MASSMOVEMENT - resemble a spoon scoop. 1.

ROTATIONAL FAILURE - THE FAILURE

OCCURS BY THE ROTATION ON THE
- occur where there is loose material SLIP SURFACE, USUALLY BY THE
or rock. OUTWARD AND INWARD MOVEMENT
 MASS MOVEMENT/MASS WASTING -
IS THE DOWNSLOPE MOVEMENT OF A 3. R O C K F A L L - pieces of rock travel OF SOIL, AND THE SHAPE OF THE SLIP
MASS OF SURFACE MATERIALS, SUCH downward through some combination SURFACE IS CURVED
AS SOIL, ROCK OR MUD. of falling, bouncing, and rolling.

- OCCURS ALONG HILLSIDES AND 4. L A N D S L I D E S - Typically consist of 2. TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE - OCCURS

MOUNTAINS DUE TO THE unconsolidated rock. A great example IN THE CASE OF INFINITE SLOPES,
INFLUENCE OF GRAVITY AND CAN of this is a rockslide and avalanche.. FAILURE SURFACE IS PARALLEL TO
HAPPEN VERY SLOWLY OR VERY THE SLOPE SURFACE.
- The rocks do not behave as a fluid,
QUICKLY
such as in flows, and they do not
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT move as one unit, as in slumps.
3. WEDGE FAILURE / PLANE OR BLOCK
1. F L O W - Occur when the material, soil, 5. Rockslides - can be extremely FAILURE - OCCURS ON A PLANE THAT
and/or rock, behave more like a liquid or dangerous because they occur very IS INCLINED.
fluid. quickly with tremendous force.

- include mudflows, debris flows or

lahars (superheated water that - THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
6. An avalanche - occurs when snow or A WEDGE AND TRANSLATIONAL
moves down an erupting volcano).
snow and ice move quickly downslope. FAILURE IS THAT WEDGE FAILURE
- occur due to a large amount of CAN HAPPEN IN BOTH INFINITE
water or ice present in the soil. AND FINITE SLOPES.
 SLOPE FAILURE - PHENOMENON IN
- most often the fastest travelling of
70 miles per hour. WHICH A SLOPE COLLAPSES
ABRUPTLY DUE TO WEAKENED SELF 4. COMPOUND FAILURE - IS THE
RETAINABILITY OF THE EARTH UNDER COMBINATION OF TRANSLATION AND
THE INFLUENCE OF A RAINFALL OR AN ROTATIONAL.
2. S L U M P S - occur as a wedge or slice EARTHQUAKE.
of material that moves as one piece - HAPPENS, WHEN THE HARD
along a curved surface. TYPES OF SLOPE FAILURE STRATUM IS BELOW THE TOE AT
CONSIDERABLE DEPTH
 - THE FAILURE SURFACE IS CURVED their different mechanisms of movement
AT TWO ENDS, AND PLAIN AT THE and materials involved can require different
MIDDLE PORTION IS CALLED prevention and mitigation strategies. 2. BUILDING RETAINING WALLS -built to
COMPOUND FAILURE. prevent soil erosion and landslides, and
 ROCK FLOW - also known as a debris to create level areas for construction or
flow or mudflow, involves a fast-moving landscaping. They are used to hold back
mixture of rock, soil, and water flowing soil on sloped terrain or to separate
 ROCK SLIDE - SLIDES OF FROM 100 TO different elevations in a landscape or
down a slope.
10,000 CUBIC METRES OF ROCK . CAN construction site.
CAUSE MAJOR DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS - occur during heavy rainfall,
OR OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE IN THEIR snowmelt, or other events that
PATH. saturate the soil and cause it to lose
3. REVEGITATION - necessary to stabilize
cohesion.
soil, prevent erosion, and maintain
CONTROL OF MASS MOVEMENT biodiversity. It helps to control the flow
- ROCK SLIDES OCCUR ON LARGE of water and nutrients, reduces the risk
SLOPES OF 50 M HEIGHT AND - important to prevent property of landslides and improves the
ABOVE WHERE THERE ARE damage, loss of life, and aesthetic value of the area. Additionally,
WEAKNESSES. environmental degradation. It helps it can provide habitats for wildlife and
to stabilize slopes, prevent prevent the invasion of non-native
 ROCK FLOWS - SLIDES OF OVER 10,000 landslides and erosion, and maintain species.
CUBIC METRES OF ROCK MASSES. the integrity of infrastructure such
as roads and buildings.

- 4. RELOCATION - may be necessary for

slopes due to safety concerns such as
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROCKSLIDE AND 1. REINFORCING STEEP SLOPES - Steep landslide risks, erosion, or
LANDSLIDE slopes are often reinforced to prevent environmental hazards. In some cases,
mass wasting events such as landslides, it may be more cost-effective than long-
 Landslides - involve the movement of rockslides, and debris flows. term solutions, and provide an
soil and debris down a slope Reinforcement measures like retaining opportunity for communities to move to
walls, erosion control mats, and safer and sustainable areas.
 Rockslides - involve the movement of vegetation can increase the slope's
large rocks. stability and reduce the risk of damage
to infrastructure and human life.
Both can cause significant damage, but
 faults. An earthquake is the sudden movement stick.
of Earth's crust at a fault line.
Energy is spread during earthquakes. As rocks
Two basic features of an earthquake on opposite sides of a fault are subjected to
What is an Earthquake? force and shift, they accumulate energy and
- Magnitude and depth slowly deform until their internal strength is
- intense shaking of Earth's surface.
The shaking is caused by exceeded. At that time, a sudden movement
movements in Earth's outermost occurs along the fault, releasing the
layer.  Magnitude - measures the energy accumulated energy, and the rocks snap back
released at the source of the
Why do Earthquakes Happen? earthquake.

The Earth is made of four basic layers: o Depth range of 0 - 700 km is

divided into three zones
- a solid crust
o Shallow earthquakes are
- a hot, nearly solid mantle
between 0 and 50 km deep.
- a liquid outer core
o Intermediate earthquakes, 50 -
- a solid inner core 300 km deep.

- o Earthquakes, 300 - 700 km

deep.
to their original undeformed shape.
 Lithosphere - solid crust and top, stiff
layer of the mantle make up a region - Elastic rebound theory is one of the
 Intensity - a number that characterizes the central ideas to the mechanics of
severity of ground shaking at that location. earthquakes and was originally
Tectonic plates are constantly shifting as they proposed by Reid (1910) following
drift around on the viscous, or slowly flowing, Elastic Rebound Theory the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
mantle layer below. on the San Andreas Fault.
- what happens to the crustal material
This non-stop movement causes stress on on either side of a fault during an  Earthquake prediction - a branch of the
Earth's crust. When the stresses get too large, it earthquake. The idea is that a fault science of seismology concerned with
leads to cracks called faults. When tectonic is stuck until the strain accumulated the specification of the time, location,
plates move, it also causes movements at the in the rock on either side of the fault and magnitude of future earthquakes
has overcome the friction making it within stated limits
 - "the determination of parameters for warning of potentially damaging earthquakes 2. Do not enter damaged buildings.
the next strong earthquake to occur early enough to allow appropriate response to 3. If you are trapped, send a text or bang on a
in a region" the disaster. pipe or wall. Cover your mouth with your shirt
for protection and instead of shouting, use a
Preparation Before an Earthquake whistle.
 Seismology is the study of earthquakes 4. Go inland or to higher ground immediately
1. Make an Emergency Plan after the shaking stops.
and seismic waves
2.Plan where to meet if you get separated. 5. Check yourself to see if you are hurt and help
3. Make a supply kit others if you have training.
 Seismologist is a scientist who studies 4. Secure heavy items in your home
earthquakes and seismic waves.
5.Store heavy and breakable objects on low
shelves.
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION AND Stay Safe During
EARTHQUAKE FORECAST
1. If you are in a car, pull over and stop. Set
 Prediction - involves specifying the
your parking brake.
location, time, and magnitude of an
earthquake.
2. If you are in bed, turn face down and cover
 Forecasting - involves giving a your head and neck with a pillow.
probability of an earthquake in a given
area over a period of time. 3. If you are outdoors, stay outdoors away from
buildings. Geological structures
Scientists estimate earthquake probabilities in
two ways: 4. If you are inside, stay and do not run outside  Structural geology - study of the
and avoid doorways. feature formed by the geological
1. by studying the history of large earthquakes process
in a specific area. Stay Safe After

2. the rate at which strain accumulates in the

1.Expect aftershocks to follow. Be ready to  Geologic structures - characteristics or
rock.
Drop, Cover, and Hold On. features formed in rocks caused by the
The goal of earthquake prediction is to give disturbance from internal or external
 forces.  DIP - is an angle between an inclined tight (limbs dip steeply) or isoclinal (limbs are
bedding plane and an imaginary parallel).
 Geologic features - strike and dip or horizontal surface.
dipping beds, folding, faulting, joints, etc
- The angle of an inclination of a rock
2 Orientation of axial plane - the orientation of
bed with horizontal plane
the axial plane relative to the horizontal
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES ARE IMPORTANT perpendicular to the strike.
together with the orientation of fold limbs allow
FOR UNDERSTANDING: - The dip angle is measured with a subdivision into
1) The locations of earthquakes (faults). clinometer and its direction is
- upright (axial plane vertical, limbs symmetric),
measured with a compass.
2) The formation of mountains (faults and - overturned (axial plane moderately inclined,
folds). TYPES OF DIP
one limb overturned)
3) How to locate natural resources (oil, gold, 1. TRUE DIP - it is the maximum inclination
- recumbent (axial plane near horizontal, one
etc). of a bed with respect to the horizontal
limb inverted).
plane.
 Strike and dip - parameters of 3. Thickness of folded beds - thickly-bedded,
describing thevorientation of the tilted brittle units tend to form concentric folds with
layers of the rocks. 2. APPARENT DIP - dip along any direction the bed thickness preserved normal to bedding
other than that of true dip, always have surfaces.
 OUTCROPS - part of a rock formation
a value less than a true dip.
that appears above the surface of the FOLD STRUCTURES
surrounding ground. Tan(apparent dip)=tan(true dip) x cos B
Warps in rock layers and occur folded or
bended upwards, downwards, or sideways

 Strike - direction perpendicular to the  Fold - geologic structure that is formed - compression forces are the prime
dip direction. Thus, if dip is due East, the by layers or beds of rock being bent or cause of folds (important in
Strike direction is North-South. folded. mountain formation).

FOLD CLASSIFICATION TYPES OF FOLDS

- intersects the ground surface. 1. Anticline - fold that is convex: it curves

like a rainbow. The capital letter “A”
- The direction of strike is measured 1.Tightness of folding - the tighness of folds represents the shape of the fold. plane
by compass. can be described as open (limbs dip gently),
 or fold axis. repeated well behaved folded beds with to overlap the other.
straight limbs and sharp hinges , v-
shaped beds. 3. Strike slip Fault - the blocks shift past
each other in a horizontal movement.
2. Syncline - fold that is concave: it forms
a “U” shape. A series of down- arched 4. Oblique-Slip Faults - This left-lateral
strata dipping towards the fold axis on 4. Asymmetrical/recumbent fold - the oblique-slip fault suggests both normal
both sides formations. axial plane is inclined. An overturned faulting and strike-slip faulting.
fold, or overfold,has the axial plane
inclined to such an extent that the strata Joints

3. Monocline - special type of fold in which on one limb are overturned. Joints - cracks or fracture present in the rocks
both limbs are parallel but offset to along which there has been no displacement.
each other. The limbs are horizontal, or They may be vertical, inclines or even horizontal.
nearly so.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
5. Slump - Typically monoclinal, result of
differential compaction or dissolution (a) On the basis of the origin joints.
OTHER TYPES OF FOLDS during sedimentation and lithification. 1. Tension joints - formed as a result
1. Dome - consisting of symmetrical of tension forces. These joints are
anticlines that intersect each other at relatively open and have rough and
their respective apices.  Fault - Cracks or fractures in the Earth’s irregular surfaces.
crust
2. Shear joints - which are due to
 Fault line - an area of related cracks shearing stresses involved in folding
2. Structural basin - large-scale structural and faulting of rocks. These joints
formation of rock strata formed by  Fault plane - The two surfaces of these are rather clear-cut and tightly
tectonic warping of previously flat lying two blocks moving past each other form. closed.
strata. Structural basins are geological
depressions, and are the inverse of Types of Faults (B) On the basis of their altitude and geometry
domes. they may be classified
1. Normal fault - blocks of earth are pulled
apart and follow normal gravitational 1. Strike Joints - Joints that are parallel to the
pull, and one block slips downwards. strike of rocks.
2. Reverse fault - fault blocks move 2. Dip Joints - parallel to the dip of rocks
3. Chevron folds - characterized by towards each other. One block rides up
3. Oblique Joints - run in a direction that lies 2. Well-cleaved rocks with many systems of a geologist can consistently recognize,
between the strike and dip direction of the rock joints are broken at much less expenses. trace across a landscape, and describe.
beds.
3. Provide passage for the percolation of water Why Geologic Map is important?
4. Bedding Joints - parallel to the bedding and help weathering and formation of soil.
planes in a sedimentary rock.  They develop a theoretical
4. Control the natural ground water drainage
understanding of the geology and
5. Master Joints - run in two directions at system in rocks and underground.
geologic history of a given area.
nearly right angles, strongly developed than the
other and extends for long distances 5. Useful in exploration of water and in location
of well sites.  Esessential tools for practical
6. Mural Joints - Granites show three sets of applications such as zoning,
joints mutually at right angles, which divide the 6. Source of weakness and as pathways of engineering, and hazard assessment.
rocks mass into more or less cubical blocks. leakage of water through rocks
 Vital in finding and developing
7. Sheet Joints - often seen in the exposures of 7.Acts as oil and gas reservior
geological resources, such as
granites 9. Presence of joint in dams and reservoir leads sediments, groundwater, fossil fuels,
- run in the horizontal direction to water leakage and minerals.

- formed tension cracks during cooling of the 10. Can be a construction materials line What Are the Essential Components of
rock. limestone and sandstone joints . Geologic Maps?

- somewhat curve and essentially parallel to 1. The map itself

topographic surface
2. The map legend or key that explains all
the symbols on the map
8. Columnar Jointsm - formed in tabular 3. Geologic cross-section(s) of the map
Geologic Maps and Cross-Sections
igneous masses such as dykes, sills area.
and lava flows. Geologic map - uses lines, symbols, and
colors to illustrate information about the
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING JOINTS IN
ENGINEERING
nature and distribution of rock units within
an area.
1. In quarry operation, for easier detachment of What Is a Geologic Map Legend?
the rocks. Mappable unit of rock /sediment - one that
The map legend to a geologic map is section? Step 7 - Include vertical and horizontal
usually printed on the same page as the scales along with the statement of vertical
Step 1 - Locate the points between which
map and follows a customary format. exaggeration.
you will be constructing a cross-section for.
The map legend also contains an close Step 2 - Take a sheet of scrap
explanation of the symbols shown on the (scratch) paper. Place the paper along the
map, such as the symbols for different map where you want to draw a cross-
types of faults and folds. section.

 General geologic age symbols - Step 3 - At each geologic contact, make a

follow superposition and are stacked mark on the scratch paper. Position the
in an age sequence from oldest at marks in the direction you believe the rocks
the bottom to youngest at the top. are dipping. To determine this, use any
strike and dip symbols. If they are not
- This allows the map reader to
provided, use the Rule of V’s or the ages
quickly assess the relative age of
given to help determine the geologic
each unit.
structure.
 The geologic age (typically the Step 4 - Transfer the marks from your paper
geologic period) - is listed for each to a provided diagram.
unit in the key and uses standard
symbols. Step 5 - Sketch in and complete any
structures, paying careful attention to dip
angles (if provided). Structures may be
 Geologic cross-section - illustrates drawn in with a dotted line above the Earth’
how different types of rock are s surface to indicate rocks that were
layered or otherwise configured, formerly present but that have since been
including geologic structures, such eroded.
as folds and faults. Step 6 - Incorporate a legend into the cross-
section to explain the types of geologic
materials present.
How Do I Construct a Geologic Cross-