw the line on the chromatography paper. If you use a biro or felt-tipped pen,
the ink will run.

LOCATING AGENTS are used in this process. When the substance is analysed, the substances appear colourless on
the chromatogram. Then locating agent then form a coloured compound with the colourless amino acid when it is
sprayed onto the chromatogram to identify them.
An example of a locating agent used is NINHYDRIN, and is used in detecting the presence of amino acids e.g. in
forensic science
Rf – [Retention Factor] given by the following equation

distance moved by the subtance

Rf = distance moved by the solvent

6. Filtration
For example, chalk is insoluble in water. So it is easy to separate by filtering.
The chalk is trapped in the filter paper, while the water passes through.
The trapped solid is called the residue. The water is the filtrate.

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HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES
- They have the same uniform appearance and composition throughout
- They are commonly referred to as solutions

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- They consist of a single phase

- Examples; bitumen/petroleum/crude oil, sugar solution, alloys, air
HETEROGEOUS MIXTURE
- They are made of visibly different substances, different phases
- The three phases are namely solids, liquids and gases
- They are visibly obvious to the naked eye
- Examples; sand + water, chicken soup, salad, oil + water, etc

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

- Matter is made up of tiny, invisible particles, and these particles are called ATOMS. These particles possess kinetic
energy and they are arranged differently according to their states
- An increase in temperature causes an increase in the kinetic energy of individual particles. The kinetic energy is in
the form of
i. vibrational, rotational and translational motion for gases and liquids
ii. rotational and vibrational for solids
- There are three states of matter namely SOLIDS, LIQUIDS and GASES

1. Solid

 The particles in a solid are arranged in a fixed pattern or lattice.

 Strong forces hold them together. So they cannot leave their positions.
 The only movements they make are tiny vibrations to and fro.
 Solids have a definite shape and volume e.g. ice

2. Liquids

 The particles in a liquid can move about and slide past each other.
 They are still close together, but not in a lattice.
 The forces that hold them together are weaker than in a solid.

3. Gases

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 The particles in a gas are far apart, and they move about very quickly.
 There are almost no forces holding them together.
 They collide with each other and bounce off in all directions.

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

The kinetic particle theory

 Look at the key ideas you have met:
 A substance can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas, and change from one state to another.
 It has different characteristics in each state. (For example, solids do not flow.)
 The differences are due to the way its particles are arranged, and move, in each state.
 Together, these ideas make up the kinetic particle theory.

(Kinetic means about motion.)

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CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER

a. Melting
o when a solid is warmed, the particles gain energy, and their kinetic energy increases. They vibrate and rotate
faster, overcoming the strong forces, the particles then become mobile
o the temperature at which this occurs is called MELTING POINT

b. Sublimation
o in some cases, the solid particles when warmed, will turn into gaseous state without passing through the liquid state
o this is known as SUBLIMATION. Iodine is an example of a solid which sublimes

c. Evapouration
o when a liquid is heated, the kinetic energy of the particles increases and the particles move faster until they escape
the surface going into a gaseous state. This is called EVAPOURATION

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d. Boiling
If more heat is applied, the liquid will eventually form bubbles which will rise to the surface. This is known as
BOILING and the temperature at which this happens is known as the boiling point
e. Condensing and solidifying
o when a gas is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy, start to move slowly, and when they hit against each other,
they do not have enough energy to bounce away
o they stay close to each other forming a liquid – CONDENSATION
o when a liquid is further cooled, the particles slow down more eventually stooping, leaving tiny vibrations, solid
forms - FREEZING

Water: solid, liquid and gas

Water can be a solid (ice), a liquid (water), and a gas (water vapour or steam). Its state can be changed by
heating or cooling:

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Other things can change state too

 It’s not just water! Nearly all substances can exist as solid, liquid and gas.
 Even iron and diamond can melt and boil! Some melting and boiling points are given below. Look how different
they are.

DIAGRAM SHOWING CHANGES OF ATATES OF MATTER

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DIFFUSION
This is the process by which particles of a substance will move randomly from a region of high concentration to a
region of its low concentration until equilibrium is attained

Example
Placing a crystal of potassium permanganate in a beaker with water, the colour will spread because particles
break away from the crystal, mixing through water
The random movement of particles in a liquid is caused by small particles of water, known as the BROWNIAN
MOTION

DIFFUSION OF GASES

1. The apparatus is set as shown in the diagram

2. A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated aqueous ammonia (NH3) and placed on one end of the tube, on
the other end is concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl)
3. The apparatus is left undisturbed for some time
4. A dense white fume forms near the HCl

Ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas → ammonium chloride

NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)

Explanation
- particles of ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas have diffused from the cotton wool
- the smoke forms near hydrogen chloride, showing ammonia moves more than hydrogen chloride
- THE LOWER THE RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS OF THE GAS PARTICLES, THE FASTER THE GAS DIFFUSES
- That makes sense when you think about it. When particles collide and bounce away, the lighter particles will bounce
further.
- The particles in the two gases above are molecules. The mass of a molecule is called its relative molecular mass.
So we can also say:
- The lower its relative molecular mass, the faster a gas will diffuse.

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The temperature
- When a gas is heated, its particles take in heat energy, and move faster.
- They collide with more energy, and bounce further away. So the gas diffuses faster. The higher the temperature,
the faster a gas will diffuse.

Calculating the relative formula mass (RFM)

NH3 HCl NH4Cl

N – 14 X 1 H–1 X 1 N – 14 x 1
H–1 X3 Cl - 35.5 X 1 H- 4 x 1
= 17 = 36.1 Cl - 35.5 x 1
= 53.5

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ATOM
This is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element which can exist on its own, which can also undergo a chemical
change.
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter, that we cannot break
down further by chemical means.

o The atom is SHERICAL, the centre is solid and is called the NUCLEUS and contains protons and neutrons
o Around the nucleus are the electrons, which are always in constant motion, in shells
Their masses (protons, neutrons and electrons) are measured in atomic mass unit (AMU)

Particle mass charge Symbol location

Proton p+
Neutron no
Electron e-

Atomic (proton) number – Z

 A sodium atom has 11 protons. This can be used to identify it, since only a sodium atom has 11 protons.
 Every other atom has a different number.

You can identify an atom by the number of protons in it.

 The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number.

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 The proton number of sodium is 11.

How many electrons?

 The sodium atom also has 11 electrons.
 So it has an equal number of protons and electrons. The same is true for every sort of atom:
 Every atom has an equal number of protons and electrons.
 So atoms have no overall charge.

The charge on a sodium atom:

11 protons
Each has a charge of +1
Total charge +11
11 electrons
Each has a charge of -1
Total charge -11
Adding the charges:
+11 – 11 = 0
The answer is zero.
The atom has no overall charge.
Mass (nucleon) number – A
Protons and neutrons form the nucleus, so are called nucleons.
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called
its nucleon number.
The nucleon number for the sodium atom is 23. (11 + 12 = 23)
So sodium can be described in a short way like this: 2 3 11 Na.
The lower number is always the proton number. The other number is the
nucleon number. So you can tell straight away that sodium atoms have
12 neutrons. (23 – 11 = 12) Note
Since they make up the atom, protons, neutrons and electrons are often called sub-atomic particles.

ELEMENTS
- An element is the substance made of only one kind of atom, and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
any chemical means
Elements have names and symbols
Sodium, Na Gold, Au Sulphur, S
Nitrogen, N Oxygen, O Silver, Ag
Hydrogen, H Calcium, Ca Copper, Cu
Patterns in the Periodic Table
 The period number tells you how many shells there are.
 All the elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their outer shells. So Group I elements have 1,
Group II have 2, and so on.

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 These outer-shell electrons are also called the valency electrons.

 The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell electrons, except for Group 0.
 The valency electrons dictate how an element reacts.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
They all mean the same …
The terms
 electron arrangement
 electron distribution
 electronic configuration
 all mean the same thing: how the electrons are arranged in shells.

- electrons are drawn in the electron shells, and are represented by a cross or dot
- the first shell can accommodate a maximum of two electrons, the second shell holding a maximum of 8 and the third
shell also 8. The last shell can accommodate a maximum of 8

Formula no. of electrons in shells = 2n2 ; where n = shell no.

example : Sodium 2, 8, 1

Electronic configuration of the first 20 elements

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COMPOUNDS

- This is the substance made up of two or more elements CHEMICALLY combined together
The smallest particle of a compound is called a MOLECULE, and represented by a formula

Exercise
Complete the table below
Compounds Formula No. of elements No. of atoms
Calcium chloride
Ammonia
Hydrochloric acid
Copper (II) sulphate
Calcium iodide
Sulphuric acid
Ammonium chloride
Water
Silver nitrate
Sodium hydroxide
Carbon dioxide
Ethanol
Nitric acid
Oxygen

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

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Mixture Compound
1. Composition No fixed composition. The % of There is fixed composition. The % of each
certain substances in a mixture may element in a particular compound is always
not be the same the same
2. Properties Does not have its own set of Compound has its own set of properties, not
properties, e.g. salt and water, both those of elements individually
are pure and have their own
properties
3. Melting and boiling Not fixed at a fixed temperature Fixed at a constant temperature
points
4. Separation Can be physically separated by Cannot be physically separated by
physical means e.g. chromatography, physical means
filtration, distillation etc
5. Preparation No chemical reaction needed in Chemical reaction takes place when a
forming a mixture compound forms

ISOTOPES
These are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons BUT DIFFERENT NUMBER OF
NEUTRONS
OR
Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (nucleon number)
Selected isotopes of some common elements
Element Symbol Atomic Number - Z Mass Number - A % abundance
Hydrogen 1 H 1 1 99.985
Deuterium 2 H or D 1 2 0.015
Tritium 3 H or T 1 3 -
Carbon 12 12 C 6 12 98.90
Carbon 13 13 C 6 13 1.10
Chlorine 35 35 Cl 17 35 75
Chlorine 37 37 Cl 17 37 25
Neon 20 20 Ne 10 20 90
Neon 22 22 Ne 10 22 10

Calculating the relative atomic mass (Ar)

Average mass of isotopes of the element

𝐀𝐫 =
mass of 1 atom

Example 1
(75 x 35) + (37 x 25)
Chlorine = 100

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= 35.5

BONDING – Joining of atoms together to form a new compound/molecule or an element

 Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell electrons, like the
atoms of Group 0.
 In other words, they bond in order to gain 8 electrons in their outer shell (or 2, if they have only one
shell).
These are three types of bonds
o ionic bonding
o covalent bonding
o metallic bonding

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A. IONIC/ELECTROVALENT BONDING
This type of bond is formed as a result of electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged particles;
one atom loses an electron becoming positively charged, the other one becoming negatively charged, after gaining
these electrons.

ION
o An atom becomes an ion when it loses or gains electrons.
o An ion is a charged particle.
o It is charged because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons.
o all atoms except group VIII can form ions

Metals lose valence electrons (outershell electrons) to form positive ions (cations) hence becoming stable e.g.
The charge on a sodium ion
charge on 11 protons + 11
charge on 10 electrons - 10
total charge -1

Non – metals gain electrons lost by metals to form negative ions, hence becoming negatively charged, hence
archiving stable configuration e.g.
A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. It can reach 8 electrons
by accepting 1 electron from another atom. It becomes a chloride ion:

The chloride ion has a charge of -1, so it is a negative ion. Its symbol is Cl-
How do ions form? (In drawing the nucleus, it must be labeled with a symbol)

Elements in Period 3

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Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

configuration 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Ions formed Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Si2- Cl- -

configuration 2, 8 2, 8 2,8 - - 2,8,8 2,8,8 2,8,8

Interpretation
o Metals at the beginning of the period lose outer electrons to attain duplet/octet no. of outer electrons
(noble gas configuration)
o Non metals at the end of the period gain electrons to form ions
o Elements in the middle do not usually form ions (Si and P)
o Group 8 elements do not form ions

FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

o Metals and non metals will form ions independently
An ionic bond thus exist, forming a new compound (a rigid solid shape called a crystal lattice)
o A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound.
o The metal atoms lose electrons. The non-metal atoms gain them.
o The ions form a lattice. The compound has no overall charge.
o The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other. The force of attraction between them is strong.
It is called an ionic bond.
o The ionic bond is the bond that forms between ions of opposite charge.

Bonding diagrams
To show the bonding clearly:
 use dots and crosses (o, •, and ×) for electrons from atoms of different elements
 write the symbol for the element in the centre of each atom.

Since it is made of ions, sodium chloride is called an ionic compound.

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It contains one Na+ ion for each Cl- ion, so its formula is NaCl.
The charges in the structure add up to zero: the charge on each sodium ion is +1
the charge on each chloride ion is -1
total charge 0
So the compound has no overall charge.
Magnesium oxide

Magnesium chloride

Ions of the first twenty elements

Note that:

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 Hydrogen and the metals lose electrons and form positive ions. The ions have the same names as the atoms.
 Non-metals form negative ions, with names ending in -ide.
 The elements in Groups IV and V do not usually form ions, because their atoms would have to gain or lose
several electrons, and that takes too much energy.
 Group 0 elements do not form ions: their atoms already have stable outer shells, so do not need to gain or lose
electrons.

Exercise
Show how the following ionic compounds are formed
1. Sodium nitride 5. Magnesium nitride

2. Aluminum oxide 6. Lithium oxide

3. Magnesium oxide 7. Beryllium fluoride

4. Calcium chloride 8. Sodium sulphide/phosphide

Physical properties of Ionic Compounds

Physical Properties Explanation in terms of their structure and bonding
[Link] are usually crystalline - Ions are arranged in a regular fashion with strong electrostatic
force of attraction between ions
2. Have high melting and boiling points -The electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged
ions is very strong hence large amount energy is needed to
separate them
3. Cannot conduct electricity when solid - In the solid structure the ions are held in fixed positions [but in
but do so in molten/aqueous solution molten/aqueous solution the ions are mobile

4. Most ionic compounds are soluble in - Water molecules are polar and are attracted to the charged ions
water in the ionic compounds

B. COVALENT BONDING
This is the type of bonding involving non-metals sharing valency electrons to attain stability of the noble gas
configuration
- Electrons are not transferred, but shared, hence there are no charges
o one pair of shared electrons form single covalent bond
o two pairs of shared electrons form double covalent bond

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o three pairs of shared electrons form triple covalent bond

FORMATION OF COVALENT MOLECULES

a. Hydrogen molecule

Exercise
Draw the molecules of the following, showing all the shells

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i. carbon dioxide vi. sulphur difluoride SF2

ii. hydrogen chloride vii. phosphorus trihydride PH3

iii. ethane C2H6 viii. Tetrafluoromethane CF4

iv. ethene C2H4 ix. Water H2O

v. methanol C2H5OH x Ammonia NH3

Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds

Physical Properties Explanation in terms of their structure and bonding

1. Have low melting and boiling points - The inter molecular forces of attraction are very weak between
molecules, hence very little energy required to break them
2. Cannot conduct electricity in an state - No mobile ions a covalent compound
3. They are soluble in organic solvents, - They are not readily hydrated by water molecules
not in water

STRUCTURES
A. GIANT IONIC STRUCTURES

Crystal Lattice
- Consist of at least two different types of ions held together in a 3-d arrangement

- Ions are packed together, held together by strong attractions of oppositely charged ions

Example: sodium chloride structure

B. COVALENT STRUCTURES

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- Compounds with covalent bonds have molecules which can either be classified as simple molecular or giant
molecular

i. Simple molecular structures – are simple and are formed from few atoms e.g. iodine, water, methane, ethanol
- have strong covalent bonds between atoms, within the same molecule also known as intra molecular bonds
- weak bonds between molecules known as van-der Waal’s bond or inter molecular bonds

ii. MACROMOLECULES or Giant molecules

– contain hundreds of thousands of atoms joined by strong covalent bonds e.g. diamond, graphite
 Like diamond, graphite is made only of carbon atoms. So diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon –
two forms of the same element.
 Diamond is the hardest solid on Earth. But graphite is one of the softest!
 This difference is a result of their very different structures:

DIAMOND
Diamond is made of carbon atoms, held in a strong lattice:

 A carbon atom forms covalent bonds to four others, as shown above.

 Each outer atom then bonds to three more, and so on.

Diamond has these properties:

1 It is very hard, because each atom is held in place by four strong covalent bonds. In fact it is the hardest
substance on Earth.
2 For the same reason it has a very high melting point, 3550 8C.
3 It can’t conduct electricity

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GRAPHITE
 In graphite, each carbon atom forms covalent bonds to three others. This gives rings of six atoms.
 The rings form flat sheets that lie on top of each other, held together by weak forces.

Graphite has these properties:

1 Unlike diamond, it is soft and slippery. That is because the sheets can slide over each other easily.
2 Unlike diamond, it is a good conductor of electricity. That is because each carbon atom has four outer electrons,
but forms only three bonds. So the fourth electron is free to move through the graphite, carrying charge.

SILICON (IV) OXIDE / SILICON DIOXIDE / SILICA

 Each silicon atom bonds covalently to four oxygen atoms.
 And each oxygen atom bonds covalently to two silicon atoms.
 The result is a very hard substance with a melting point of 1710 OC.

b plastics such as polymers

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Questions

1. The boiling temperatures, Tb, of some Group IV and Group V hydrides are given below,
Compound CH4 SiH4 NH3
Tb 112 161 185
a. Name the type of forces which exist between CH4 molecules in liquid methane
b. Explain why the boiling temperature of PH3 is greater than that of CH4
c. Explain why the boiling temperature of NH3 is greater than that of PH3.
2. Elements W, X, Y, and Z have the following electronic structures:
W 2, 7
X 2, 8, 6
Y 2, 8, 8
Z 2, 8, 8, 2
Use W, X, Y, and Z as the symbols for elements in your answers
a. For each element state whether it is a metal or a non metal
b. Element X forms a compound with hydrogen, containing covalent bonds
i Draw the diagram showing electronic structure of a molecule of this compound, showing all the electrons

ii. Write the formula of this compound

c. Elements W and Z react together to form an ionic compound. Draw the electronic structure of this compound,
and give the formula of this compound

o It is an arrangement of elements according to their characteristics

o The periodic table consists of groups and periods

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The table above is called the Periodic Table.

 It gives the names and symbols for the elements.
 The column and row an element is in gives us lots of clues about it.

For example, look at the columns numbered I, II, III …

The elements in these form families or groups, with similar properties.
So if you know how one element in Group I behaves, for example, you
can make a good guess about the others.
 The rows are called periods.
 Look at the zig-zag line. It separates metals from non-metals, with the non-metals on the right of the line,
except for hydrogen. So there is a change from metal to non-metal, as you go across a period.

Group
o It is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table
o There are 8 main groups (ie excluding the transition elements)
o The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell electrons in the atoms, except for Group 0. In Group
I the atoms have one outershell electron, in Group II they have two, and so on.
o The outer-shell electrons are also called valency electrons. And they are very important: they dictate how an
element behaves.
o So all the elements in a group have similar reactions, because they have the same number of valency electrons.

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o The atoms of the Group 0 elements have a very stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells. This makes
them unreactive.

E.g. Group I : Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

Group VIII: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Groups are numbered using Roman numbers
Period
o It is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table
o There are 7 periods

e.g. Period 1 : H, He
Period 2 : Li. Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
Period 3 : Na, ------ Ar
The elements : Cerium(Ce) to Lutetium(Lu) and Thorium(Th) to Lawrencium(Lr) do not form separate periods.
The former fits between La and Hf
The latter continues from Ac
Relationship between group number and the number of electrons in the outermost shell
Consider:
Group I Group II Group VII
Li (2.1) Be (2, 2) F (2, 7)
Na (2, 8, 1) Mg (2, 8, 2) Cl (2, 8, 7)
K (2, 8, 8, 1) Ca (2, 8, 8, 2)
Observations
i. Elements in the same group contain the same number of electrons in the outermost shells (valence shells) of their
atoms
ii. The group number of an element is the same as the number of electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) of
the atom of the element
Group Number No. of electrons in outermost shell
I 1
II 2
III 3
IV 4
V 5
IIV 6
IIIV 8 (Except for helium)

Exercise
State the number of electrons in the outermost shells of the following elements:
(i) Ga (ii) Ba (iii) Xe (iv) Cs (v) Sn (vii) At (viii) Se
Relationship between period number and the number of electron shells in the atom of the element

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Consider:
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4
H (1) Li (2, 1) Na ( 2, 8, 1) K (2, 8, 8, 1)
He (2) Be (2, 2) Mg (2, 8, 2) Ca (2, 8, 8, 2)
Ne (2, 8) Ar (2, 8, 8)
Observations:
i. Elements in the same period contain the same number of electron shells in their atoms
ii. The period number in the same as the number of electron shells present in an atom of the element
Thus,
Period Number No of electron shells
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7

Exercise
State the number of electron shells in the atoms of the following;
(i) Mn (ii) Ag (iii) Ac (iv) At (v) Xe (vi) Cu (vii) O (viii) I

Metallic and Non – metallic character of elements

Metallic character
o Metallic elements usually have few electrons in the shells of their atoms e.g. Na (2, 8, 1), Mg (2,8,2), Al (2, 8, 3)
o They lose these few electrons to form stable positively charged ions e.g. Na+, Mg2+, Al3+

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Non-Metallic character
o Non-metallic elements usually have many electrons in the outermost shells of their atoms e.g. N (2,5), S (2, 8, 6),
Ar (2, 8, 8), F (2, 7)
o They gain (accept) electrons to form stable negatively charged ions E.g. N3-, S2-, F-

Exercise
(i) Use the periodic to find the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atoms of the following atoms (a) I
(b) Cs (c) As (d) Rn (e) Ga (f) Se (g) Sr (h) Si
(ii) Predict whether the elements in (i) are metals or non metals

Trend of metallic character of elements

o As we move across a period from the left to the right, the number of electrons in the outermost shells of the
atoms of the elements increases.
o Therefore the elements become less and less metallic across a period from left to right, and vice-versa.

Period 3
Element: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
No of outermost electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Metallic character most Decreasing metallic character least
Metallic metallic
(least no. valence e-) (most no. valence e-)

Trend of non-metallic character of elements

o as we move across a period from left to right the number of electrons in the outermost shells of the atoms
increases
o hence the elements become more and more non-metallic across a period from left to right, and vice versa

Period 3
Element: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
No of outermost electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Metallic character least increasing non metallic character most non
Non Metallic metallic

Electronegativity
The electronegativity of an element is the ability of the atoms of the element to accept electrons
o atoms of non-metallic elements usually gain (accept) electrons therefore non-metallic elements are said to be
electronegativity
o atoms of metallic elements usually do not accept electrons [ they lose electrons instead] Therefore metallic
elements are said not to be electronegative

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Trend of electronegativity of elements across a period

As we move across a period from left to right the elements become more and more non-metallic
Therefore the electronegativity of element increases as we move from left to right across a period and vice versa

Period 3
Element: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
No of outermost electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Metallic character least increasing non metallic character most non
Non Metallic metallic

Electronegativity: least increasing electronegativity most

Electronegativity electronegative

ATOMIC RADII - An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent atoms of the same element in a molecule.
Atomic radius decreases across a period because valence electrons are being added to the same energy level at
the same time the nucleus is increasing in protons. The increase in nuclear charge attracts the electrons more
strongly, pulling them closer to the nucleus.

GROUP 1 ELEMENTS
There are known as ALKALI metals

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Element Symbol Proton no. Electronic Confi.

Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium X
Caesium x
QUESTION
Explain why these elements are in group 1
STORAGE
These metals are stored under oil.
This is because when exposed to the air they quickly react with the oxygen of the air forming oxides
e.g.
4Na (s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (s)
Therefore they should not be in contact with air.

Properties of Alkali Metals

1. Hardness
Trend - These metals are generally soft since they can be cut with a knife. As we go down the group the metals
become less and less hard
2. Melting points and Boiling points
Since these metals are soft, they have low melting points
Trend – As we go down the group the melting points and boiling points of these metals decreases
3. Density
They generally have lower densities, with the first three (K, Na and Li) being less denser than water.
Trend – Their densities increase down the group

4. Reactions of the alkali metals with water

A small piece of lithium was placed in water in a large beaker or trough

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Observations

i. the piece of metal floats on the water surface

ii. effervescence takes place. The gas given off produces a pop sound when a burning splint is brought near it
iii. the piece dissolves giving a colourless solution which turns red litmus paper blue (or yellow universal indicator
paper)

Conclusions
Lithium reacts with water producing hydrogen gas and alkaline solution of lithium hydroxide
Li (s) + H2O (l)
Sodium reacts more vigorously, while potassium reacts most vigorously with water

Sodium hydroxide is an alkali, so the indicator changes colour.

The alkali metals react vigorously with water. Hydrogen bubbles off, leaving solutions of their hydroxides,
which are alkalis.
Complete the equations and balance them
Na(s) + H2O (s)
K (s) + H2O (s)

Trend of reactivity of alkali metals

The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases as you go down the group because:

 the atoms get larger

 the outer electron gets further from the nucleus
 the attraction between the nucleus and outer electron gets weaker – so the electron is more easily lost
 The more shells there are, the further the outer electron is from the positive nucleus – so the easier to
lose.
 And the easier it is to lose an electron, the more reactive the metal will be!

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As we go down the group these metals become more and more reactive
Thus Li least reactive
Na
K
Rb
Cs most reactive

 the more vigorously it reacts with other substances

 the more easily it loses electrons to form positive ions (cations)

GROUP VII ELEMENTS

They are known as HALOGENS
Complete the table
Element Symbol Proton no. Electronic Confi.
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine X
Iodine X
Astatine x

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Question
Explain why these elements belong to group VII
- Halogen elements exist as DIATOMIC Molecules i.e. the molecules consist of 2 atoms of the same element
covalently bonded together
Thus F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
- They cannot exist as single atoms since their atoms have unstable electron configurations
i.e. F: 2, 7
Cl: 2, 8, 7

Bonding in the molecules of halogens

Draw a dot and cross diagram to show bonding in the fluorine molecule; show only the electrons in the outermost
shell
Properties of the Halogens

Element Melting point (oC) Boiling Point (oC) State at r.t.p. Colour
(15oC)
Fluorine -220 -188 Gas Yellow /
Chlorine -101 -35 Gas colourless
Bromine -7 59 Liquid Greenish yellow
Iodine 114 184 Solid Brown
Astatine <114 <184 Solid Purplish/Black

1. Displacement Reactions
Consider the reaction:
AB + C B + AC
In this reaction B has been displaced by C
For this to be possible C must be more reactive than B
EXAMPLE : Reaction between chlorine gas and potassium iodide solution

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Chlorine gas bubbled through a colourless solution of potassium IODIDE

- The colourless solution turned yellow, then DARK PURPLE/BLACK
Explanation
Chlorine gas displaced bromide ions from potassium IODIDE forming bromine and potassium chloride
2KI (aq) + Cl2 (g) I(l) + 2KCI (aq)
Colourless Purple
Therefore CHLORINE is more reactive than IODINE

Other reactions of Halogens

Chlorine + Sodium chloride
Bromine + sodium chloride
2. Order of reactivity of Halogens
From these three experiments, the order of reactivity is:
Cl most reactive
Br
I
As least reactive
Trend in reactivity- Down the group the elements become less and less reactive
As we descend the group:
 there are more shells between the nucleus and the outer electron

 the force of attraction between the nucleus and outer electron decreases
 it becomes harder to gain the outer electron
 Halogen atoms react to gain or share an electron. The positive nucleus of the atom attracts the extra
electron.
 The more shells there are, the further the outer shell is from the nucleus.
 So attracting an electron becomes more difficult. So reactivity falls.

GROUP VIII (OR 0) ELEMENTS

o They are known as noble gases

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o This group of non-metals contains the elements helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon.
These elements are all:
o non-metals
o colourless gases, which occur naturally in air
o monatomic – they exist as single atoms
o unreactive. This is their most striking property. They do not normally react with anything. That is why they are
called noble.

Complete the table below

Element Symbol Proton no. Electronic Confi.
Helium
Neon
Argon
Krypton X
Xenon X
Radon x

Reactivity
- Noble gases are unreactive i.e. they do not react with other elements. For example they do not burn or combine
with oxygen
Explanation: Their atoms have stable electronic configurations. The atoms do not lose or gain electrons

Uses of noble gases

a. Helium is used to fill balloons and airships, because it is much lighter than air – and will not catch fire.
b. Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere. For example it is used:
 as a filler in tungsten light bulbs. (If air were used, the oxygen in it would make the tungsten filament burn
away.)
 to protect metals that are being welded. It won’t react with the hot metals (unlike the oxygen in air).
c. Neon is used in advertising signs. It glows red, but the colour can be changed by mixing it with other gases.
d. Krypton is used in lasers – for example for eye surgery
o and in car headlamps.
o It is used in photographic flash bulbs

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e. Xenon gives a light like bright daylight, but with a blue tinge. It is used in lighthouse lamps, lights for hospital
operating rooms, and car headlamps.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS
They are the elements that lie between group II and group III of periodic table
These are three transition series:
1st : Sc to Zn
2nd :Y to Cd
3rd : La to Hg

Characteristics of Transition elements

1. Melting points
Transition elements have high melting point, for example tungsten is used to make filament because of its high melting point
2. Density
Transition elements have high densities
3. Form brightly coloured compounds for example:
Copper (II) sulphate – blue crystals
Iron (III) oxide – brown crystals
Potassium dichromate – orange e.t.c
4. Good conductors of heat and electricity e.g. copper being used in electrical cables
5. Some are used as catalysts
i. in the production of ammonia during the Harber process, iron metal is used
ii. vanadium (V) oxide in the manufacture of sulphuric acid
iii. nickel in the manufacture of margarine
iv. manganese (iv) oxide in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen
6. Have variable valencies
Copper (I) ion, Copper (II) ion
Iron (II) ion, Iron (III)
Manganese (IV) ion, Manganese (VII) etc
Uses of the transition elements
 The hard, strong transition elements are used in structures such as bridges, buildings, and cars. Iron is the most widely
used – usually in the form of alloys called steels. (In alloys, small amounts of other substances are mixed with a
metal, to improve its properties.)
 Many transition elements are used in making alloys. For example, chromium and nickel are mixed with iron to make
stainless steel.
 Transition elements are used as conductors of heat and electricity. For example, steel is used for radiators, and
copper for electric wiring.
 Many transition elements and their compounds acts as catalysts. Catalysts speed up reactions, while remaining
unchanged themselves. For example, iron is used as a catalyst in making ammonia

Name Symbol Melting Point(oC) Boiling Point (oC) Density (g/cm3)

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Scandium Sc 1540 2730 3

___________ Ti 1675 3260 4.5
Vanadium V 1900 3000 7.2
Chromium Cr 1890 2482 7.2
____________ Mn 1240 2100 7.9
Iron Fe 1535 3000 8.9
Cobalt Co 1492 2900 8.9
___________ Ni 1453 2730 8.9
___________ Cu 1083 2595 8.9
zinc Zn 420 907 7.1

Notice these trends across the period:

 The number of valency (outer-shell) electrons increases by 1 each time.
It is the same as the group number, for Groups I to VII.
 The elements go from metal to non-metal. Silicon is in between. It is like a metal in some ways and a non-metal
in others. It is called a metalloid.
 Melting and boiling points rise to the middle of the period, then fall to very low values on the right. (Only
chlorine and argon are gases at room temperature.)
 The oxides of the metals are basic – they react with acids to form salts. Those of the non-metals are acidic –
they react with alkalis to form salts. But aluminium oxide is in between: it reacts with both acids and alkalis to
form salts. So it is called an amphoteric oxide.
 reactivity decreases across the metals. Aluminium is a lot less reactive than sodium, for example. Why? Because
the more electrons a metal atom needs to lose, the more difficult it is. (The electrons must have enough energy
to overcome the pull of the nucleus.)
 reactivity increases across the non-metals (apart from Group 0). So chlorine is more reactive than sulfur. Why?
Because the fewer electrons a non-metal atom needs to gain, the easier it is to attract them.

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CHEMICAL FORMULAE

o All substances are made from elements, each element has a unique chemical symbol
o Elements combine to form compounds, each compound can be represented by a formula

Formula – The shortest way of representing a compound using symbols

Examples: Magnesium chloride - MgCl2
Sodium Oxide - Na2O

Valency– The combining capacity of an atom or a radical ie

 Covalent bonding – refers to the nu8mber of bonds formed by an element
 Ionic bonding – the number of electrons that can be lost or gain by an element

How to write a formula

1. Start by writing the name of the compound example, magnesium chloride

2. Identify the symbols within the compound ie Mg, Cl
3. Determine the valencies, either from charges or group number
Mg+2, Cl- : hence Mg- valence = 2, Cl – valence = 1
4. Swap the valences

Class work : Determine the chemical formulae for the following

1. carbon dioxide

2. silicon dioxide

3. magnesium nitride

Exercise / Assignment : Determine the chemical formulae for the following

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1. beryllium fluoride 4. aluminum oxide

2. potassium bromide 5. barium chloride

3. calcium iodide 6. lithium chloride

Radicals / Compound ions

These are ions formed from groups of atoms chemically combined/bonded together, having a charge
or
Compounds having a charge [-ate, -ite shows that oxygen is present
anion – negatively charged particle
cation – positively charged particle
Examples of commonly used radicals

name formula Valence or charge

ammonium ion NH4+ 1
Nitrate ion
Nitrite ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphite ion
Perchlorate ion ClO4- 1
Chlorate ion ClO3- 1
Carbonate ion
Hydrogen carbonate ion HCO3- 1
Phosphate ion
Hydroxide ion
Chromate ion CrO42- 2
Dichromate ion Cr2O72- 1
Permanganate ion
Silicate ion SiO32- 2
Iodate
Thiosulphate S2O32- 2
Cyanide CN- 1
Oxalate C2O42- 2
Chlorite ClO2- 1
Hypochlorite ion ClO- 1

How to write the formula of a compound with a radical

Example 1: calcium hydroxide
Symbols Ca OH

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Valence 2 1
Swapping of valences Ca OH giving Ca(OH)2

2 1
NB: For radicals, if the number is greater than 1, brackets are then used
Example 2 Calcium carbonate
Ca CO3 giving CaCO3

2 2
Exercise
1. sodium phosphate 2. magnesium nitrate 3. potassium iodate
4. ammonium chloride 5. sodium hydroxide
When transition metals are present in a compound , their valencies are usually written in brackets except
for
gold – valence = 1
silver =1
zinc valence = 2
Examples
iron (III) oxide – Fe2O3
copper (II) sulphate – CuSO4
Exercise: Determine the chemical formulae for the following compounds
1. vanadium (V) oxide 11. sodium chromate
2. manganese (IV) oxide 12. barium nitrate
3. tin (II) sulphate 13. sodium oxalate
4. zinc sulphate 14. magnesium hydrogen carbonate
5. sodium carbonate 15. lithium silicate
6. calcium nitrate 16. copper (II) nitrite
7. calcium oxide 17. manganese (IV) sulphate
8. potassium permanganate 18. sodium thiosulphate
9. lead (II) iodate 19. iron (III) cyanide
10. potassium dichromate 20. ammonium dichromate

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

This is the summary of what happens during a chemical reaction

Reactants are written on the left side of the equation, products written on the right
A + B → C + D
State symbols should always be present to show the physical states of the substances at that particular moment ie:

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liquid – (l)
precipitate/solid – (s)
gaseous state – (g)
solution / aqueous – dissolved in water – (aq)
A(g) + B(aq) → C(s) + D(l)
Chemical equations are derived from word equations
Examples
1. Sodium metal being reacted with water to give sodium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas
word equation
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Na(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2. Blue solution of copper (II) sulphate being reacted with zinc metal to give zinc sulphate solution and copper
metal

word equation
Copper (II) sulphate + zinc → Copper + zinc sulphate
CuSO4 + Zn → Cu + ZnSO4
3. Zinc metal reacted with dilute sulphuric acid to give hydrogen gas and zinc sulphate solution
word equation
Zinc + Sulphuric acid → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen gas
Exercise on word equations
1. When hydrogen gas is passed over hot solid copper(II)oxide, copper metal and steam are produced
2. When chlorine gas is bubbled in aqueous potassium bromide, potassium chloride solution and aqueous bromine
are produced
3. methane gas, burns in oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide and steam
4. When aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to solution of iron (II) chloride, green precipitate of iron (II)
hydroxide and aqueous sodium chloride are produced
5. Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to give aqueous calcium chloride, carbon dioxide gas
and water
6. Metallic copper displaces silver from aqueous silver nitrate. A blue solution of copper (II) nitrate and metallic
silver are produced.

A How to write a chemical equation

o write the equation using words e.g.
magnesium metal + steam → magnesium oxide + hydrogen gas
o fill in the correct formulae (use state symbols)
o during a chemical reaction, the total number of atoms on the left must be equal to the number of atoms
on the right

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B Balancing chemical equations

skeletal equation – shows only the bones of the reaction in terms of chemical formulae
balanced equation – shows all the atoms, the same number of atoms in terms of numbers on the left must be equal
to the ones on the right
Steps in balancing equations
1. Balance first the element that occurs in the fewest formulae
Example
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
There are three different elements in the equation; carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
C, H are balanced first, then O last
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
2. Balance last the element that occurs in the greatest number of formulae ie O balanced last
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
3. Verify if the equation is balanced, then put in the state symbols
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
EXERCISE : Balance the following equations
MnO2 + HCl → Cl2 + MnCl2 + H2 O
Mg + H2O → MnO + H2
Cu + O2 → CuO
Al + BaO → Al2O3 + Ba
NH3 + O2 → N2 + H2O
C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O
H2SO4 + NaOH → H2O + Na2SO4
NaNO3 + CuSO4 → Na2SO4 + Cu(NO3)2
C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Zn(OH)2 + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O
Mg(NO3)2 → MgO + NO2 + O2
AlCl3 +NaOH → NaCl + Al(OH)3

EXERCISE 2
Ca(OH)2 + NH4Cl → NH3 + CaCl2
Ca + H2O → H2 + Ca(OH)2
FeCl2 + Cl2 → FeCl3
Na2O + H2O → NaOH
H2O2 → H2O + O2
H3PO4 + NaOH → Na3PO4 + H2 O
HCl + KMnO4 → 2KCl + MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O

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HCOOH + Mg(OH)2 → Mg(COOH)2 + H2O

H2SO4 + NH4OH → H2O + (NH4)2SO4
CrCl2 + Cl2 → CrCl3
PbS + H2O2 → PbSO4 + H2O
Cr2O3 + HCl → CrCl3 + H2O

IONIC EQUATIONS
- They emphasize / stress the important changes that occur during a chemical reaction
Examples
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Represent the equation in terms of ions present during the reaction; only substances in solution / aqueous are
considered
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O

NB _ Substances in gaseous, solid/precipitate and liquid/molten do not form ions

Since an ionic equation represent changes, what has not changed are called spectator ions and they are
cancelled
Exercise : write ionic equations with state symbols for the following
AlCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → 3NaCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(s)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
2NaOH(aq) + FeSO4(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + CaSO4(s)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NH3(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

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MOLE CONCEPT

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

This is the mass of an atom obtained by comparing it the mass of carbon 12 atom which is an isotope of carbon.

Relative atomic masses of some elements

ELEMENT SYMBOL RAM

Carbon-12 C 12.000

Carbon C 12.071

Chlorine Cl 35.453

Copper Cu 63.540

Hydrogen H 1.008

Iron Fe 55.847

The relative atomic mass scale is used to compare masses of different atoms

RELATIVE FORMULA MASS-RFM OR RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

The total mass of a compound or molecule found by adding the relative atomic masses of all atoms within the
molecule or compound- no units are required.

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Relative molecular\formula masses of some compounds

COMPOUND FORMULA RFM

Nitrogen N2 28
Chlorine Cl2 32
Ammonia NH3 17
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 148

Avogadro Constant, moles & molar masses

Avogadro constant; L
Defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
 The relative atomic masses of all elements in grams contains 6.023×1023
 The relative formula masses in grams of all compounds contain 6.023×1023 formula units- for compounds,
6.023×1023 molecules for gases.

MOLE
A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same number of units as the number of carbon atoms in
12 grams of carbon-12.
These units can be atoms, or molecules, or ions

One mole of a substance is obtained by weighing out the Ar or Mr of the substance, in grams.
This is a unit (the same way meter is used for distances, kg for masses)
 Amount of substance containing 6.02×1023 particles in it.

Therefore
The mass of one mole of a substance is molar mass (g/mol)

CALCULATING MASS FROM MOLES

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Mass = moles × molar mass or m= n × MM

a. Calculate the mass given b. Calculate the number of moles of
i. 0.5 mol of bromine atoms i. 64g of oxygen molecules (O2)
ii. 0.5 mol of bromine molecules ii. 80g of magnesium oxide (MgO)
iii. 0.25 mol of iron atoms iii. 8g of methane gas (CH4)
iv. 4 mol of water molecules iv. 12.25of sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
v. 0.2 mol of NaCl v. 14.5g of magnesium hydroxide
vi. 0.1 mol of CaSO4
MOLAR VOLUME – 24dm3 mol-1 – for volumes of gases at room temperature& pressure)
This is the volume of one mole of a molecule of gas at rtp- 24dm3 or 24L
NB: One mole of gas at rtp- contains 6.02×1023 particles
1dm3 = 1000cm3
1dm3 = 1 × 1 ×1 (dm3)
= 103 cm3 = 1000 cm3 or 1000mL
Volume of gas at rtp = molar volume (24dm3/mol) ×moles
OR
V = 24dm3/ Mol × mol
NB: (Changing the subject of formula)

Exercise
1.
Calculate the number of moles given : 2. Calculate the volume of the following gases at rtp
a. 72 dm3 of ammonia at rtp a. 0.1 mol of fluoride gas
b. 48cm3 of nitrogen at rtp b. 10moles of helium gas
c. 12L of carbon dioxide gas at rtp c. 0.5mol of argon gas
d. 64ml of argon gas at rtp d. 18mol of nitrogen dioxide gas

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Avogadro Constant: remb. - 6.02×1023 particles

no. of particles = moles × Avogadro Constant
(e.g. molecules, atoms, formula units)
Exercise Calculate the number of particles or the following
a. 2.5mol CO2 gas – molecules
Solution:
no. of molecules = mol × L
= 2.5mol × 6.02×1023 molecules/mol
= 1.505 × 1024molecules
b. 1mol of sulphuric acid – compound
c. 12mol of iron metal – atoms
d. 0.5mol of calcium sulphate
Exercise (on calculating volumes and masses of gases at rtp)
1. Find the volumes at rtp for the following
Example
a. 32g of sulphur dioxide gas
Solutionfor (a)
Molar mass (SO2) = 64g/mol a. 34g of ammonia gas
n = m/MM = 32/64 = 0.5mol b. 142g of chlorine gas
V = n × MV c. 7g of carbon dioxide gas
= 0.5 × 24 = 12dm3 d. 6kg of ethene gas

2. Calculate the mass of the following at rtp

Example
6dm3 of oxygen gas
Solution (for (a)) a. 48ml of tetraflouroethene gas (C2F4)
n = V/MV = 6/24 = 0.25mol b. 12000 ml of carbon dioxide
m = n × MM c. 3L of helium gas
= 0.25 × 32 d. 6000cm3 of hydrogen gas
= 8g e. 18000 ml of hydrogen chloride gas
FORMULA OF A COMPOUND
 Shows the relative number of atoms of each element in it.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA(EF) SIMPLEST FORMULAE

 Shows the simplest whole number ratio for the for the atoms of different elements in the compound.
 The empirical formula shows the simplest ratio in which atoms combine.

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STEPS
1. Find the masses of elements in grams
2. Change grams to moles I.e. mass divided by atomic masses
3. This tells the ratio of ; therefore divide by the smallest number of moles found in number 2.
4. Write the EF of the compound

Examples;
1. When ethene of is analyzed it is found to contain 85.72% of carbon, 14.28% of hydrogen

C H
masses 85.72 g 14.28 g
Mass to mole 85.72 14.28
12 1
=7.14 =14.28
Divided by the smallest 7.14/7.14 14.28/7.14
Ratio of moles 1 : 2
Ratio of atoms 1 : 2

EF =CH2

2. Find the simplest formula of an oxide formed when 2.24 g of Fe reacts with 0.96 g of oxygen

Fe O
masses 2.24 g 0.96 g
Mass to mole 2.24 0.96
56 16
=0.04 =0.06
Ratio of moles 4 : 6
Ratio of atoms 2 : 3

EF=Fe2O3

Exercise on empirical formula

1. 0.20 g of calcium reacted with fluoride to make 0.39 g of calcium fluoride. Find the simplest formula,

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2. 2.84 g of an oxide of phosphorus reacted is formed when 1.24 0f phosphorus reacted with oxygen. Find its
simplest formula
3. A compound contains 27.3 % carbon and 72.7% oxygen by mass. Find EF
4. Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 92.9% C and 7.7% H by mass
5. In an experiment, an unknown organic compound was found to contain 0.12 g of carbon and 0.02 of hydrogen.
Calculate the EF
6. Compound X is a hydrocarbon. it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms.0.84 g of X was completely burned
in air. This produced 2.64 g of carbon dioxide and 1.08 g of H2O. Find the EF of X

MOLECULAR FORMULAR(MF)
 Shows the actual number of moles of each element in one mole of a compound
 Expresses the actual number of each kind of element in a compound e.g. EF – CH2; MF –C2H4, C3H6, C4H8 e.t.c.

Molecular Empirical
Alkane formula formula
methane CH4 CH4
ethane C2H6 CH3
propane C3H8 C3H8
butane C4H10 C2H5
pentane C5H12 C5H12
hexane C6H14 C3H7

To find the molecular formula:

Example 1 A molecular compound has the empirical formula HO.

Its relative molecular mass is 34. What is its molecular formula?
(Ar : H = 1, O = 16.)
For the empirical formula HO, the empirical mass = 17. But Mr = 34.
Mr 34
So = 17 = 2
empirical formula

Example
A Hydrocarbon was found to contain 80% Carbon and 20% hydrogen by mass RMM is 30. Calculate RF and
MF
C : H
Masses 80 20
80 20
Mass to mol
12 1

Moles 6.67 20

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6.67 20
6.67 6.67
1 : 3 EF Formula = CH3

Molecular formula;
Mr 30
empirical formula
= 25
=2

2 (CH3) = (C2H6)
OR
x (CH3) = MF Change EF to mass
x (15) = 30
x = 2
Therefore n (EF) = n (CH2)
2 (CH3) = (C2H6)
MF = (C2H6)
Exercise
1. A compound has the empirical formula HO and its RMM is 34. Find its MF
Ans =H2O2

2. -calculate the EF of an organic compound d containing 52.7% carbon, 13% hydrogen the rest being oxygen
-The RMM of the liquid of the liquid is 92, what is the molecular formula
3. -Determine the EF of an organic compound containing 26.67% carbon , 2.22% hydrogen, the rest is oxygen
-the molecular mass of the liquid is 90, what is the molecular formula
4. A hydrocarbon contains 82.76% carbon. Determine the EF of the compound.
The RMM of the compound is 56, determine MF
5. An oxide of phosphorus contains 44% phosphorus. Determine the EF. The RMM was found to be 284, find the
MF
6. 15.15 g of chalcopyrite has the following compositions ;
Cu – 5.27 g
Fe – 4.61 g, the rest is sulphur ; Determine the EF of the compound

DETERMINING THE FORMULAR OF BINARY COMPOUND

Experiment;

Magnesium burns in air (oxygen) to form an oxide

To work out the empirical formula, you need to know the masses of elements that combine. The only way to do this is
by experiment.
For example, magnesium combines with oxygen to form magnesium oxide. The masses that combine can be found
like this:

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1 Weigh a crucible and lid, empty. Then add a coil of magnesium ribbon and weigh it again, to find the mass of
the magnesium.
2 Heat the crucible. Raise the lid carefully at intervals to let oxygen in. The magnesium burns brightly.
3 When burning is complete, let the crucible cool (still with its lid on).
Then weigh it again. The increase in mass is due to oxygen.
The results showed that 2.4 g of magnesium combined with 1.6 g of oxygen.
Draw up a table again:

a. In a similar experiment 4.35 g of an oxide of manganese was heated to determine EF. The mass of the
renouncing solid was 2.75 g
 Calculate the mass of oxygen (from oxide)
 Work out the formula

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND

Steps: [Link] the formula
2. Calculate the RFM
3. Write the mass of the selected element as fraction of total
4. Multiply the fraction by 100
Example;
The gas sulphur oxide is formed from burning fossil fuels. Calculate the mass of oxygen in the compound RFM
=64, mass of oxygen = 16 therefore fraction (16 x 3=32)= 32/64 =1/2
% of oxygen x 100 = ½ x 100 = 50%
Compound contains 50% oxygen
Exercise
1) Fertilizers contain nitrogen needed by plants. One fertilizer ammonium nitrate is rich in nitrogen. Calculate
 % of N in ammonium nitrate
 Mass of nitrogen in 20 kg of fertilizer
2) Calculate the % of
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen in ammonium nitrate
3) Calculate the % of copper in copper(ii)oxide

STOICHIOMETRY – Calculations from Chemical Reactions

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REACTING MASS
The total mass of reactants is equal to the mass of the product – Law of conservation of mass
Example :
What mass of calcium chloride would be produced if 10g of calcium carbonate was reacted with hydrochloric
acid
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CO2 + H2O + CaCl2
(CaCO3 = 100g, H2O=111g)
100g CaCO3 :111g molCaCl2
10g : x
x = 11.1 g of CaCl2
Exercise
1. Calculate the mass of sulphur dioxide produced burning16 g of sulphur in excess oxygen
2. Calculate the mass of copper required to produce 159 tonnes of copper(ii)oxide in excess oxygen
3. When 7g of iron is heated with excess sulphur, how much iron(ii)sulphide will be formed
Fe + S → FeS
4. How much iron will be extracted by the reduction of 100g of haematite?
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
5. Zinc metal was reacted with excess nitric acid according to the equation:
Zn(S) + 2HNO3 → Zn (NO3)2 + H2
10g of zinc metal was used up
a. Calculate moles of zinc used
b. What is the number of moles of zinc nitrate formed
c. Calculate the mass of zinc nitrate formed
6. 10g of calcium carbonate was reacted with excess dilute hydrochloric acid
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CO2 + H 2O + CaCl2
a. Calculate the moles of calcium carbonate present
b. what number of moles of calcium chloride should be produced
c. calculate the mass of calcium chloride produced
d. calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at r.t.p.
7. 4.5g of glucose was fermented to give ethanol and carbon dioxide in the presence of yeast

C6H12O6 → C2H5OH + CO2

a. Calculate the number of moles of glucose used
b. Calculate the moles of ethanol produced
c. calculate the mass of ethanol produced
REACTING VOLUMES

Recall: the volume of gas at RTP is 24 dm3

Example 1

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What volume of hydrogen gas will react with 24 dm3 of oxygen gas
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
2mol 1mol 2mol [reacting moles]
48 24 48 [reacting volumes of gases]

H2 O2
2mol : 1mol
48 : x
X = 48 dm3 – hydrogen
Example 2
When sulphur burns in air, it forms sulphur dioxide. What volume of sulphur dioxide is produced from 1g of
sulphur?
S + O2 → SO2
1
Moles of S = mass /molar mass = = 0.03125 mol
32
x = 0.3125mol
Vol ume = 24 dm3/mol ×mol
= 24 dm3/mo l× 0.3125mol
= 750 cm3
Exercise
1. 1.6g of methane was burnt in limited supply of oxygen. The equation for the reaction is
2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O
i. how many moles of methane were burnt
ii. calculate the mass of oxygen used
iii. calculate the volume of oxygen used at rtp
2. what volume of carbon dioxide measured at rtp can be obtained by heating 75g of calcium carbonate to high
temperature
3. what volume of hydrogen at rtp could be obtained by the action of 2.32g of magnesium on dilute hydrochloric
acid
4. what volume of oxygen will be needed if 24kg carbon was burnt in limited supply of air at rtp
2C (s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
YEILD AND PURITY
The yield is the amount of product you obtain from a reaction.
Suppose you own a factory that makes paint or fertilisers. You will want the highest
yield possible, for the lowest cost!
Now imagine your factory makes medical drugs, or flavouring for foods.
The yield will still be important – but the purity of the product may be even more important. Impurities could harm
people.
PERCENTAGE PURITY

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mass of the pure compound

% purity = mass of the impure compound(sample) x 100

Example;
A sample of calcium carbonate weighing 50 g was heated until it decomposes. It produced 20 g of carbon dioxide.
Calculate the % purity of calcium carbonate solution;
CaCO3(s) → CO2 (g) + CaO(s)
Masses (CaCO3=100, CO2 = 44, CaO =56)
Calculate the mass of pure carbonate
100 : 44
X : 20
x = 45.5 g
45.5
% purity = 50
X 100 =
Exercise
1. A sample of sulphuric acid weighing 98 g when reacted with sodium hydroxide gives 130 of sodium sulphate.
Find % purity of the acid
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → 2H2O + Na2SO4
2. 5.0 g of impure calcium carbonate when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid produced 2.1g of carbon
dioxide. Calculate %purity of calcium carbonate
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CO2 + CaCl2 + H2O
3. A sample of copper (II) carbonate weighing 8.3g reacts with excess hydrochloric acid. 1.1g of carbon dioxide
was produced, calculate the percentage purity
CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O + CO2
4. Impure iron ore (haematite) is reduced in the presence of carbon monoxide. 3.3g of molten iron metal was
produced, calculate the percentage purity.
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
5. A sample of sodium hydrogen carbonate weighing 9.30g when heated, gave 2.24g of CO2. Calculate the
percentage
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H 2O
6. 6.09g of impure copper metal was reacted with silver nitrate. 8.64g of copper nitrate was produced.
Calculate the percentage purity
Cu + 2AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

7. 28.9g of a sample of copper (II) oxide is reduced by hydrogen to give 21.3g of Copper metal.
CuO + H2 → H2O + Cu
a. Calculate the number of moles copper metal produced
b. Calculate the number of moles copper metal produced
c. Calculate the number of copper (II) oxide that has reacted
d. Calculate the percentage purity

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PERCENTAGE YIELD
actual yield
Percentage yield = 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 yield(𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 mass) x100

Example

Heating 12.4 g of copper (ii) carbonate produced 7.0 g of copper (ii) oxide. Calculate % yield of copper (ii)
oxide
CuCO3 → CuO + CO2

Masses CuCO3 = 124 g ,CuO = 80 g ,CO2 = 44 g

Calculating theoretical yield

124g : 80 g
12.4g : x
X = 8.0g
7
% yield = 8 ×100
= 87.5%

Exercise
1. An excess of water was poured into 100g of calcium carbide producing 28.3g of ethyne .Calculate % yield of
ethyne
CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca (OH)2 + C2H2 (ANS =69.72%)
2. When 24.0 g of potassium nitrate was heated with lead 13.8g of potassium nitrite was formed. Calculate %
yield of potassium nitrite
Pb + KNO3 → KNO2 + PbO (ANS = 68.3%)
3. Reduction of 15 kg of Iron (iii) oxide in a blast furnace resulted in production of 8.8 kg of Iron. Calculate %
yield of iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 (ANS =83.8%)
4. 11.7 g of carbon dioxide is produced from thermal decomposition of 36.7 g of calcium carbonate. Calculate
%yield of carbon dioxide (ANS = 72.7%)
5. A sample of 16.4 g of phosphorus trichloride was collected from reacting 5.0g of phosphorus with excess
chlorine. Calculate the % yield of phosphorus trichloride
P4 (s) + 6Cl2 (g) → 4PCl3 (s) (ANS = 73.1%)
6. 169g of pure Copper (ii)sulphate solution was reacted with 34 g of hydrogen sulphide, producing 91.5g of
copper(ii) sulphide. Calculate the % yield of copper(ii) sulphide
CuSO4 + 2H2S → CuS + H2SO4

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
Concentration
o Is the amount of solute in 1dm3 of solution

Molarity (molar concentration);

o Is the number of moles of solute molecules divided by the volume of solution in a Litre

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amount of solute(moles)
Molarity = volume of solution(dm3)
moles
Or Molarity= volume
mass
Where moles = Mr
units for molarity :mol/dm3

Molarity can also be expressed as g/dm3

i.e. concentration (g/dm3) = molar mass × Molarity

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles given the Molarity of sodium chloride is 0.02 M with 25.00ml

moles
Volume =
molarity

n = MV
= 0.02 ×0.025
= 0.0005 moles
2. Calculate the Molarity of potassium nitrate in a solution made by dissolving 1.345g of KNO3(aq) in
25.00 ml of solution

MM = 101
V = n/M where n = m/MM = 1.345/101
V = 25/1000 = 0.025 dm3
(1.345/101)
M = 0.025

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= 0.5327 mol/dm3 or 0.5327 M

3. Calculate the volume of solution of sodium chloride given mass as 2.357 and Molarity as
0.5372 mol/dm3
V = n/M when n = m/MM = 2.357/58.5
= 0.0403mol
moles
Hence V =
molarity

= 0.0403/0.5372
= 0.075 dm3 OR 75.00ml
Exercise
1. Calculate the Molarity for the following
a. 40g of sodium hydroxide in 500cm3
b. 7.40g of calcium hydroxide in 5.00dm3
c. 49.0g of sulphuric acid in 2.50dm3
d. 73.0 mg of hydrochloric acid in 250 ml
2. Calculate the amount of solute (moles)
a. 15.00ml 0f 0.100 mol/dm3 of C12H22O11

b. 25.00 ml 0f 1.85 mol/dm3 of NaCl(aq) solution

c. 1.00 dm3 of 0.25 mol/dm3 of NaOH solution

d. 500 dm3 of 0.020 mol/dm3 of HCl solution

e. 250 ml of 0.200 mol/dm3 of HCl solution

3. Calculate the mass of the following (in grams)

a. 100ml of 0.0145 mol/dm3 of (NH2)2 CO –urea

b. 250 ml of 0.0380 mol/dm3 of KMnO4(aq)

c. 1.50ml of 0.442 mol/dm3 of C6H12O6 - glucose

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1 Iron is obtained by reducing iron(III) oxide using the gas carbon monoxide. The reaction is:
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 ( g)
a Write a word equation for the reaction.

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b What is the formula mass of iron(III) oxide? (Ar : Fe = 56, O = 16.)

c How many moles of Fe2O3 are there in 320 kg of iron(III) oxide? (1 kg = 1000 g.)
d How many moles of Fe are obtained from 1 mole of Fe2O3?
e From c and d, find how many moles of iron atoms are obtained from 320 kg of iron(III) oxide.
f How much iron (in kg) is obtained from 320 kg of iron(III) oxide?
2 With strong heating, calcium carbonate undergoes thermal decomposition:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
a Write a word equation for the change.
b How many moles of CaCO3 are in 50 g of calcium carbonate? (Ar : Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16.)
c i What mass of calcium oxide is obtained from the thermal decomposition of 50 g of calcium carbonate,
assuming a 40% yield ?
ii What mass of carbon dioxide will be given off at the same time?
iii What volume will this gas occupy at rtp?
3 Nitroglycerine is used as an explosive.
The equation for the explosion reaction is:
4C3H5(NO3)3 (l) → 12CO2 (g) + 10H2O (l) + 6N2 (g) + O2 (g)
a How many moles does the equation show for:
i nitroglycerine?
ii gas molecules produced?
b How many moles of gas molecules are obtained from 1 mole of nitroglycerine?
c What is the total volume of gas (at rtp) obtained from 1 mole of nitroglycerine?
d What is the mass of 1 mole of nitroglycerine? (Ar : H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16.)
e What will be the total volume of gas (at rtp) from exploding 1 kg of nitroglycerine?
f Using your answers above, try to explain why nitroglycerine is used as an explosive.
4 Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen like this:
2NO (g) + O2 ( g) → 2NO2 (g)
a How many moles of oxygen molecules react with 1 mole of nitrogen monoxide molecules?
b What volume of oxygen will react with 50 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide?
c Using the volumes in b, what is:
i the total volume of the two reactants?
Ii the volume of nitrogen dioxide formed?
5 2 g (an excess) of iron is added to 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol/dm3 sulphuric acid. When the reaction is over, the reaction
mixture is filtered. The mass of the unreacted iron is found to be 0.6 g. (Ar : Fe = 56.)
a What mass of iron took part in the reaction?
b How many moles of iron atoms took part?
c How many moles of sulfuric acid reacted?
d Write the equation for the reaction, and deduce the charge on the iron ion that formed.
e What volume of hydrogen (calculated at rtp) bubbled off during the reaction?
6 27 g of aluminium burns in chlorine to form 133.5 g of aluminium chloride. (Ar : Al = 27, Cl = 35.5.)
A What mass of chlorine is present in 133.5 g of aluminium chloride?
b How many moles of chlorine atoms is this?

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c How many moles of aluminium atoms are present in 27 g of aluminium?

d Use your answers for parts b and c to find the simplest formula of aluminium chloride.
e 1 dm3 of an aqueous solution is made using 13.35 g of aluminium chloride. What is its concentration in moles per
dm3?
7 You have to prepare some 2 mol/dm3 solutions, with 10 g of solute in each. What volume of solution will you
prepare, for each solute below?
(Ar : H = 1, Li = 7, N = 14, O = 16, Mg = 24, S = 32.)
a lithium sulfate, Li2SO4
b magnesium sulfate, MgSO4
c ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
8 Phosphorus forms two oxides, which have the empirical formulae P2O3 and P2O5.
a Which oxide contains the higher percentage of phosphorus? (Ar : P = 31, O = 16.)
b What mass of phosphorus will combine with 1 mole of oxygen molecules (O2) to form P2O3?
c What is the molecular formula of the oxide that has a formula mass of 284?
d Suggest a molecular formula for the other oxide.
9 Zinc and phosphorus react to give zinc phosphide.
9.75 g of zinc combines with 3.1 g of phosphorus.
a Find the empirical formula for the compound. (Ar : Zn = 65, P = 31.)
b Calculate the percentage of phosphorus in it.
10 110 g of manganese was extracted from 174 g of manganese oxide. (Ar : Mn = 55, O = 16.)
a What mass of oxygen is there in 174 g of manganese oxide?
B How many moles of oxygen atoms is this?
c How many moles of manganese atoms are there in 110 g of manganese?
d Give the empirical formula of manganese oxide.
e What mass of manganese can obtained from 1000 g of manganese oxide?
11 Find the molecular formulae for these compounds. (Ar : H = 1, C = 12, N = 14, O = 16.)

12 Hydrocarbons A and B both contain 85.7% carbon.

Their molar masses are 42 and 84 g respectively.
a Which elements does a hydrocarbon contain?
b Calculate the empirical formulae of A and B.
c Calculate the molecular formulae of A and B.
13 Mercury(II) oxide breaks down on heating:
2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)
a Calculate the mass of 1 mole of mercury(II) oxide. (Ar : O = 16, Hg = 201)
b How much mercury and oxygen could be obtained from 21.7 g of mercury(II) oxide?
c Only 19.0 g of mercury was collected. Calculate the % yield of mercury for this experiment.

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14 A 5-g sample of impure magnesium carbonate is reacted with an excess of hydrochloric acid:
MgCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2O ( l ) + CO2 (g)
1250 cm3 of carbon dioxide is collected at rtp.
a How many moles of CO2 are produced?
b What mass of pure magnesium carbonate would give this volume of carbon dioxide?
(Ar : C = 12, O = 16, Mg = 24.)
c Calculate the % purity of the 5g sample.

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING DATA FROM VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

Example 1
What is the Molarity of a solution of sulphuric acid if 28.40.cm3 is required to neutralize completely 25.00ml of
0.120 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution. Calculate also in g/dm3
Equation: H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mole ratio 1 mole 2 mole
 Determine moles of known solution i.e. of NaOH
n = MV = 0.120 ×0.025
= 0.003 mol
 moles of unknown solution – sulphuric acid - H2SO4
1 mol H2SO4 : 2mol NaOH
X : 0.003mol
X = 0.0015 moles of acid
 use moles to calculate concentration of acid
M = n/V = 0.0015/0.0248
= 0.0528 mol/dm3 – acid
 concentration in g/dm3 = MM × M
= 98 × 0.0528
= 5.176g/dm3
Method 2
Use of the mole ratios
MAVA moles of the acid
MBVB
= moles of the base
Exercise
1. What volume of 0.005 mol/dm3 0f H2SO4 is required to neutralize completely 2.80 g of KOH as 500 cm3
2. 25.00 ml of oxalic acid H2C2O4 is titrated with 0.500 mol/dm3 NaOH(aq), the stoichiometric point is reached
when 38.00ml of the solution of base is added. Calculate the Molarity of oxalic acid solution
3. A student prepared a solution of hydrochloric acid that contained 0.72g of hydrogen chloride in 500ml. The
solution was used to titrate 25.0ml of calcium hydroxide solution. Determine the molarity of Ca(OH)2 (aq)
solution if 15.1 ml of acid was added

DILUTION
 Reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent

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 A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. It is prepared by dissolving known mass of solute in a
known volume of solution in volumetric
 After the solution has been diluted , the same amount of solute (moles) remains the , but in great volume
 A pipette is used to transfer a volume of the standardsolution to a volumetric flask to prepare a bench solution
NB: moles remain, what changes is the volume of and concentration
Example 1
Calculate the volume of 0.0380M of KMnO4 (aq) stock solution that should be used to prepare 250ml of 1.50
×10-3 mol/dm3 of KMnO4 (aq)
Solution
Mf = 1.50 ×10-3 mol/dm3
Vf = 250ml
Vi = ?
Mi = 0.0380 mol/dm3
(ANS = 9.87 ×10-3L)
Exercise
1. Calculate the volume of 0.0155 mol/dm3 of HCl that should be used to prepare 100ml of 0.00523 of
HCl
2. Calculate the volume of 0.152 mol/dm3 C6H12O6 that should be used to prepare 25ml of 0.00159
C6H12O6
3. (a) what volume of a 0.778 Na2CO3 (aq) should be diluted to150ml with water to reduce concentration
to 0.0234 mol/dm3 of Na2CO3 (aq)
(b) an experiment requires 60ml 0f 0.50 mol/dm3 NaOH (aq). The stock room assistant can only find a
reagent bottle of 2.5M NaOH (aq). How is the 0.50 mol/dm3 NaOH solutions to be prepared
4. 0.094g of CuSO4 is dissolved the mark in the 500ml volumetric flask. A 2.00ml sample of this solution is
transferred to a second 500ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark.
a. What is the Molarity of copper (ii)sulphate solution in the final flask
b. To prepare the solution directly ,what mass of CuSO4-5H2O should be weighed

Assignment - CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

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1. a. Calculate the molecular masses for the following compounds

MgSO4.7H2O
FeCl3.6H2O
Na2S2O3.5H2O
b. Calculate the percentage of water in CuSO4-5H2O
c. The salt FeSO4.xH2O contains 43.5% water. Find the value of x.
d. Calculate the number of moles of iron atoms in 2.8g of iron
e. Calculate the number of molecules in 2.3g of ethanol, C2H5OH
f. 0.25mol of atoms of the tellurium has a mass of 32g. Calculate the relative atomic mass of tellurium
g. Calculate the mass of 96dm3 of carbon monoxide, CO, measured at r.t.p.
h. In 500cm3 of 0.4mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide, calculate
Number of moles of sodium hydroxide
The mass of sodium hydroxide
2. The element lithium forms a compound with composition 8.0% lithium, 36.8% sulphur and 55.2% oxygen.
a. Find the empirical formula of this compound
b. The relative molecular mass of this compound is 174. Find the molecular mass of the compound
c. The compound is ionic, state one physical property you would expect this compound to have
3. The formula of naphthalene is C10H8. It burns in air according to the equation
C10H8 + 12O2 → 10CO2 + 4H2O
16g of naphthalene was burnt in excess oxygen
a. Calculate the number of moles of naphthalene that were burnt
b. Calculate the mass of water that was produced in the combustion
c. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at r.t.p.
d. From the in (c), what volume of oxygen was used in the combustion
4. In an experiment, 0.2 mol of copper atoms was dissolved in nitric acid to produce copper (ii) nitrate. The
equation for the reaction
Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
a. Calculate the volume of the gas measured at r.t.p. produced during the reaction
b. Calculate the maximum mass of copper (ii) nitrate that can be produced in the reaction
c. The actual mass of copper (ii) nitrate obtained from the experiment form crystallization was 22.7g.
calculate percentage yield of the product

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ACIDS
An acid is a PROTON DONOR OR hydrogen ion H+ donor
HA(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
Acid base
Water in this case acts as a proton acceptor
Examples of commonly used acids

Name formula strong or weak use

Sulphuric acid ……….. ………….. Car batteries
Hydrochloric acid ……….. …………… dilute acid in the stomach (digestion
Nitric acid ………... ……………. Making fertilizers
Phosphoric acid ………… …………….. Making fertilizers
Ethanoic/acetic acid ………… …………….. Food preservation as vinegar
Methanoic acid ………… …………….. Used for curing ant stings
Lactic acid CH3CH(COOH)(OH) …………… present in sour milk
Citric acid C6H8O7 …………….. present in CITRUS fruits
Examples of acids and the ions they produce in water
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+ + SO42-
HNO3 →
H3PO4 →
CH3COOH →
HCOOH →
H2CO3 →
HCl →
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Strength – this is the degree/level of ionization of a substance
Strength of an acid depends on how many molecules dissociate / split / ionize in water
a. Strong acids
Undergo complete dissociation / ionization into their respective ions when they are dissolved in water
Examples of strong acids
Hydrochloric acid - HCl
Sulphuric acid - H2SO4
Phosphoric acid - H3PO4
Nitric acid - HNO3
All the above acids have a high concentration of H+ ions in their solutions

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When a strong acid is neutralized by a strong alkali / base, the following ionic equation results
H+ + OH- → H2O
b. Weak acids

When they are dissolved ion water, they do not dissociate completely, they undergo partial dissociation. Most of the
acids form a dynamic equilibrium with water
Examples of strong acids
Acetic acid - CH3COOH → CH3COO- + H+
Methanoic acid - HCOOH →
Carbonic acid - H2CO3 →

Other examples are sulphorous acid, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), citric acid, tartaric acid and lactic acid

CONCENTRATION

Concentration - This is the amount of solute (moles) of a substance that has been dissolved in a unit volume of
solvent
This explains how much a substance is dissolved in a certain volume of solution

Questions
1. State the difference between concentration and strength
2. Hydrogen chloride is a neutral gas and dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
Explain why dry hydrogen chloride gas is neutral
Explain why aqueous hydrogen chloride is acidic

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
1. TASTE – Dilute acids have a sour taste; the sour taste of sour milk , lemons, oranges is from acids
2. ACTION ON LITMUS – Turn blue litmus red
3. CORROSIVE EFFECT – They eat away substances e.g. metals, clothes, etc
4. ACTION OF ACID ON METALS
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
For example:
Magnesium + sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
So the metal drives the hydrogen out of the acid, and takes its place: it displaces hydrogen. A solution of the salt
magnesium sulphate is formed.
Test for hydrogen gas – A burning splint is placed at the mouth of the test tube with the gas
Result – Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound

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5. ACTION OF ACIDS ON METAL CARBONATES

Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
For example:
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Test for CO2 - Bubble the gas in lime water or aqueous calcium hydroxide
Result – Lime water turns milky, or a white precipitate is seen
6. ACTION OF ACIDS ON METAL HYDROXIDES OR METAL OXIDES
Acid + base/alkali → salt + water ONLY
This type of reaction is called NEUTRALISATION (because it produces salt and water ONLY)
Bases are compounds that react with acid to give only a salt and water.
Metal oxides and hydroxides are bases. Alkalis are soluble bases.
Example for an acid and alkali:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Example for an acid and insoluble base:
sulphuric acid 1 copper(II) oxide copper(II) sulfate 1 water
H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
7. They are good electrolytes – are able to conduct electricity in molten or solution as they contain oppositely
charged ions

BASES
A base is a PROTON ACCEPTOR OR hydrogen ion (H+) acceptor
HA(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
Acid base
Water is acting as base as it is accepting hydrogen ion from the acid.
They are METAL OXIDES OR METAL HYDROXIDES
Examples of bases
Sodium hydroxide Copper (II) oxide
Potassium hydroxide Lead (II) oxide
Calcium hydroxide Magnesium oxide
Aqueous ammonia Iron (III) oxide
Iron (III) hydroxide Calcium oxide
There are those bases that are soluble in water, and those that are insoluble in water
ALKALI
An alkali is a metal (basic) hydroxide that is soluble in water
Examples
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) - NaOH
Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) - KOH
Calcium hydroxide (slacked lime) - Ca(OH)2

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Aqueous ammonia - NH3

STRONG AND WEAK ALKALIS
a. Strong Alkalis

They undergo complete ionization / dissociation when dissolved in water

They have a higher concentration of hydroxide ions in solution of water
Examples of strong alkalis
Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Strong alkalis are neutralized by strong acids easily
b. Weak alkalis

They undergo incomplete / partial ionization when dissolved in water

They have a lower concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution of water, they do not corrode the skin as
compared to strong alkalis
Examples of weak alkalis
Aqueous ammonia
Calcium hydroxide

PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
1. TASTE – They have a bitter taste
2. ACTION ON LITMUS – Alkalis turn red litmus blue
3. They have a soapy feel
4. CORROSIVE EFFECT – The two alkalis, namely sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are corrosive to the
skin
5. ACTION OF ALKALIS ON ACIDS – They neutralize acids to form salt and water
2HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) →
6. ACTION OF ALKALIS ON AMMONIUM SALTS
When an alkali is warmed with any ammonium salt, ammonia gas is produced
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(aq) + H2O
Test for ammonia gas – Damp litmus paper (red or universal indicator) placed at the mouth of the test tube with
the gas
Result – Paper turns blue
Question – Why use damp litmus instead of a dry one?

THE pH SCALE (AND THE UNIVERSAL INDICATOR)

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pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution

It is related to the H+ concentration and OH- concentration ions in the solutions of both the acid and the alkali, ie if they
are very high in the solution, those compounds are said to be both too acidic and too alkaline respectively
Acids – pH is less than 7 (stronger acids have a lower pH)
Neutral substances – pH = 7 (examples; pure water, salts)
Alkaline substances – higher than 7 but not more than 14
The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH.
The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher the pH.
0

1 red [Strong acids e.g. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, gastric juices]

3 [lemon juice]

4 orange [vinegar (CH3COOH), wine, tomato juice, acid rain]

6 yellow [urine, milk]

7 green [pure water, salts]

8 blue [blood, baking soda]

9 purple [toothpaste]

10

11 violet [lime water, milk of magnesia, household ammonia, bleach, washing soda]

12

13 [strong alkalis e.g. NaOH, KOH]

14

OTHER INDICATORS

Indicator Colour in acid Neutral colour Colour in alkali

Litmus paper
o Red red pink blue
o Blue red purple blue

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Litmus solution red green blue / purple

Methyl orange red orange yellow
Phenolphthalein colourless colourless pink
Universal indicator
o Paper red yellow blue / purple
o Solution red green blue / purple

APLICATION OF ACID BASE REACTIONS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Treatment of indigestion
Indigestion is caused by excess stomach acids e.g. dilute hydrochloric acid
To solve the problem, milk of magnesia (which is made mainly of Mg(OH)2 and MgCO3) is administered children,
for adults antacid are used to reduce the high amount of acids
2. Treatment of acidic / alkaline soils – suitable pH = 6.5
Acidic soils usually caused by acid rain are harmful to agriculture
Slacked lime (Ca(OH)2 or quick lime (CaO) are added to acidic soils to neutralize the acids
If the soil is alkaline, peat or (NH4)2SO4 is added
3. Use of toothpaste
This helps to neutralize the acid caused by the bacteria as they feed on the sugars in the mouth
4. Descaling of kettles
Use of Methanoic acid removes fur
5. Wasp sting is alkaline, and so an acid should be applied to neutralize them and remove the pain. To do this
take a cotton ball and apply a little vinegar, then dab the ball onto the affected area.
6. Bees on the other hand have acidic toxins in their stings, and so an alkaline solution should be applied to
neutralize them. Baking soda mixed with cold water is usually the most effective way of making an alkaline
solution.

TYPES OF OXIDES
Oxides are compounds containing oxygen and another element.
You have seen already that metal oxides act as bases.
Oxides are classified into 4 groups namely; ACIDIC, BASIC, AMPHOTERIC AND NEUTRAL OXIDES
1. Acidic Oxides
They are non – metallic oxides which when combined with water produce acid solution.
Examples
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) sulphuric acid
…..P4O10(s) + …..H2O(l) → …..H3PO4(aq) phosphoric acid
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) carbonic acid(weak acid)
Other examples of acidic oxides include SO2, SiO2, and NO2
Acidic oxides also neutralize alkalis to form salt and water
2. Basic Oxides

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These are metallic oxides which react with acids to produce salt and water ONLY. If soluble in water, they form
alkalis

Examples of basic oxides

K2O Oxides of these metals are soluble in water to give alkalis e.g. KOH

Na2O Oxides of these metals dissolve in water to give strong alkalis

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

CaO

MgO

Al2O3 Oxides of these metals are not soluble in water

ZnO

Fe2O3

PbO

CuO

Hg

Ag These metals do not form oxides, as they are unreactive

Au

CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
3. Amphoteric Oxides
These are metallic / semi metallic oxides which show both acidic and basic properties i.e. can react with acids
and alkalis to form salt and water.
Examples of Amphoteric oxides are zinc oxide and aluminium oxide
Basic properties
ZnO + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O
Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2ZnCl2 + 3H20
Acidic properties
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l) [sodium zincate]

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Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l) [sodium aluminate]

Other examples : Tin (II) oxide, Lead (II) oxide
4. Neutral Oxides
They show neither basic nor acidic properties
Examples
Dinitrogen oxide (nitrous oxide) N2O
Carbon monoxide CO
Nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) NO
Water, H2O
SALTS
A salt is a compound consisting of both positive metallic ions and negative acidic ions
Salts are ionic compounds and therefore
o Have high melting points
o Are good conductors of electricity in molten and solution state, hence used as electrolytes
o Most of them are soluble in water

EXAMPLES OF COMMON SALTS

Name Formula +ve metallic ion -ve acidic ion acid
Sodium chloride NaCl Na+ Cl- HCl
Copper(II) sulphate …………. …………. ….……. ………..
……………………… Zn(NO3)2 …………. ..………. ………..
………………………. CH3COONa …………. ..………. ………..
Potassium phosphate ………… …………. .……….. ….……..
Calcium methanoate .……….. …………. ..……….. .………..
Magnesium carbonate ……….. …………. …..…….. ………...
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS
Soluble salts are prepared by CRYSTALLISATION
Insoluble salts are prepared by PRECIPITATION

Salt crystals are formed by crystallization (define crystallization), therefore they form crystal structures. They contain
some moisture, hence the moisture forms WATER OF CTRYSTALLISATION. The salts are called HYDRATED SALTS

Examples of hydrated salts

Formula Name Colour of the crystals RMM

MgSO4 . 7H2O Magnesium Sulphate Hepta hydrate White ………
CaSO4.2H2O ………………………………………… White ………
Na2CO3.10H2O ……………………………………… White ………
CuSO4.5H2O ………………………………………… Blue ………
FeSO4.6H2O ………………………………………… Green ………

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CoCl2.6H2O ………………………………………… Pink ………

Questions
1. 4.16g of anhydrous barium chloride were obtained when 4.88g of the hydrated salt was heated. Calculate n in the
formula BaCl2.nH2O
2. 1.42g of anhydrous sodium sulphate was obtained when 3.22g of hydrated sodium sulphate was gently heated.
Calculate n in the formula Na2SO4.nH2O
3. A 464g sample of hydrated sodium carbonate contains 252g of water of crystallization. What is the formula of the
hydrated sodium carbonate?

SOLUBILITY RULES

Salt Soluble Insoluble

Sodium salts Na+ All are soluble None
Potassium salts K+ All are soluble None
Ammonium salts NH4+ All are soluble None

Chlorides Cl- Mostly soluble Silver chloride, Lead (II) chloride

Nitrates NO3- All are soluble None
Sulphates SO42- Mostly soluble Barium sulphate, Lead (II) sulphate, Calcium
sulphate
Carbonates CO32- Sodium, Ammonium, and Mostly insoluble
Potassium carbonate
Ethanoates CH3CO2- All are soluble None

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PREPARATION OF SALTS

A. PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

For soluble salts, there are four methods that can be used
1. ACID + METAL
Fairly reactive metals are used e.g. Ca, Mg, Zn, & Fe
(Reactive metals are avoided because of their violent nature with acids)
Example: Excess Zinc powder or granules added to warm dilute sulphuric acid
Q: Give the balanced equation for the above reaction

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Test for hydrogen gas – A burning splint is placed at the mouth of the test tube with the gas
Result – Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound
2. ACID + METAL OXIDE (INSOLUBLE METAL OXIDE)
Dilute acid is reacted with an excess INSOLUBLE BASE to give salt and water only.
Heating the reaction mixture may be done to speed up the reaction
Example: Excess Copper (II) oxide added to warm dilute sulphuric acid
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
The procedure is the same as in 1

3. ACID + METAL CARBONATE

This reaction takes at room temperature
The procedure for recovering the salt is the same as in 1, except that there is no warming
Example: Excess Calcium carbonate reacted with nitric acid
CaCO3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → CO2(aq) + H2O(l) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Test for CO2 - : Bubble the gas in lime water or aqueous calcium hydroxide
Result – Lime water turns milky, or a white precipitate is seen
4. ACID + ALKALI (Titration method)
 The volume of acid needed to neutralise an alkali was found by adding the acid a little at a time, until
the indicator showed that the reaction was complete. This method is called titration.
 You can find the concentration of an acid using the same method.
 You use a solution of alkali of known concentration (a standard solution) and titrate the acid against it.
An example
You are asked to find the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid,
using a 1 M solution of sodium carbonate as the standard solution.
First, titrate the acid against your standard solution.

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 Measure 25 cm3 of the sodium carbonate solution into a conical flask, using a pipette. Add a few drops of
methyl orange indicator.
 The indicator goes yellow.
 Pour the acid into a 50 cm3 burette. Record the level.
 Drip the acid slowly into the conical flask. Keep swirling the flask.
 Stop adding acid when a single drop finally turns the indicator red.
 Record the new level of acid in the burette.
 Calculate the volume of acid used. For example:
Starting level: 1.0 cm3
Final level: 28.8 cm3
Volume used: 27.8 cm3
Example: Known concentration of aqueous sodium hydroxide reacted with unknown concentration of nitric acid

After evapouration, the steps are similar to the above methods of preparing soluble salts

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Question 1
Copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4.5H2O can be prepared using excess copper (II) oxide and dilute sulphuric
acid.
Excess copper (II) oxide was reacted in small amounts with warm dilute sulphuric acid. The solution was filtered
into an evapourating dish. The solution was evapourated carefully until crystals formed on a glass rod which has
been dipped into the solution. The solution was then allowed to cool and crystallize.

i. Why was the acid heated before the solid was added?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Why was excess copper (II) oxide used?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iii. When will one know if the reaction is complete?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
iv. Why was the solution filtered before evapouration?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
v. Why is it not advisable to evapouate the solution to dryness?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

B. PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

Insoluble salts are prepared by mixing / reacting together solutions of two SOLUBLE SALTS, each containing half
of the required salts. This type of reaction is called DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION

The steps in making barium sulphate

1 Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium suphate.
2 Mix them. A white precipitate of barium sulphate forms at once.
3 Filter the mixture. The precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
4 Rinse the precipitate by hot distilled water through it.
5 Then place it in a warm oven to dry.
Example: Barium chloride being reacted with sodium sulphate
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

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Question 2
Name the reactants used to prepare by precipitation the following INSOLUBLE SALTS by PRECIPITATION
a. Lead (II) iodide
b. Calcium carbonate
c. Silver chloride
d. Barium sulphate
e. Calcium sulphate

SALT ANALYSIS
CATION – Positively charged ion which migrates to the cathode (negative electrode) during electrolysis
ANODE – Negatively charged ion which migrates to the anode (positive electrode) during electrolysis
TEST FOR IONS
CATIONS
Solution of cations Reaction with dil NaOH Reaction with NH3(aq) Ionic Equation

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Zinc, Zn2+ White precipitate soluble White precipitate soluble in Zn2+ + 2OH-→ Zn(OH)2
in excess excess
Aluminum ion, Al3+ White precipitate soluble White precipitate insoluble Al3+ + 3OH- →Al(OH)3
in excess in excess
Calcium ion, Ca2+ White precipitate No precipitate or slight Ca2+ + 2OH- →Ca(OH)2
insoluble in excess precipitate
Copper(II) ion, Cu2+ Blue precipitate insoluble Blue precipitate soluble in Cu2+ + 2OH- →Cu(OH)2
excess excess, gibing a deep blue
solution
Iron(II) ion, Fe2+ eg Green precipitate Green precipitate in excess Fe2+ + 2OH-→ Fe(OH)2
insoluble in excess
Iron(III) ion, Fe3+, Brown precipitate Brown precipitate insoluble Fe3+ + 3OH- →Fe(OH)3
insoluble in excess in excess
Ammonium ion, NH4+ A gas that turns red litmus The gas is ammonia and has NH4+ + OH-→NH3 + H2O
blue a pungent smell

ANIONS
Solution of anion Test Observation
Carbonate, ion, CO32- Add dil HCl or HNO3 A gas that turns lime 2OH- + CO2 →CO32- + H2O
water milky is produced
Chloride ion, Cl- Acidify with dil HNO3 and A white precipitate is You acidify to get rid of
follow with AgNO3 or produced (silver or lead carbonates that could precipitate
Pb(NO2)3 chloride)
Iodide ions, I- Acidify with dil HNO3 and Yellow precipitate is I- + Ag+→ AgI
follow with AgNO3 or produced silver or lead
Pb(NO2)3 iodide)
Sulphate ions, SO42 Acidify with dil HNO3 and White precipitate is BaCl2 acidified with dil HCl could
follow with Ba(NO3)2 formed (BaSO4) be used as an alternative
Nitrate ions NO3- Add NaOH and a little A gas that turns red litmus The gas is ammonia and has a
aluminum powder and heat blue is produced pungent smell
strongly

Nitrate ions (NO3-)

To a small amount of the unknown solid or solution, add a little sodium hydroxide solution. Then add
some small pieces of aluminium foil, and heat gently.
If ammonia gas is given off, the unknown substance contained nitrate ions. The ionic equation for the
reaction is:

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8Al (s) + 3NO3 - (aq) + 5OH- (aq) 2H2O (l) → 3NH3 (g) + 8AlO2- (aq)

 During a chemical reaction, there is always an energy change.

 Energy is given out or taken in. The energy is usually in the form of heat. (But some may be in the form of light
and sound.)
 So reactions can be divided into two groups: exothermic and endothermic.
 Some substances contain some amount of energy stored in them within their bonds.
 This type of energy is called ENTHALPY and is given the symbol H
 Enthalpy is measured in KILOJOULES
 The change in this stored energy(enthalpy) is called delta H or ΔH
 Some chemical reactions require/absorb energy e.g. endothermic reactions, while others release energy e.g.
exothermic reactions

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS (making chemical bonds)

This is the type of energy which require heat being taken from the surrounding
Example: When ammonium nitrate crystals are dissolved in water, heat is taken in from the surrounding leaving the
container cooler, i.e. a drop in temperature

ΔH is positive (+ve) for endothermic reactions i.e. heat energy is gained by the system and taken in from the
surroundings which cool down OR, as is more likely, the system is heated to provide the energy needed to
effect the change.

reactants + energy → products

Energy level diagram of an endothermic reaction

 An energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction. The products have higher energy than the reactants.
Examples of Endothermic reactions

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1. Photosynthesis: Light energy is absorbed by green plants

Equation: CO2+ H2O → C6H12O6 + O2
2. Photography: Reduction of silver ions to form silver on a photography paper
Ag+ + e-→ Ag
3. Dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water – indicated by temp fall [ NH4NO3(s) → NH4 (aq) +NO3-(aq) ]
4. Cooking – energy is required to break ionic bond between NO3-and NH4+ions
5. Formation of nitrogen (ii) oxide
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS (making chemical bonds)

These are the reactions that give out heat energy to the surroundings.
ie ΔH is negative (-ve) for exothermic reactions i.e. heat energy is given out and lost from the system to the
surroundings which warm up.

Energy level Diagram of an exothermic reaction

 An energy level diagram for an exothermic reaction. The products have lower energy than the reactants.

Examples of exothermic reactions

1. Burning of fuels such as methane, coal (COMBUSTION)

Equations :
Methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + steam
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
2. Respiration
C6H12O6 + O2 → H2O + CO2
3. Neutralisation reactions e.g. acid + base
4. Reactions of reactive metals with water

BOND ENERGY
The energy needed to make or break bonds is called the bond energy

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Bonds are fond in elements and compounds

- According to the collision theory:
i. for a reaction to occur, particles must collide
ii. the collision must be such that it causes bonds to break
therefore
THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO BREAK THE BONDS IS CALLED BOND ENERGY
i.e. Bond Energy = Energy needed to break one mole of a substance

ACTIVATION ENERGY (EA) - Energy required to start off a chemical reaction

Explaining energy changes

Making and breaking bonds
In a chemical reaction, bonds must first be broken. Then new bonds form.
Breaking bonds takes in energy. Making bonds releases energy.

Example 1: an exothermic reaction

If the energy taken in to break bonds is less than the energy released in making bonds, the reaction is
exothermic.
Example 2: an endothermic reaction
If the energy taken in to break bonds is greater than the energy released in making bonds, the reaction is
endothermic.

Assignment
1 The fuel natural gas is mostly methane. Its combusion in oxygen is exothermic:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
a Explain why this reaction is exothermic, in terms of bond breaking and bond making.
b i Copy and complete this energy diagram for the reaction, indicating:
A the overall energy change

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B the energy needed to break bonds

C the energy given out by new bonds forming.

ii Methane will not burn in air until a spark or flame is applied. Why not?
c When 1 mole of methane burns in oxygen, the energy change is -890 kJ.
i What does the - sign tell you?
ii Which word describes a reaction with this type of energy change?

The rate of a reaction is a measure of how fast/slow the reaction takes place OR
A measure of how fast / slow the reactants are used up, or how fast/slow products are produced.
Suitable changes that can be used to determine the rate of a reaction:
a. formation of a precipitate (reaction between aqueous sodium thiosulphate and dil. HCl)
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq)
b. change in mass caused by the production of a gas(reaction between metal/carbonate with dil. acids
c. volume of a gas evolved ( \reactions between metal/carbonate with dil. acids, and the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide to give water & oxygen)
d. THE RATE AT WHICH REACTANTS ARE DISAPEARRING
For a reaction to take place, the particles must collide, they must also be having maximum energy for the collisions;
ACTIVATION ENERGY (EA)
The rate of a reaction will increase if the number suitable collisions increase
Successful collisions; OLD BONDS ARE BROKEN, NEW BONDS ARE MADE
Example:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
In order for the magnesium and acid particles to react together:
 the particles must collide with each other, and

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 the collision must have enough energy to be successful. In other words, enough energy to break bonds to
allow reaction to occur.
 This is called the collision theory. It is shown by the drawings below.
 If there are lots of successful collisions in a given minute, then a lot of hydrogen is produced in that minute. In
other words, the rate of reaction is high. If there are not many, the rate of reaction is low.
 The rate of a reaction depends on how many successful collisions there are in a given unit of time.
 The more successful collisions there are, the higher the rate of the reaction.

 Put dilute hydrochloric acid in the flask.

 Drop the magnesium into the flask, and insert the stopper and syringe immediately.
 Start the clock at the same time.

For this reaction, measurable quantities could be

i. disappearing of magnesium metal or
ii. disappearing of the acid or
iii. magnesium chloride appearing or
iv. appearing of hydrogen gas
 For this, it is easier to measure the amount of hydrogen gas produced

Hydrogen begins to bubble off. It rises up the flask and into the gas syringe, pushing the plunger out:

The volume of gas in the syringe is noted at intervals – for example ever half a minute.
How will you know when the reaction is complete?

The reaction lasted about five minutes.

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Notice these things about the results:

1 In the first minute, 14 cm3 of hydrogen are produced.
So the rate for the first minute is 14 cm3 of hydrogen per minute.
In the second minute, only 11 cm3 are produced. (25 - 14 = 11)
So the rate for the second minute is 11 cm3 of hydrogen per minute.
The rate for the third minute is 8 cm3 of hydrogen per minute.
So the rate decreases as time goes on.
The rate changes all through the reaction. It is greatest at the start, but decreases as the reaction proceeds.
2 The reaction is fastest in the first minute, and the curve is steepest then. It gets less steep as the reaction gets
slower.
The faster the reaction, the steeper the curve.
3 After 5 minutes, no more hydrogen is produced, so the volume no longer changes. The reaction is over, and the
curve goes flat.
When the reaction is over, the curve goes flat.
4 Altogether, 40 cm3 of hydrogen are produced in 5 minutes.

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Conclusion
a. The speed of reaction is faster initially, gets less as the reaction proceeds
b. The faster the reaction, the steeper the graph

Factors affecting the rate of a reaction

Surface Area
Concentration (for liquids) and Pressure (for gases)
Temperature
Presence of a catalyst

1. Surface Area
For a greater surface area of solid, collisions are more frequent
Because collisions are more frequent, the rate is higher (heterogeneous reaction)
Example; CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

The method
 Place the marble in the flask and add the acid. Quickly plug the flask with cotton wool to stop any liquid
splashing out.
 Then weigh it, starting the clock at the same time. Note the mass at regular intervals until the reaction is
complete.
 Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas. It escapes through the cotton wool, which means that the flask gets lighter as
the reaction proceeds. So by weighing the flask at regular intervals, you can follow the rate of reaction.
 The experiment is repeated twice. Everything is kept exactly the same each time, except the surface area of the
marble chips.

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 Larger marble chips = small surface area leading to a slower rate

 smaller marble chips = large surface area leading to a faster rate
NB: For both of these reactions, the masses are the same, volume of the acid is also the same

2. Concentration
In solutions of higher concentrations (in gases higher pressure) particles more closer.
Therefore, they have a greater chance of collisions, hence the rate becomes higher, or it increases
2HCl (aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

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i. Lower concentrations; e.g. 0.5M slower rate

ii. Higher concentrations e.g. 1M

3. Temperature
The method
 Dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate solution react to give a fine yellow precipitate of sulphur.
 Mark a cross on a piece of paper.
 Place a beaker containing sodium thiosulfate solution on top of the paper, so that you can see the cross through
it, from above.
 Quickly add hydrochloric acid, start a clock at the same time, and measure the temperature of the mixture.
 The cross grows fainter as the precipitate forms. Stop the clock the moment you can no longer see the cross.
Note the time.
 Now repeat steps 1 – 4 several times, changing only the temperature.
 You do this by heating the sodium thiosulphate solution to different temperatures, before adding the acid.
 Higher temperatures, particles are moving faster because of higher kinetic energy, therefore increased
collisions

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4. Catalyst
These are substance that alters/changes the rate of a chemical r, remaining chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction
They do so by lowering the activation energy and aligning molecules into the correct orientation or path. Therefore
many more collisions are successful and the reaction becomes faster
Example (the reaction is exothermic)
2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

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Examples of catalysts for some common reactions

1. Heating potassium chlorate (catalyst – manganese (iv) oxide)
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
2. Synthesis of sulphur trioxide (catalyst – vanadium pentoxide or platinum powder)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
3. Synthesis of ammonia in the Harber process (catalyst – iron powder)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
4. Synthesis of nitrogen monoxide (catalyst – platinum and rhodium)
NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

ENZYMES
Biological catalyst; protein molecules that control chemical reactions in living cells- they have an active site
Characteristics
o are specific for each reaction, i.e. each enzyme controls one reaction
o generally they are temperature sensitive (they can be inactivated by excessive heat i.e. above 45 oc)

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o they are sensitive to pH; most work best at neutral conditions

Process Enzyme Descriptions
Brewing Enzymes in yeast Sugar + yeast gives ethanol & CO2
- fermentation: beer& wine making
Baking Enzymes in yeast Also the same as fermentation;
CO2 helps the bread dough rise
Ethanol evapourates
Washing (biological proteases They break down the proteins in stains (blood &
Washing powder) egg) on clothes
Making cheese Lipase They speed the ripening of cheese

Assignment
list the differences between enzymes and catalysts

REASONS OF EXPLOSIVE COMBUSTIONS

a. Fine powders
o Powders have large surface areas, so most particles have contact with the oxygen gas, therefore a small
spark can ignite (catch fire) quickly e.g. fine coal powder
o If the temperature is increased such that fine powder reactants have enough energy to overcome their
activation energy (Ea), then the explosion easily occurs
b. Combustible gases
o Gases such as methane CH4, ethanol vapour C2H5OH are dangerous
o Tiny spark can easily cause an explosion as the gases are highly flammable. At petrol stations, under the
ground at mines

SLOWING DOWN REACTIONS

o Rusting of iron or steel : galvanizing, painting and alloying can slow down oxidation
o Poisoning e.g. by scorpion, and snake bites : anti venom are used to retard the poison
o Decomposition e.g. of vegetables, meat etc : Refrigeration and freezing help slow down the decaying

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY is the study of carbon compounds except for very simple ones e.g. carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and metal carbonates.

THE STRUCTURE & BONDING OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

o In organic compounds, the bonds are covalent and the carbon atoms exhibit a valence of four (4)
o Carbon atoms can form many compounds because carbon can join in many ways e.g. straight / branched
chains, and rings

A formula drawn out in this way is called a structural formula.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
The family of carbon compounds is sometimes the HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
The members of the family are often related
Examples of the homologous series
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkanols / alcohols
Alkanoic / carboxylic acids
Esters

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Ethers
Amines etc

PROPERTIES WITHIN THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

a. The compounds in the series have the same general formula e.g.
Alkanes CnH2n + 2
Alkenes CnH2n
Alkanols CnH2n + 1OH, etc.
b. The formula of one member in the series differs from the formula of the next member by CH2
c. All the compounds in the series have similar chemical properties
d. There is a gradual change in the physical properties of compounds in the series as the number of carbons in the
molecules increases e.g.
e. Members have the same functional group A functional group is the part of a molecule that largely dictates how the
molecule will react.

NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The name is divided into two parts (a) the first part tells the length and (b) the second part tells the chain type /
end / functional group
a. Chain length – emphasized by the number of carbon in the longest straight chain length
Number of Carbons Chain Name Example (for alkanes)

1 - carbon Meth - Meth - ane

2 - carbons Eth - Eth - ane

3 - carbons Prop - Prop - ane

4 - carbons But - But - ane

5 - carbons Pent - Pent - ane

6 - carbons Hex - Hex - ane

7 - carbons Hept - Hept - ane

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8 - carbons Oct - Oct - ane

9 - carbons Non - Non - ane

10 - carbons Dec - Dec - ane

b. Chain type / end / functional group

Alkanes – characterized by single bonds between carbons, end with –ane

Alkenes – contain one or more double between carbons, end with –ene

Alkanols – contain a hydroxyl group (-OH group) as a functional group, end with –nol

Alkanoic acids – contain –COOH as a functional group, end with –anoic acid

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HYDROCARBONS
This is a substance made up of only hydrogen and carbon atoms ONLY
Examples
Alkanes e.g. methane CH4, ethane C2H6
Alkenes e.g. ethene C2H4, propene C3H6
Alkynes e.g. ethyne C2H2

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A. ALKANES
 They are hydrocarbons: they contain only carbon and hydrogen.
 Their carbon – carbon bonds are all single bonds.
 They form a homologous series, with the general formula CnH2n+2.
 They are found in petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum contains alkanes with up to 70 carbon atoms.
Natural gas is mainly methane, with small amounts of ethane, propane, butane, and other compounds.
 The first four alkanes are gases at room temperature. The next twelve are liquids. The rest are solids.
Boiling points increase with chain length because attraction between the molecules increases – so it takes
more energy to separate them.
 Since all their carbon – carbon bonds are single bonds, the alkanes are called saturated.

ISOMERS
These are compounds that possess the same molecular, BUT having different molecular structures
Isomers of the same molecular formula have different physical and chemical properties because of their structural
differences
Examples
Isomers of molecular formula C4H10

Since isomers have different structures, they also have slightly different properties. For example, branched isomers
have lower boiling points, because the branches make it harder for the molecules to get close.

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So the attraction between them is less strong, and less heat is needed to overcome it.
Question 1
Determine the isomers of Alkanes (with names) for compounds up to 5 carbons

CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKANES

a. Complete Combustion – burning a substance in the excess of air (O2) to give carbon dioxide and steam
Alkane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + steam

Question 2
Determine the balanced chemical equations for the complete combustion of alkanes up to butane
NB: INCOMPLETE combustion – If an alkane burns in limited supply of air, carbon monoxide and steam will be
produced

b. Substitution reactions (only with saturated hydrocarbons) – Alkanes react with halogens or group VII gases

Example – chlorine gas in the presence of light as a catalyst react with alkanes (photo catalytic reactions)

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

If chlorine is in excess, dichloromethane, trichloromethane, and tetrachloromethane may be formed. Ie

CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl
Question 3
Determine equations for the first 3 reactions of bromine with ETHANE and give names of compounds formed

CRUDE OIL – unrefined petroleum

Crude oil and other hydrocarbons exist in liquid or gaseous form in underground pools or reservoirs, in tiny spaces
within sedimentary rocks, and near the earth's surface in tar (or oil) sands. Petroleum products are fuels made from
crude oil and hydrocarbons contained in natural gas. Petroleum products can also be made from coal, natural gas,
and biomass
This a mixture of different chemical substances, with HYDROCARBONS as their main constituents
o The liquids are separated by a process called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION as they have different boiling points
o Crude oil is heated in a furnace
o Vapours rise up the fractionating column until they are cool enough to condense
o Those with the smallest molecules boil off first, and rise to the top of the tower. Others rise only part of the
way, depending on their boiling points, and then condense.

After distillation, impurities such as sulphur are removed and used to make sulphuric acid

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Uses of important fractions

 Natural gas / Liquefied petroleum gas – usually used as a fuel for cooking, and it mainly comprises of methane
gas
 Petrol / Gasoline – used as fuel for motor cars
 Naphtha – used to make chemicals ie solvents
 Kerosene – used as fuel for jet engines
 Paraffin – used as a heating oil
 Diesel oil – used in internal combustion of diesel type engines e.g. trucks, tractors, trains etc
 Lubricating oil – used as a lubricant for machinery, also used to make petroleum jelly, waxed and polishes
 Bitumen / asphalt – used to surface roads

B. ALKENES
 The alkenes are hydrocarbons.
 They form a homologous series, with the general formula CnH2n.
 They all contain the C = C double bond. This is their functional group, and largely dictates their reactions.
Look at the bonding in ethene.

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 Because they contain C = C double bonds, they are called unsaturated. (Alkanes have only single carbon
– carbon bonds, so are saturated.)

Isomers of alkenes
The alkenes also have isomers, depending on where the double bond has been placed along the straight chain

Manufacture of Alkenes
Ethene is made through a process called CRACKING

CRACKING

This is a process by which large molecules of hydrocarbons are converted into smaller and more useful molecules.
All cracking methods give:
a. An alkene and an alkane which is shorter than the original alkane
b. Two or more alkenes with a hydrogen molecule

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Examples of Cracking

C16H34 → C8H18 + C8H16

C16H34 → C6H12 + C10H22
C8H18 → 2 methyl pentane + ethane
C16H34 → C6H12 + C10H20 + H2
The mixtures of cracking products (alkenes and alkanes) are separated through fractional distillation
There are two methods of cracking namely THERMAL AND CATALYTIC
1. Thermal Cracking
This is whereby a large alkane is broken down at very high temperatures of about 700oC at atmospheric pressures
of about 30atm
2. Catalytic Cracking
This is carried out at temperatures of around 500oC, pressure of 1atm and MAINLY in the presence of SILICON
DIOXIDE and ALUMINIUM OXIDE as catalysts
 Cracking helps you make the best use of petroleum. Suppose you have too much of the naphtha fraction, and
too little of the gasoline fraction.
 You can crack some naphtha to get molecules the right size for petrol.
 Cracking always produces short-chain compounds with a carbon–carbon double bond. This bond makes the
compounds reactive. So they can be used to make plastics and other substances.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKENES

1. Combustion
Alkenes burn in air (oxygen gas) to form carbon dioxide and steam
Question 1
a. Give balanced equations with state symbols for the complete combustion of
o Ethene
o Propene and
o Butene

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b. Why do alkenes burn with more smoke as compared to when burning alkanes
2. Addition reactions

These involves two reactant molecules combining to form a single compound with the breaking of a double or a
triple bond covalent bond between carbon atoms

Hydrogenation [addition of hydrogen to an alkene]

Catalyst – nickel/platinum metal
Temperatures between 150 and 300oC

Question 2
Give balanced equations for the hydrogenation of (i) propene, (ii) butene and (iii) pentene
Hydration [addition of water to an alkene to give an alkanol]
Catalyst – phosphoric acid at 600oC and 60 atm pressure

This reaction is used as the laboratory preparation of ethanol

Halogenations e.g. Bromination and chlorination [addition of a halogen to an alkene]

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Chlorine also behave the same way forming 1, 2 dichloro-ethane

Addition polymerization
Small molecules [monomers] are added together to form a large molecule [polymer]
n(A) → A(n)
monomer → polymer
Example: the polymerization of ethene

SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
These are compounds containing single covalent C – C bonds. Each carbon atom shows a valence of 4, and the
bonds not used in the chain are linked to hydrogen atoms.
Example: alkanes
Propane: CH3 – CH2 – CH3

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
These are compounds which contain at least a double covalent C = C bond
Example: alkenes and alkynes

TEST FOR UNSATURATION

Bromine water is used
For alkanes, the colour of bromine water remains brown or orange
For alkenes, bromine water is decolourised, ie it changes from brown to colourless

C. ALKANOLS (ALCOHOLS)
 they form a homologous series, with the general formula CnH2n11OH.

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 their OH functional group means they will all react in a similar way.
 two of the names above have -1- in. This tells you that the OH group is attached to a carbon atom at one
end of the chain.

Ethanol, an important alcohol

 Ethanol is the alcohol in alcoholic drinks.
 It is a good solvent. It dissolves many substances that do not dissolve in water.
 It evaporates easily – it is volatile. That makes it a suitable solvent to use in glues, printing inks, perfumes,
and aftershave

Manufacture of Ethanol
1. Catalytic addition of steam to ethane – The chemical way
 Hydration means water is added on. This is an addition reaction.
 The reaction is reversible, and exothermic.
 High pressure and a low temperature would give the best yield.
 But in practice the reaction is carried out at 570 °C, to give a decent rate of reaction.
 A catalyst is also used, to speed up the reaction.

Catalyst and conditions: phosphoric acid, 600oC at 60 atm pressure

2. Fermentation – The biological way

 Ethanol is made from glucose using yeast, in the absence of air - Anaerobically:
 Yeast is a mass of living cells. The enzymes in yeast (zymase) in it catalyse the reaction.
 The process is called fermentation, and it is exothermic.
 Ethanol can be made in this way from any substance that contains sugar, starch, or cellulose. (These break
down to glucose.) For example it can be made from sugarcane, maize, potatoes, and wood.
 The yeast stops working when the % of ethanol reaches a certain level, or if the mixture gets too warm.
 The ethanol is separated from the final mixture by fractional distillation.

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ETHANOL [ALKANOLS]

1. Combustion (burning in excess of air – oxygen gas)
C2H5OH + O2 → ….CO2 + …..H2O

Question
Complete the balanced equations for the formation of (i) propanol and (ii) butanol
2. Oxidation i.e. when wine or beer is exposed to air
Catalysts: potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) when acidified in dilute sulphuric acid
C2H5OH + 2[O] → 2CH3COOH + H2O
Ethanoic acid

Uses of ethanol
o Solvent for medical purposes and in perfumes
o Source of fuel e.g. when mixed with petrol
o As a constituent of beer and wine
o Disinfectant when treating wounds

D. ALKANOIC ACIDS (CARBOXILLIC or ORGANIC ACIDS)

 The family forms a homologous series with the general formula CnH2nO2. Check that this fits with the
formulae in the table below.
 The functional group COOH is also called the carboxyl group.

Two ways to make ethanoic acid

Ethanoic acid is made by oxidising ethanol:

1 By fermentation – the biological way

When ethanol is left standing in air, bacteria bring about its oxidation to ethanoic acid. This method is called acid
fermentation.
Acid fermentation is used to make vinegar (a dilute solution of ethanoic acid). The vinegar starts as foods such as
apples, rice, and honey, which are first fermented to give ethanol.
2 Using oxidising agents – the chemical way

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Ethanol is oxidised much faster by warming it with the powerful oxidising agent potassium manganate(VII), in the
presence of acid.
The manganate(VII) ions are themselves reduced to Mn2+ ions, with a colour change. The acid provides the H+ ions
for the reaction:

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O

purple → colourless
Potassium dichromate(VI) could also be used as the oxidising agent. Oxidation of ethanol in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid
Ethanoic acid is a weak, and therefore undergoes incomplete ionization, and the equilibrium is DYNAMIC
CH3COOH ↔ CH3COO- + H+
Ethanoic acid: typical acid reactions !
Ethanoic acid shows typical acid reactions.
1 A solution of ethanoic acid turns litmus red.
2 A solution of ethanoic acid contains H + ions, because some of the ethanoic acid molecules dissociate in water, like
this:

Since only some molecules dissociate, ethanoic acid is a weak acid.

3 Ethanoic acid reacts with metals, bases, and carbonates, to form salts.
It reacts with sodium hydroxide like this:

Esterification
This is the formation of an ester
Ethanoic acid also reacts with alcohols, to give compounds called esters.
The alcohol molecule is reversed below, to help you see what is happening:
o An alcohol reacts with an Alkanoic acid in the presence of an of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid

Example: the reaction between Ethanoic acid and ethanol to ethyl ethanoate (ester) and water

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Note these points:

 Two molecules have joined to make a larger molecule, with the loss of a small molecule, water. So this is called
a condensation reaction.
 The reaction is reversible, and sulfuric acid acts a catalyst.
 The alcohol part comes first in the name – but second in the formula.
 Propyl ethanoate smells of pears. In fact many esters have attractive smells and tastes. So they are added to
shampoos and soaps for their smells, and to ice cream and other foods as flavourings.

Other examples of common ALKANOIC ACIDS and their uses

a. Aspirin – used as a painkiller and reduces the rate of heart attack
b. Ascorbic acid – also known as vitamin C, helps in protection against diseases
c. Citric acid – found in citric fruits such as lemons and oranges and also a good source of vitamin C
d. Tartaric acid – found in baking powder, helps in raising dough

MACROMOLECULES

These are large molecules, and are divided into two types, namely natural and synthetic molecules

POLYMERS – These are large organic macromolecules made of repeating units called MONOMERS

POLYMERISATION – Linking together small and simple molecules to form large units called polymers.
There are two types of polymers namely:
Addition and condensation polymers, which can be divided into synthetic and natural polymers

A. SYNTHETIC / MANMADE MACROMOLECULES

1. ADDITION POLYMERS – They involve addition of one substance to another to form a single substance

Certain conditions such as high temperatures, high pressure and the presence of a catalyst are necessary
Examples of ADDITION POLYMERS

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Uses and Properties of common ADDITION POLYMERS

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2. CONDENSATION POLYMERS – Two or more molecules [monomers] react to form a large molecule
[polymer], with the removal of SMALL MOLECULES e.g. water, HCl etc

Examples of CONDENSATION POLYMERS

a. Terylene (POLYESTER)
Contain an ESTER LINKAGE with the removal of water as another product.

Monomer 1 Monomer 2
Ethane 1, 2 diol (alcohol) Benzene 1, 4 dioc acid (Alkanoic acid)

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b. Nylon (POLYAMIDE)

Contain an AMIDE LINKAGE with the removal of water molecules

Monomer 1 Monomer 2
1, 6 diamino hexane (amine) Hexane 1, 6 dioic acid (Alkanoic acid)

Uses of manmade fibres

 Nylon : clothing, ropes and fishing lines
 Terylene : clothing, boat sails and fishing lines

Impact of manmade (synthetic) fibres to the environment

They cause pollution e.g. plastics are not decomposed by bacteria or corrosion.
They are non bio degradable

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B. NATURAL MACROMOLECULES

These are large molecules (macromolecules) which exist naturally such as fats, carbohydrates and proteins

Most of the natural macromolecules are constituents if food

1. Proteins

These are complex compounds that are made of Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen as the only elements. They are
from amino acid monomers
Each amino acid that is used in building up proteins contains –NH2 and COOH as the functional groups

When proteins are hydrolysed or broken down, they give amino acids [REVERSE OF CONDENSATION –
HYDROLYSIS]

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Separation of mixtures of hydrolysis of PROTEINS

The different amino can be separated by a process called chromatography

LOCATING AGENTS are used in this process. When the substance is analysed, the substances appear colourless
on the chromatogram. Then locating agent then form a coloured compound with the colourless amino acid when
it is sprayed onto the chromatogram to identify them.
An example of a locating agent used is NINHYDRIN, and is used in detecting the presence of amino acids e.g.
in forensic science
Rf – [Retention Factor] given by the following equation
distance moved by the subtance
Rf = distance moved by the solvent

2. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates contain just carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Glucose is called a simple carbohydrate. It is also called a monosaccharide, which means a single sugar unit.

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The structure of a glucose molecule is shown below

Examples of carbohydrate are sucrose [C12H22O11], glucose [C6H12O6], cellulose and starch. Glucose and
sucrose are examples of simple sugars while cellulose and starch are examples of complex (long) molecules
HYDROLYSIS [breaking up] of complex molecules such as cellulose and starch give simple sugars. Hydrolysis is
usually done in the presence of hot concentrated sulphuric acid
n [C6H10O5] + nH2O → [C6H10O5]n acid hydrolysis
monomer polymer

3. Fats

These are esters having the same linkage as Terylene, but with different units of hydrocarbons
Preparation of Soap (saponification) – Alkaline Hydrolysis

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Acid Hydrolysis

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This is simultaneous oxidation and reduction processes i.e. both oxidation and reduction occurs at the same time
Definitions:
1. Oxidation number
This is a numerical value assigned to an element when that element is:
- in the free state e.g. O2, Cl2, Mg, Na
- present in the ionic or covalent compound e.g. NaCl, H2O
- present in the complex ion e.g. BrO3-, SO42-
2. Oxidation;
 Loss of electrons from an element or ion(OIL)
3. Reduction;
 Gain of electrons (RIG)

Oxidation and reduction – electron transfer

Examples
Mg(s) + CuO(s) → MgO(s) + Cu(s)
Mg(s) + Cu2+ + O2- → Mg2+ + O2- + Cu
Oxide ion is the spectator ion, therefore cancelled.
Mg(s) + Cu2+ → Mg2+ + Cu
Equation in terms of half ionic equations
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e- - loses 2e- to copper
Cu2+ (s) + 2e- → Cu(s) – gain 2e- from copper
Mg(s) – metal is oxidized -oxidation
Cu – is reduced – reduction

OTHER EXAMPLES OF REDOX REACTIONS

Mg (s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)

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Mg → Mg2+ + 2e- - losses 2electrons

Cl2 - 2e- → 2Cl- - gain in electrons (2e-)
Mg (s) oxidized (oxidation)
Cl2 (g) reduced (reduction)
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Blue colourless
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ + Cu(s)
Zn (aq) - 2e- → Zn(s) – oxidation - ZnSO4 oxidized
Cu(s) + 2e- → Cu(aq) – reduction Cu(s) – reduced
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Cu + 2Ag+ → Cu2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s)
Cu- - 2e- → Cu2+ - oxidation Cu metal oxidized
2Ag + + 2e - → 2Ag – reduction AgNO3 – reduced

REDUCING AGENTS
Substance losing electrons to another substance or donating electrons ;( OR contain substances undergoing
oxidation) always oxidize
Elements found in groups I and II will readily donate their outer electrons to attain their stability

Example
Mg + CuO → MgO + Cu
Mg(s) – reducing agents undergoes oxidation
Common Reducing agents
 Hydrogen gas (H2) when heated with metallic oxide(below)
CuO (s) + H2 (g) → H2O (l) + Cu(s)
H2 - 2e- → 2H+ (H2 loses 2e- - oxidation)
 Carbon (C) heated with metallic oxide
C + PbO → Pb + CO
C – 2e- → C2+ - loses e- to Pb
 Carbon monoxide (when heated with metallic oxide)
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
(CO loses 2e- to iron)

OXIDISING AGENTS
Substances accepting electrons from another substance (OR contains substances undergoing reduction) reduction
Elements in groups VI and VII will readily accept electrons to complete their shells
Mg + ZnO → Zn + MgO
ZnO – gains 2e-; loses oxygen to Mg

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Common oxidizing agents

 Oxygen gas (O2)
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
O2 + 4e- → 2O-2
 Chlorine gas (Cl2)
2FeCl2(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2FeCl3
Fe2+ - e- → Fe3+
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl-
 Potassium permanganate(KMnO4) acidified
2KMnO4 + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ → 4H2O + Mn2+ + 5Fe3+
Changes from purple to colourless in the presence of reducing agent
Mn7+ + 5e- → Mn2+ - reduction
 Potassium dichromate(K2Cr2O7) – acidified
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6Fe2+ → Cr3+ + 7H2O + 7Fe3+
Changes from orange to green
Cr+6 + 3e- → Cr+3 – oxidizing agent:
(Test for SO2 gas)

TEST FOR REDUCING AGENTS (by oxidizing agents)

TEST RESULT EXPLANATION
Add a solution of potassium Purple colour of MnO4- ions Purple colour of MnO4- ions are reduced to
permanganate, KMnO4 is decolourised Mn2+ which are colourless ie
acidified with dilute sulphuric Mn7+ + 5e- → Mn2+ - reduction
acid, H2SO4
Add a solution of potassium Orange colour changes to Orange colour from Cr2O72- ions are reduced
dichromate, K2Cr2O7 acidified green to green Cr3+ions, ie
with dilute hydrochloric acid, Cr+6 + 3e- → Cr+3 – reduction:
HCl

TEST FOR OXIDIXING AGENTS (by reducing agents)

TEST RESULT EXPLANATION

Add a solution of iron (II) Colour changes from pale Iron (II) ions, Fe2+ which are green are
sulphate (FeSO4) to the solution green to brown oxidized to iron (III) ions, Fe3+ which are brown
being tested in colour
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-

Examples of commonly occurring redox reactions

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 Rusting
 Combustion
 Respiration and photosynthesis

EXERCISE

1 Then, using the ideas above, say which substance is being oxidised, and which is being reduced, in each
reaction.
A Ca (s) + O2 (g) → CaO (s)
B 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
C CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
D 2CuO (s) + C (s) → 2Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
E 2Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s)
F Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

2 a Is this a redox reaction? Give reasons.

A 2Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2MgO (s) 1 C (s)
B SiO2 (s) + C (s) → Si (s) + CO2 (g)
C NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
D Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s)
E C (s) + PbO (s) → CO (g) + Pb (s)

b For each redox reaction you identify, name:

i the oxidising agent
ii the reducing agent.

3 The oxidising agent potassium manganate(VII) can be used to analyse the % of iron(II) present in iron
tablets.
Below is an ionic equation, showing the ions that take part in the reaction:
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) → Mn2+ (aq) + 5Fe3+ (aq) + 4H2O(l)
a What does the H+ in the equation tell you about this reaction?
b Describe the colour change.
c Which is the reducing reagent in this reaction?
d How could you tell when all the iron(II) had reacted?
e Write the half-equation for the iron(II) ions

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This is a process whereby a molten substance or a solution is decomposed using electrical energy; involves the
migration and discharge of ions at the electrodes
Definitions
1. Electrolyte – Compound in solution or a molten compound which can conduct electricity with the decomposition
at the electrodes e.g. acids, acids, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, and salts
2. Non electrolyte – Solution / molten compound which cannot be decomposed by an electric current
3. Electrodes – Two poles of carbon / metal at which the current (as a flow of electrons) enters and leaves an
electric circuit
Anode – positive electrode or terminal at which electrons enter an external circuit – they attract electrons
Cathode – negative electrode at which electrons leave the external circuit – attract cations
4. Electrolytic cell – vessel or container which electrolysis occurs. Reactions within which the electrolysis occurs.
Reactions within the electrolytic cell is called electrochemical reactions
5. Electronic Conduction – movement of electrons in metals and graphite
6. Electrolytic conduction – movement of ions in an electrolyte
Non metals are produced at the anode [oxidation]
Metals and hydrogen are at the cathode [Reduction]

ANODE CATHODE
Electrons are taken away from Electrons are supplied to the cathode, which
the anode which becomes becomes negatively charged
positively charged
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD (II) BROMIDE
Electrolysis breaks the molten ionic compound down to its elements, giving the metal at the cathode, and the non-
metal at the anode.
What happens to ions in the molten lead bromide?
In molten lead bromide, the ions are free to move. This shows what happens to them, when the switch in the
circuit is closed:

SELECTIVE DISCHARGE OF IONS IN SOLUTION

The electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Electrolysis can also be carried out on solutions of ionic compounds in water, because the ions in solutions are
free to move. But the result may be different than for the molten compound.

Why the difference?

Because the water itself produces ions. Although water is molecular, a tiny % of its molecules is split up into ions:
some water molecules → hydrogen ions + hydroxide ions
H2O(l) → H+(aq) + OH- (aq)
These ions also take part in the electrolysis, so the products may change.
When there are two or more ions of similar charge in solution under similar conditions, it will lead to the other
one being discharged.
 The selection depends on;
1. Position of the metal / radical (anion) in the electrochemical series
CATION ANION
K+ SO42-
Na+ NO3-
Ca2+ Cl-
Mg2+ Br-
Zn2+ I-
Fe2+ OH-
Pb2+
H+
Cu2+
Ag+
Au+
The anion at the bottom is the one which will preferred compared to the one at the top
2. Concentration
Ions higher in concentration are usually discharged irrespective of the position in the electrochemical series
Example: Concentrated hydrochloric acid contains Cl- and OH-, Cl- will be preferred, if the solution is dilute
OH- will be preferred.
3. The nature of electrodes
This also affects the order of discharge of ions
Example;
Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride
At the cathode (as one of the electrodes) if the platinum is used, H + is preferred as it is below Na+ in the
series leading to H2 gas as the product.
If mercury is used, Na+ is preferred as a possible product as it forms sodium amalgam with the mercury

The rules for the electrolysis of a solution

At the cathode (-), either a metal or hydrogen forms.
 The more reactive an element, the more it ‘likes’ to exist as ions.
So if a metal is more reactive than hydrogen, its ions stay in solution and hydrogen bubbles off. (Look
at the list on the right.)
 But if the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, the metal forms.

At the anode (+), a non-metal other than hydrogen forms.

 If it is a concentrated solution of a halide (a compound containing Cl 2, Br 2 or I 2 ions), then chlorine,
bromine, or iodine form.
 But if the halide solution is dilute, or there is no halide, oxygen forms.

When electrodes are not inert

A solution of copper(II) sulphate contains blue Cu2+ ions, SO42- ions, and H+
and OH- ions from water. Electrolysis of the solution will give different results, depending on the electrodes.
 ELECTROLYSIS OF CERTAIN COMPOUNDS

Writing the half-equations for electrode reactions

ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID (Also called the electrolysis of water)

Complete the diagram by labelling it

Ions present: 2H+, SO42-, OH-

Anode(SO42-, OH- migrate to the anode) Cathode(only H+)
4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e- 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2
Oxidation Reduction
Overall reaction: 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED SODIUM CHLORIDE (BRINE)
What is brine?
Brine is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride, or common salt.
It can be obtained by pumping water into salt mines to dissolve the salt, or by evaporating seawater.

The ions present are Na+ and Cl- from the salt, and H+ and OH- from the water.

At the cathode Hydrogen is discharged in preference to sodium:

2H+(aq) → 2e- + H2(g)
As usual at the cathode, this is a reduction.

At the anode Chlorine is discharged in preference to oxygen:

2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e-
As usual at the anode, this is an oxidation.
The two gases bubble off. Na+ and OH - ions are left behind, giving a solution of sodium hydroxide.
Some of the solution is evaporated to a give a more concentrated solution, and some is evaporated to
dryness, giving
solid sodium hydroxide.
Overall equation

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOEUS COPPER (II) SULPHATE

Observations
o Bubbles of a colourless gas produced at the anode
o Brown deposit of a metal produced at the cathode
o The blue colour of copper (II) sulphate solutions becomes pale

Explanations
Ions present: Cu2+, SO42-, H+, OH- (from water)
At the anode (OH- ions are preferred because of the position in the series)
4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e- (Bubbles are from oxygen gas)
At the cathode (Cu2+ ions are also preferred because of their position in the series)
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Cu2+ ions leave the solution (transition ions cause the blue colour of solution) hence the solution becomes pale

This process can be used in the mines for the purification of copper – ELECTROLYTIC REFINING

Observations
o No bubbles are produced ie no gas is produced
o The blue colour of the solution remains the same, WHY?

Anode Cathode
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu2+ +2e- → Cu(s)
ELECTROPLATING

Electroplating means using electricity to coat one metal with another,, 1) to secure improved appearance or 2)
to increase greater resistance to corrosion. For example, steel car
bumpers are coated with chromium. Steel cans are coated with tin to
make tins for food. And cheap metal jewellery is often coated with silver.

Example; 1 - The electrolyte is copper (ii) sulphate solution.

The object is made the cathode and a piece of copper metal is used as the anode.

At the anode, the copper metal dissolves.

At the cathode, the copper (II) ions are discharged. Copper metal is therefore deposited on the object.

Anode Cathode
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu2+ +2e- → Cu(s)

Example 2; how to electroplate a steel jug with silver.

The jug is used as the cathode. The anode is made of silver. The electrolyte is a solution of a soluble silver
compound, such as silver nitrate solution.
At the anode The silver dissolves, forming silver ions in solution:
Ag (s) → Ag+(aq) + e-
At the cathode The silver ions are attracted to the cathode.
There they receive electrons, forming a coat of silver on the jug:
Ag+ (aq) e- → Ag (s)
When the layer of silver is thick enough, the jug is removed.
To electroplate
In general, to electroplate an object with metal X, the set-up is:
cathode – object to be electroplated
anode – metal X
electrolyte – a solution of a soluble compound of X.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS
1. Refining of copper and gold
2. Extraction of aluminum metal
3. Manufacture of chlorine and sodium hydroxide
4. Electroplating – electrical precipitation of a cheap metal/plastic with an expensive one
Advantages - improve appearance
- resist corrosion
 METALS lose outer electrons to form
- Univalent ions e.g. sodium ion
- Divalent ions e.g. magnesium ion
- Trivalent ions e.g. aluminium ion

The physical properties of metals

Metals usually have these physical properties.
1 They are strong. If you press on them, or drop them, or try to tear them, they won’t break – and it is hard to cut
them.
2 They are malleable. They can be hammered into shape without breaking.
3 They are ductile: they can be drawn out into wires.
4 They are sonorous: they make a ringing noise when you strike them.
5 They are shiny when polished.
6 They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
7 They have high melting and boiling points. (They are all solid at room temperature, except mercury.)
8 They have high density – they feel ‘heavy’. (Look at the blue panel.)

The chemical properties of metals

1 They react with oxygen to form oxides. For example, magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide.
2 Metal oxides are bases: they neutralise acids, forming salts and water.
3 Metals form positive ions when they react. For example, magnesium forms magnesium ions (Mg2+) when it reacts
with oxygen.
4 For the metals in the numbered groups, the charge on the ion is the same as the group number. But the transition
elements have variable valency: they can form ions with different charges. For example Cu+
and Cu2+.

ALLOYS
An ALLOY is a mixture of two or more metals, metals being mixed with non-metals; uniformly
- They are formed by mixing together molten metals, then allowing them to solidify or cool

Turning a metal into an alloy changes its properties, and makes it more useful.
In an alloy, the atoms of the second metal must enter the lattice. So you need to melt the metals first, then
mix them.
Reasons for making alloys
o To improve the strength e.g. pure aluminium is weak and light, but duralumin(alloy) is quite strong
o To increase resistance to corrosion e.g. iron rust easily while stainless steel does not rust easily
o To improve appearance e.g. bronze
Simplified structure of a Pure metal compared to that of an ALLOY

COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF ALLOYS

ALLOY COMPOSITION PROPERTIES USES
Mild steel 99.5% Fe Easily worked; soft Car bodies, bridges, and other
0.5% C large structures of machinery
Stainless steel 74% Fe Tough, resist Cutlery,
18% Cr corrosion surgical instruments
8% Ni
Brass 65% Cu Resist corrosion Jewellery, coins, door furniture,
35% Zn coins
Bronze 90% Cu Tough( than pure Machine parts, bearings and
10% Sn Cu), resist corrosion gears, castings
Solder 70% Pb Low melting point Joining metals
30% Sn
Alnico 12%Al, 5% Co Very hard, Electronic equipments,
63% Fe, 20% magnetic permanent magnets
Ni
Duralumin 95% Al Tough, low density Air craft bodies, bicycle frames
4% Cu
1% Mn

ELECTROPOSITIVITY
When metallic substances react, they have a tendency to lose their valence electrons; thereby becoming
positively charged.
This is because they have fewer electrons in their valence shell, hence easier t to lose electrons to attain a
stable configuration.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

A. REACTIONS OF METALS WITH WATER

B. REACTIONS OF METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS

The equation for the reaction with magnesium this time is:
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Now compare the order of the metals in the two tables, and the equations for the reactions.
Hydrogen is displaced
When a metal does react with water or hydrochloric acid, it drives hydrogen out, and takes its place. This
shows that the metal is more reactive than hydrogen. It has a stronger drive to form a compound.
But copper and silver do not react with water or acid. So they are less reactive than hydrogen.

C. REACTIONS OF METALS WITH AIR (OXYGEN GAS)

Some metals when reacted with oxygen, they form basic oxides, most of which are insoluble in water,
EXCEPT FOR THE OXIDES OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM, AND CALCIUM – OXIDATION
1. Pure sodium metal burns with a yellow flash if exposed to open air
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 4Na2O(s)
Sodium oxide is a basic oxide, and dissolves in water to give a soluble hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) (strong alkali)
2. Calcium metal is not as reactive as sodium and potassium, but will burn with a brick red flame if
heated in air. A white thin film of calcium oxide will still form on the surface if exposed to air.
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
3. Magnesium burns in oxygen to give bright white flash to form a white ash of magnesium oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
4. Copper is not attacked by air when exposed to the atmosphere, but when heated to high
temperatures will form black copper (II) oxide on the surface, and the layer prevents further
oxidation by air.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
5. Platinum metal, even when strongly heated does not react with air

EXERCISE
1. Give (a) balanced equations and (b) ionic equations with state symbols for the reactions of the
above metals with dilute hydrochloric acid
2. Draw the apparatus used to prepare hydrogen gas from reacting zinc metal with dilute HCl, and
give a test for gas collected
 THE REACTIVITY SERIES

The non-metals carbon and hydrogen are included for reference.

The list is not complete, of course. You could test many other metals, for example tin, and nickel, and platinum,
and add them in the right place.
Things to remember about the reactivity series
 The reactivity series is really a list of the metals in order of their drive to form positive ions, with stable outer
shells. The more easily its atoms can give up electrons, the more reactive the metal will be.
 So a metal will react with a compound of a less reactive metal (for example an oxide, or a salt in solution)
by pushing the less reactive metal out of the compound and taking its place.
 The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds are. They do not break down easily.
 The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its ores, since these are stable compounds.
For the most reactive metals you need the toughest method of extraction: electrolysis.
 The less reactive the metal, the less it likes to form compounds. That is why copper, silver and gold are found
as elements in the Earth’s crust.
 The other metals are always found as compounds.

The equation for the reaction with lead(II) oxide is:

2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
lead(II) oxide + carbon → lead + carbon dioxide
The lead has lost oxygen: it has been reduced. Carbon is the reducing agent. The reaction is a redox
reaction.
Carbon is more reactive than some metals. It will reduce their oxides to form the metal.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

In displacement reactions, the most reactive element displaces the less reactive element from a compound

Once again, iron wins against copper. It displaces the copper from the copper(II) sulfate solution:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Iron + copper(II) sulphate → iron(II) sulphate + copper
(blue solution) (green solution)
Other metals displace less reactive metals in the same way.
A metal displaces a less reactive metal from solutions of its compounds.

They are all redox reactions

All the reactions in this unit are redox reactions: electron transfer takes place in them all.

In each of the experiments below, a piece of metal is placed in a metal solution.

Comparing the stability of some metal compounds
Many compounds break down easily on heating. In other words, they undergo thermal decomposition.

So the compounds of copper, the less reactive metal, break down easily.
The compounds of sodium do not.
The general rules for thermal decomposition
 These are the general rules:
 The lower a metal is in the reactivity series, the more readily its compounds decompose when heated.
 Carbonates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the oxide and carbon dioxide.
 Hydroxides, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the oxide and water.
 Nitrates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to the oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen.
The nitrates of sodium and potassium form nitrites and oxygen.

EXTRACTION OF COMMON METALS

EXTRACTION OF IRON

IRON ORE – haematite [impure iron (III) oxide]

A mixture called the charge, containing the iron ore, is added through the top of the furnace. Hot air is blasted
in through the bottom. After a series of reactions, liquid iron collects at the bottom of the furnace.
What’s in the charge?
The charge contains three things:
 Iron ore. The chief ore of iron is called hematite. It is mainly iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, mixed with sand and
some other compounds.
 Limestone. This common rock is mainly calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
 Coke. This is made from coal, and is almost pure carbon.
 Blast furnace – this is a tall structure lined with bricks inside coated with magnesium oxide, outside covered
with a steel shell.
 The temperatures onside the blast furnace are very high, with highest temperature at the bottom
decreasing as the move up the furnace
REACTIONS INSIDE THE BLAST FURNACE

Where next?
The iron from the blast furnace is called pig iron. It is impure. Carbon and sand are the main impurities.
Some is run into moulds to make cast iron. This is hard but brittle, because of its high carbon content –
so it is used only for things like canisters for bottled gas and drain covers.
But most of the iron is turned into steels.

Uses of slag
Making fertilizers
Making roads (concrete)
EXERCISE 5
a. Why is the iron from the blast furnace converted to steel?
b. Why does molten slag floats on the surface of molten iron?
c. The gases from the blast furnace must be treated before being released into the atmosphere. Suggest a
reason for this
d. Describe how SACRIFIAL PROTECTION can be used prevent rusting of steel ships using zinc metal blocks
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
Steels are made using the molten iron from the blast furnace.
As you saw, this molten iron is impure. It contains about 5% carbon, from the coke used in the furnace, plus
sand (which is mainly silicon dioxide) and phosphorus and sulfur compounds, from the iron ore.
1. First, unwanted impurities are removed from the iron.
– The molten iron from the blast furnace is poured into an oxygen furnace, and a jet of oxygen is turned
on.
– The oxygen reacts with the carbon, forming carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases, which are
carried off. It reacts with other impurities to form acidic oxides.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(g)
Mn + O2(g) → MnO2(s)
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
4P(s) + 5O2(g) → 2P2O5(s)
– Then calcium oxide is added. It is a basic oxide. It reacts with silicon dioxide and the other acidic oxides,
to give a slag that is skimmed off.
For some steels, all impurities are removed. But many steels are just iron plus a little carbon. Carbon makes
steel stronger – but too much makes it brittle, and hard to shape. So the carbon content is checked
continually. When it is correct, the oxygen is turned off.
2. Then other elements may be added.
These are measured out carefully, to give steels such as stainless steel, with the required properties.

o The oxides of carbon and sulphur are removed as waste gases, while others are used to make
slag
USES OF METALS

METAL PROPERTIES USES

IRON - Tough - Man hole covers
- Malleable - Gates, large structures

ALUMINIUM - Tough, low density - Aircraft bodies,

- Good conductor of electricity, - Overhead cables
heat - Cooking pots
- Resists corrosion
Zinc - Resists corrosion - To galvanise iron
- To make brass (alloy0
- Used in dry cells (electric batteries)

Copper - Good conductor of electricity - Electric cables

Chlorine is one of the Group VII halogen elements.
Laboratory preparation of CHLORINE gas
Chlorine is prepared by OXIDIZING chloride ions in concentrated hydrochloric acid using a suitable
oxidizing agent
Two common oxidizing agents used are manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2, and potassium manganate (VII),
KMnO4

Properties of CHLORINE
o A pale yellow – green gas
o An oxidizing agent
o Bleaches coloured materials i.e. turns damp blue litmus red, then bleaches it
o It is a very poisonous has
o It is denser than air
 o It has choking, unpleasant smell

Test for chlorine

It turns damp blue litmus paper red, then bleaches it

Bleaching action of CHLORINE

In the presence of water, CHLORINE forms two acids
- Hypochlorous acid or chloric acid, HClO(aq) and
- Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
- Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)

Hypochlorous acid slowly decomposes to liberate oxygen to the dye forming a colourless compound.
This process is speeded by light
HClO (aq) + dye → (dye + O) + HCl
The oxygen bleaches dye by oxidizing them
Q 2: Explain why dry chlorine will not bleach
Q 3: Explain the dye material should be washed with water after it has been bleached

Uses of CHLORINE
1. For sterilizing (killing harmful microorganisms) in tap water
2. Manufacture of plastics like PVC used in water pipes
3. Manufacture of domestic chemicals like domestic bleaches, and disinfectants

The electrolysis of brine - Manufacture of Chlorine

Brine is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride, or common salt.
It can be obtained by pumping water into salt mines to dissolve the salt, or by evaporating seawater.
Brine might not sound very exciting – but from it, we get chemicals needed for thousands of products we
use every day.
Chlorine is extracted from sodium chloride. In Botswana, sodium chloride is found in underground water
mixed with sodium carbonate
The ions present are Na+ and Cl- from the salt, and H+ and OH- from the water.
At the cathode Hydrogen is discharged in preference to sodium:
2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g) - this is a reduction.
At the anode Chlorine is discharged in preference to oxygen:
2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e- - this is an oxidation.
The two gases bubble off. Na+ and OH- ions are left behind, giving a solution of sodium hydroxide. Some
of the solution is evaporated to a give a more concentrated solution, and some is evaporated to dryness,
giving solid sodium hydroxide.
When it undergoes electrolysis, the overall reaction is:
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
brine sodium hydroxide chlorine hydrogen
Importance of sodium chloride
o It is a major component in the salt we use in food
o It is used to prepare chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen gas on a large scale
CARBON and CARBONATES

Carbon exists in several allotropic modifications. Two of those are diamond and graphite.
Allotropes are different forms of the same element. The atoms have different arrangements

DIAMOND

Diamond has a macromolecular structure in the form of tetrahedral crystal

In the crystal,
- All the atoms are joined together by very strong covalent bonds
- Each atom is joined to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement, which when cut and polished
creates an amazing luster (making them look valuable) therefore used to make JEWELLERY

Diamond is very hard hence used for the following

- Drills (rock borers)
- In saws i.e. in cutting glass

GRAPHITE

Graphite exists as black slippery, hexagonal crystal. It is found naturally, as plumbago (perennial plant)
and is manufactured artificially by heating coke to high temperatures in an electric furnace
In graphite:
- The carbon atoms are arranged in flat layers
 - Each atom in a layer is joined to three atoms by strong covalent bonds, the free extra electron
allows graphite to conduct electricity
- Weak forces exist between the layers, allowing the layers to slide over each other

Uses of graphite
- In pencil leads
- As a lubricant in particularly in small bearings

CARBONATES
Carbonates are regarded as salts of carbonic acid, H2CO3 (aq) formed when carbon dioxide reacts with
water. They contain carbonate ion, CO32-.

K2CO3 Carbonates of these do Carbonates Any carbonate with any acid

Na2CO3 not decompose on heating soluble in water liberates carbon
dioxide

CaCO3 [TEST FOR THE PRESENCE

MgCO3 Carbonates of these metals Carbonates OF CARBONATE IONS]
Al2(CO3)3 decompose on heat, to give insoluble in water
ZnCO3 oxides of the metals
FeCO3 and carbon dioxide gas
PbCO3
CuCO3
Ammonium carbonate is also soluble in water

USES OF SODIUM CARBONATE (SODA ASH)

a. Manufacture of glass
Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2
b. In domestic water softening i.e. ion exchange

USES OF LIMESTONE
a. Manufacture of glass
b. Manufacture of cement
c. Extraction of iron from blast furnace
d. Manufacture of slacked lime and quick lime (used to neutralize acidic soils)
e. Removal of sulphur dioxide from coal power stations (reacted with CaCO3 or Ca(OH)2)
DIAMOND EXTRACTION IN BOTSWANA

- Diamond is extracted from an ore called KIMBERLYTE. There are 3 main stages

Stage 1 - mining
- mined using open cast / open pit method
- surface soil is first removed, rock containing diamond then blasted, then transported to the crushers
- primary crusher: rocks broken into pieces less than 15cm
- fine sand and waste materials are removed using a spray of water. Ores more than 2.5cm sent to the
secondary crusher, to be reduced in size (less than 2.5cm)

Stage 2 - concentration
- the ore is mixed with ferro - silicon, which is a chemical that sticks to diamond. This increases the mass of
diamond, making it to sink to the bottom of the separator
- waste material floats on top, and can easily be decanted

Stage 3 - sorting
- the diamonds are sorted using UV - light of X - ray machine. All waste material are removed by hand.
- the diamonds are also sorted, graded according to their colour, shape, size and purity
Most of the nitrogen is found in the air as nitrogen gas, N2
Nitrogen gas is an inert gas (unreactive) due to its triple covalent bond; therefore a lot of energy will be
needed to break the bond.

THE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA – HABER PROCESS

 Ammonia is made from nitrogen and hydrogen in a process known as the Haber Process
 Nitrogen is obtained from air by a method called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
 Hydrogen is obtained from natural air by reacting natural gas CH4 with steam over a catalyst i.e.
nickel
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2
 The conditions of the Haber Process are
i. a pressure of 200 atmospheres
ii. a temperature of 450oC
iii. an iron catalyst

N2 (g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH = -189kJ

USES OF AMMONIA

 Most of the ammonia made is used to make fertilizers (urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium
nitrate)
 Some is converted to nitric acid
 Liquid ammonia is used in large scale refrigerating plants e.g. in ships and warehouses
 Ammonia solution is also used in laundry work to remove temporary hardness

TEST FOR AMMONIA

Action on red litmus
- Expose the damp red litmus paper to the gas

Result
- It turns blue

PROPERTIES
- Colourless
- Less dense than air
Physical Properties
- Exists as a solid, liquid and gas
- Freezes at 0OC and boils at 100OC
- Liquid at room temperature
- It is colourless, odourless
- The density of water 1g / cm3
CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER
(a) Turn blue when you add white anhydrous copper (II) Sulphate in the presence of water
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4.H2O
(white) (blue)
(b) Turn the blue cobalt chloride paper pink in the presence of water
CoCl2 + 6H2O → CoCl2.6H2O
(blue) (pink)

HARD WATER
This is the water that contains compounds of calcium and magnesium. There are two types of water hardness.
(1) TEMPORARY HARD WATER
(2) PERMANET HARD WATER
TEMPORARY HARD WATER
-It is due to the presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate. These
compounds enter water when rain water passes over rocks containing the carbonates of these elements e.g.,
calcium carbonate.
Carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater to form a weak acid, carbonic acid, which attacks the calcium
carbonate to produce calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)
Carbonic acid
H2CO3 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → Ca(HCO3)2 (aq)
Temporary hard water
Temporary hard water can be removed by heating or boiling this water since the insoluble carbonates of
these metals are formed.
PERMANENT HARD WATER
It is caused by calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate which enters water when rainwater passes over
the rocks containing these sulphates, which are largely soluble. Permanent hardness cannot be removed by
boiling.
Permanent hard water cannot be removed by boiling.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- has a nice taste -It wastes soap
-calcium ions in the hard water are needed by the body -It causes hot water pipes to block
for strong bones and teeth. -it can lead to kidney failure due to the high
-can form layers around water pipes to prevent concentration of salts
leakages(rust)

METHODS OF REMOVING WATER HARDNESS/ SOFTENING HARD WATER

METHODS TYPE OF HARDNESS HOW IS HARDNESS REMOVED OTHER POINTS

REMOVED
Boiling Temporary Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) Not suitable for large
+ CO2 (g) scale as lot of energy is
Ca2+ converted to insoluble CaCO3 required required
Addition of Temporary Ca(OH)2(aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) → Clacks method is cheap,
Ca(COH)2 2CaCO3(s)+ H2O used on large scale in
Dissolved Ca2+(aq) are removed by water treatment plants
precipitation
Addition of Both types Ca2+(aq) CO3(aq) → CaCO3(aq) Very convenient on a
Na2CO3 (washing Dissolved ions are removed as insoluble large scale
soda) carbonates
Distillation Both types Removal of dissolved ions or materials

Ion exchange Both types Water flows through a cation exchange with It can be used to
ions in hard water. Ions responsible for hard deionise water
water entirely removed.

Effects of hard water on Soap

Soap are salts formed when oils and fats are broken down by boiling them with KOH (aq) or

NaOH (aq). Soap contains stearate ions (octadecanoate ions)

Fat + NaOH → Soap + glycerol

This process is known as Saponification (soap making)

When hard water is mixed with soap Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions react with the stearate ions in the soap forming a
precipitate since the salts of Mg2+ and Ca2+ with stearate ions are insoluble. The precipitate is called scum.
Therefore soap in hard water does not form lather easily. Lather forms only after all the ions causing water
hardness have been precipitated as scum.

DETERGENTS

Soap and soap less detergents are both used for cleaning but they differ in one important way; -soapless
detergents do not give scum like soap, because they do not contain stearate ions which react with hard water
forming a precipitate. Soapless detergents are produced from the residue of crude oil distillation. Soap and
soapless detergents have a long chained hydrocarbon attached to an ionic group. The covalent tail is water
hating (hydrophobic) but will dissolve grease and oil which are also covalently bonded. The ionic head dissolves
in water molecules and is said to be hydrophilic (water loving) thus in one substance there is ability to mix with
both grease and water and cleaning is done this way. Dirt is usually removed at the same time because it sticks
to the grease or oil.

WATER POLLUTION

The main sources of water pollution are sewage, fertilizers, industrial waste products and detergents oil etc.
The effects of pollution on dissolved oxygen in the water

Oxygen in rivers, lakes and seas is essential for life of aquatic plants and animals. Water with a high level of
dissolved oxygen can support the life of active forms such as fish. Water with less oxygen can only support
microorganism such as worms. Bacteria also need oxygen to act on biodegradable materials.

Bacteria oxidize waste from sewage, fertilizers, etc. using oxygen in water to convert them into harmless
chemicals. Some waste materials have a high biological oxygen demand (BOD).That is, they need comparatively
large amounts of oxygen for their natural oxidation.

Dead plant materials have a high BOD and some rivers give up nearly all of their oxygen to allow natural
decay. Nitrogen compounds are also pollutants because they give rise to high BOD.
Nitrogen compounds are oxidized and changed to nitrates.

For Example: NH4+ → NO2- → NO3-

Each step involves oxygen and if any water is overloaded with waste materials, the dissolved oxygen is quickly
used up as bacteria oxidize the waste. Lack of oxygen will mean certain forms of life will not be supported and
harmless aerobic bacteria can no longer feed on the waste and therefore the rivers become heavily polluted.
SUMMARY
POLLUTING SUBSTANCE SOURCE EFFECT

Fertilizers Rain washes them onto lakes and Bacteria and algae grow faster
rivers
,use up O2 and then die
Industrial chemicals Oils, dyes, metal compounds, acids, Poisonous to plants and animals
alkalis etc. from and bacteria in the water
factories

pesticides Spray crops with chemicals Accumulation will kill animals

oils From refineries Covers sea birds and pollutes

beaches
 Components of air

Component Percentage

Nitrogen 78.8

Oxygen 20.95

Argon 0.93

Carbon-dioxide 0.03

Neon 0.002

helium 0.0005

Krypton 0.0001

Xenon 0.00001

Fractional Distillation of Liquid Air

Air is a major source of oxygen, nitrogen and noble gases. These gases are obtained by fractional distillation
of liquid air which involves the following steps:
 Air is passed through fine filters to remove any dust particles
 The air is cooled to about -800C to remove to remove water vapour and carbon-dioxide as solids
 This are removed to avoid blockages of the pipes
 The cold air is compressed. The compression causes air to warm up so it passes through a heat
exchanger to cool it down
 The cold expression is allowed to expand rapidly and this cools it further
 The compression and expansion process is repeated until the air reaches a temperature below -
2000C. At this temperature the air is now a liquid.
 The liquid air is passed into a fractionating column and it is fractionally distilled
 The gases are now stored in large stores and cylinders.

Uses of Oxygen
 Planes carry oxygen supplies. So do divers and astronauts.
 In hospitals, patients with breathing problems are given oxygen through an oxygen mask, or in an
oxygen tent.
 In steel works, oxygen is used in converting the impure iron from the blast furnace into steels.
 A mixture of oxygen and the gas acetylene (C2H2) is used as the fuel in oxy-acetylene torches for cutting
and welding metal. When this gas mixture burns, the flame can reach 6000 °C. Steel melts at around
3150 °C, so the flame cuts through it by melting it.

Air Pollution
Pollutant Source Harmful Effects
Carbon monoxide - Incomplete combustion of carbon Cause head ache, breathing difficulties, heart
containing substances such as fossil fuels. damage and death
- Veld fires
Sulphur dioxide - Volcanoes during volcanic eruption Causes breathing difficulties asthma attacks and
- Combustion of fossil fuels acid rain.
- Smelting of metal ores
Nitrogen oxide - Lightening activity Causes breathing difficulties, lung damage,
- Internal combustion in the engine (vehicle ozone formation of ground level acid rain
engines)
Chlorofluorocarbons - Organic solvents Destroy the ozone layer at stratosphere
- Aerosols allowing harmful UV radiation to enter the
- Refrigerants earth.
Methane - Decay of organic matter Causes global warming
(greenhouse gas)
- Natural gas
- Mines
Ozone - Reactions between oxygen and nitrogen Forms photochemical smog , irritates eye and
oxides in strong sunlight throat, damage lungs

Carbon dioxide - Burning of fossil fuels Causes global warming

(greenhouse gas)
- Forest fires
 Unburned - Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels React with ozone to form PAN in photochemical
hydrocarbons
- Vapourisation of volatile hydrocarbons smog

Oxides of Nitrogen and Lead compounds

- Nitrogen is basically inert under normal conditions, however if sufficient energy is available it
combines with O2 to form oxides of nitrogen i.e. NO and NO2.
- They are formed in car engines when nitrogen and oxygen both from air combine at high
temperatures and are released from the car exhausts.
- Effects
- Oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory diseases.
- They also react with clouds to form acid rain
Effects of acid rain
Corrodes buildings, stone works and mortar
Corrodes metal works such as bridges
Affects activity of the soil, thus affecting crops
Kills aquatic plants and animals

Solution
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere coming from vehicles can be controlled by catalytic converters.
Catalytic converters consists of platinum and are attached to the exhaust pipe just after the engine. Platinum
catalyses the reaction between carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide to produce harmless gases like CO2
and N2.
Cars are fitted with devices called catalytic convertors which speed up reactions which involve the polluted gases
converting to less harmful products such as nitrogen and carbon-dioxide. Catalytic convertors can only be used
with unleaded petrol as lead poisons the catalyst preventing it from working effectively.

Lead compounds Sources

Lead compounds are released into the atmosphere through car exhausts when leaded fuels are burnt. Lead
acts as antiknock in the car engines.
Effects
High accumulation of these compounds in the body causes brain damage especially in children.
Solution
To ban the use of lead additives to fuels (petrol) that is using unleaded petrol

The importance ozone layer

- Ozone (O3) is one allotrope of oxygen.
- It is toxic gas and has a high oxidizing power
- It is found as a layer of gas high above the earth’s surface. The layer is important because
it absorbs the ultra violet rays from the sun, which could cause damage to the earth. When
ozone layer is depleted by chemicals, known as Chloro - Flouro Carbons (CFC’s) this may lead
to UV rays reaching the earth and cause skin cancer.
Recycling is processing waste materials in order to make it safe for use again. Materials which can be
recycled are indicated in the table that follows

Material Method of recycling

Water Sewage or dirty water is purified and used again

Glass Old glass bottles are sterilized and used again; melting down and re using the
glass uses much more energy than making new glass

Aluminium cans The cans are shredded into tiny pieces. Iron /steel impurities are removed using
an electromagnet. The shredded pieces are melted and cast into ingots (block).
These are then rolled into sheets and turned back into cans. Recycling Aluminium
takes about 5% of the energy needed to produce it in the first place.
Iron/steel Many tones of scrap steel are re-melted in basic oxygen furnace to make new
steel ingots
Plastics There are about 50 different families of plastics. These have to be sorted out
according to their chemical content before they are re-melted and molded to
new plastic products.
papers Used paper can be made into pulp(after removing ink) and used to make
cheap paper

Other materials which can be recycled include Copper, lead, mercury, gold, silver, platinum, zinc and textiles.

ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING
 It is usually cheaper to recycle waste material than to use raw materials to make finished
products
 It reduces wasting resources
 It reduces pollution
 Conserves and minimizes depletion of natural resources
 It saves on time to get finished products.

FUEL
Any substance which can conveniently be used as a source of energy
- most fuels produce energy when they undergo combustion
All combustion reactions are exothermic i.e. they release energy
Energy released was previously stored in the bond
Complete combustion– when a fuel burns in excess of air(oxygen gas), carbon dioxide and energy are
produced
fuel+ oxygen → carbon dioxide + steam + energy
Incomplete combustion– when oxygen gas is limited in the burning of a fuel, carbon monoxide (poisonous
gas) will be one of the products
fuel + oxygen → carbon monoxide + steam + energy

Four stage process for generating electricity

1. Burning fuel 2. Heat changes 3. Steam drives 4. The turbines spin the 5. The generator
provides heat water to steam the turbines motor in the generator produces electricity

FOSSIL FUELS
Coal, oil, and natural gases are all examples of fossil fuels.
They are formed from remains of dead plants and animals which died millions of years ago and got
covered by layers of land.

Charcoal
o plants produce wood, which can be used to make charcoal
o the logs(wood) are covered with grass and soil(to prevent oxygen entering) then heated to a high
temperature
o this leaves behind a black residue which is mainly carbon

The use of plant and animal waste in producing Energy

Biogas and Biomass
Any biological material if converted into energy, the energy is called biogas energy. It can be made in
different ways
o burning wood
o pressing out oils that can be burned
o fermenting sugars to produce fuel e.g. ethanol
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Question
Describe energy conservation methods used in home
So what makes a good fuel?
These are the main questions to ask about a fuel:
 How much heat does it give out? We want as much heat as possible, per tonne of fuel.
 Does it cause pollution? If it causes a lot of pollution, we may be better off without it!
 Is it easily available? We need a steady and reliable supply.
 Is it easy and safe to store and transport? Most fuels catch fire quite easily, so safety is always
an issue.
 How much does it cost? The cheaper the better.
Advantages and disadvantages of various sources of energy
ENERGY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Coal - Cheap - non renewable
- easily changed into other forms - causes pollution problems
- can be distilled to give other
products e.g. coal gas
Solar Energy - no pollution problems - initial costs can be very high
- renewable - limited to places where there
is not enough sunshine
Wind Energy - renewable - can cause visual and noise
K.E. (wind) drives the turbines, - excellent in isolated communities pollution
generating electricity e.g. farms - requires a very windy site
- requires low level technology - requires more efficient
turbines due to low energy
Hydroelectric energy - renewable - Limited number of suitable
- Water is collected, stored in dams - no pollution sites
above ground, and then released into - high initial costs
pipes. - can cause environmental
- K.E. drives the turbines problems e.g. flooding
Geothermal Energy - renewable - Limited number of suitable
- High temp. (from reactions) below - no pollution sites
earth - high initial costs
- Cold water pumped below, then - can cause environmental
boils, steam drives the turbines problems e.g. flooding
Biomass - renewable - limited number of sites
Any biological material if converted - high cost of drilling deep into
into energy, the energy is called the earth
biomass. It can be made in different
ways
o burning wood
o pressing out oils that can be
burned
o fermenting sugars to produce fuel
e.g. ethanol
Nuclear Energy(fusion) - small amounts of fuel give large - Costly, because of high level
Uranium 235 absorbs a neutron, amounts of energy. safety precaution
becomes unstable. - Nuclear power stations are
It splits into 2 smaller atoms expensive to build.
Releases large amount of energy