Atoms combining
Chemistry A*
17-6-21
Compounds, mixtures and chemical change
Element:
• An element is a substance that cannot be split into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means or by electricity.
Compound:
• A compound is a pure substance which contains only one type of molecule
made up of atoms of more than one element. It is formed when two or
more different elements are chemically combined together.
• Heat can be used to form compounds. Heat can also be used to break
down compounds into elements or simpler compounds. Such a chemical
reaction is called thermal decomposition.
Molecule:
• A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound and is made up of a
group of two or more atoms chemically combined together. The
atoms that join to make one molecule can either be same or
different.
• To show the atoms present in the molecule of a compound, we use
its chemical formula, e.g., the chemical formula of water is H2O. It
contains the elements Hydrogen (symbol H) and Oxygen (symbol O).
The subscript number 2 shows the number of atoms of the element
preceding it.
• Mixture:
• A mixture is not a pure substance, as its components are not
chemically combined. It is formed when two or more substances are
physically combined.
The differences between mixtures and
compounds are listed below:
Mixture Compound
1. Component substances can be Component substances cannot be
separated by physical means. separated by physical means.
2. Its physical properties (colour, density, Its physical properties are individual and
etc) are an average of those of the not the result of its elements.
substances in it.
3. Normally little or no energy is given out Energy is usually taken in or given out
or taken in when a mixture is formed. when a compound is formed. This is
because a chemical reaction takes place
here.
4. A mixture’s composition can vary. A compound’s composition cannot vary.
Constituent elements are present in a
fixed proportion by mass.
5. Its chemical properties are the result of Its chemical properties are quite different
the substances in the mixture. from those of its elements.
The signs of a chemical change
• One or more new substances are formed
• Energy is taken in or given out, during the reaction
• The change is usually difficult to reverse
A chemical change is usually called a chemical reaction.
It is different from physical change
• If no new chemical substance is formed, a change is a physical
change.
4.2 Why do atoms form bonds?
• The reaction between sodium and chlorine
Why do atoms form bonds?
• Atoms of many elements are unstable, i.e. their valence (outermost)
shell is incomplete.
• Atoms try to complete their ‘duplet’ or ‘octet’, and for this many of
them either gain or lose electrons.
• This transfer of electrons causes atoms to become charged, either
positively or negatively; these charged atoms are called ‘ions’.
• Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable arrangement of
outer-shell electrons, like the atoms of group VIII/0.
How sodium atoms gain a stable outer shell
How chlorine atom gain a stable outer shell
Ions
• An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by
the loss or gain of electrons
• This loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of
electrons
• The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that of a noble
gas – such as helium, neon and argon
• Opposite charges attract each other, and that’s the whole
phenomenon behind ionic bonding.
4.3 The ionic bond
Ionisation of metals and non-metals
• Metals: all metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively
charged ions
• Non-metals: all non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to
become negatively charged ions
Electrostatic attraction
• The positive and negative charges are held together by the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between opposite charges.
• This is what holds ionic compounds together
•
How sodium and
chlorine atoms
bond together
How sodium and chlorine atoms bond
together
Explanation
• Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another
atom to gain a full outer shell of electrons.
• A positive sodium ion with the charge +1 is formed.
• Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to
have a full outer shell of electrons.
• One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium
atom to the outer shell of the chlorine atom.
• A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged
chloride ion with a charge of -1.
• Formula of ionic compound: NaCl
How solid sodium chloride is formed
Structure:
• Ionic Compounds form giant ionic structures, called giant lattice
structure or crystal lattice. Let us, again, take the example of NaCl, which
forms a cubic lattice.
• In a cubic lattice, each Na+ is bonded to six Cl–, and each Cl– is in turn
bonded to six Na+. No two Na+ ions are placed together, and no two
Cl– ions are placed together. This is why the structure is so strong; there
is attraction from every side which makes it difficult for ions to break
apart.
Other Examples:
• Group I, II, VI and VII elements take part in ionic bonding. Aluminium
(Group III) forms some ionic compounds as well. Let us look at some
more examples of Ionic Compounds.
More about ions
Ions of the elements
• Note 1: Carbon and silicon in Group 4 usually form covalent bonds by
sharing electrons.
• Note 2: The elements in Group 0 do not react with other elements to
form ions.
The names and formulae of ionic compounds
• To name an ionic compound, you just put the names of the ions
together with the positive one first.
• KCl = Potassium chloride
• H2S = Hydrogen sulphide
• Na3N = Sodium nitride
• Mg3P2 = Magnesium phosphide
Chemical Formulae:
• The formula of an ionic compound is constructed by balancing the
charges on the positive ions with those on the negative ions. The
positive charges must equal the negative charges. For example, in
Sodium Chloride, Sodium (whose symbol is Na) has charge +1, while
Chlorine (whose symbol is Cl) has charge -1. So 1 Na needs 1 Cl,
therefore the chemical formula “NaCl”.
• But what happens when there isn’t a 1 to 1 ratio? Let us take
Aluminium Oxide. Al has the charge +3, while O has the charge -2.
The following way is adopted then.
Some metals form more than one type of ion
Naming
Compound ions
• Ions formed from a group of bonded atoms.
Write formulae
4.6 Covalent compounds
• Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between
atoms
• Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
• As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons
• When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we
describe them as ‘molecules’
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Water
Methane
The shapes of molecules
• The pairs of electrons around an atom repel each other , and move as
far apart as they can.
More examples of covalent compounds
Ethene
Methanol
Carbon dioxide
Ionic & Covalent Compounds
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds
• Have high melting and boiling poin
ts so ionic compounds are • Have low melting and boiling points so
usually solid at room temperature covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room
• Not volatile so they don’t temperature
evaporate easily • Usually volatile which is why many
covalent organic compounds have distinct
• Usually water-soluble as both ionic aromas
compounds and water are polar • Usually not water-soluble as covalent
compounds tend to be nonpolar but can
• Conduct electricity in molten state dissolve in organic solvents
or in solution as they have ions • Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons
are involved in bonding so there are no
that can move and carry a charge free electrons or ions to carry the charge
4.8 Giant Covalent Structures
• Giant Covalent Structure: Contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each
joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds to form a giant lattice
structure.
• Substances with Giant Covalent Structures:
• States: Giant covalent structures are solids.
• Melting and Boiling point: Substances with giant covalent structures
have high melting and boiling point as they have many strong
covalent bonds that needs to be broken down so large amounts of
heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.
• Giant Covalent Structure: Contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each
joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds to form a giant lattice
structure.
• Allotropes: Different atomic, molecular arrangements of the same
element in the same physical state.
•
Diamond
• Properties:
• Hard
• Each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms, forming a giant covalent structure.
• Strong covalent bonds are difficult to break.
• High Melting and Boiling Point
• Giant Covalent Structure so there are many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken down.
• Large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.
• Does not Conduct Electricity
• All four valence (outer-shell) electrons are used in covalent bonds so there are no delocalised electrons that are mobile to
conduct electricity
• Uses:
• Cutting Tools
• Jewellery
•
Graphite
• Properties:
• Soft and Slippery
• Graphite is made up of two-dimensional layers of carbon atoms, which are held by weak van der Waal’s forces, lie on top of
each other.
• Forces of attraction between the layers are weak so the layers easily slide over one another and can easily be separated.
• High Melting and Boiling Point
• Within each layer, each carbon atom forms strong covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms in a giant covalent structure
so there are many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken down
• Large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.
• Conducts Electricity
• Only three valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds
• Fourth electron is delocalised between the layers and free to move parallel to the layers to conduct an electric charge.
• Uses:
• Lubricant
• Electrodes for Electrolysis
4.9 The bonding in metals
• Electrical Conductivity & Malleability of Metals
• Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding
• Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and
become positively charged
• The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to
be delocalised
• They move freely between the positive metal ions like a sea of electrons
• Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the
positive metal ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons
• Link between metallic bonding and the properties of metals
• Metals have high melting and boiling points
• There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures
• A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds
• Metals conduct electricity
• There are free electrons available to move and carry charge
• Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to displace itself from the
other end
• Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted
• Metals are malleable and ductile
• Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different positions
• Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to any particular metal
atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
• Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong but flexible
• They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking
