5.

Gas Insulated Substation

1. State any four properties of SF6 gas as an electrical insulating medium .

Ans : Properties of SF, Gas

A) Physical

• Colourless
• Odorless
• Nontoxic, pure SF, gas is not injurious to health. Non-inflammable, however
impure SF, gas contains toxic impurities.
• State gas at normal temperature pressure. Density heavy gas density 5 times that
of air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure.

B) Chemical properties of SF6 gas

• Stable at 500°C
• Inert life of metallic parts, contacts is loner in SF, gas. The components do not
maintenance required is less.
• Electronegative gas.
• Does not react with structural material upto 500°C
• Product of decomposition.

C) Dielectric properties of SF6 gas

• Dielectric strength of SF at atmospheric pressure is 2.35 times that of air.

• Dielectric strength of SF, gas is more than dielectric oil.
• Breakdown voltage of SF is increase with pressure.
2. Draw single line diagram of 132 KV GIS substation and write any two
advantages of GIS over conventional substation

Ans:

Advantages of GIS

1. Safe: GIS are very safe & working people are protected by the earthed metal enclosures.
Although the Substation in operational state the Operating people can touch the section.

2. Reliable: The whole enclosure of all alive parts safeguards alongside any impairment of
the insulation scheme.

3. Space Saving:
4. Economical:
5. Maintenance Free:
6. Low Weight:
7. Shop assembled:

3. Describe the working of UHF (Ultra high frequency)method of identifying the

location of partial discharge
Ans:

• UHF sensors have been widely used to sense faults such as cracks in physical
constructions, displacement and slant detection in wireless radio frequency identification
system and partial discharge measurements in high voltage engineering.
• These application are practically possible because the transient process of these faults
have very short rise time which results in induced frequency components in the UFIF
range.
• As can be seen in figure a UHF sensor plays a important role in UHF PD measurement
because the initial step of PD measurement is to obtain electromagnetic signals using
these devices for further signal processing.
• To this end the performance of the sensors will dramatically effect the accuracy and
sensitivity of the PD finding system.
• The UHF method has as its leading merits its protection to external electromagnetic
interference the high signal to noise ratio with high finding sensitivity.
• Noise at lower frequency range (below 200 MHZ) such as the surrounding continuous
white noise within a substation can be prohibited.

4. Differentiate between gas insulated and conventional air insulated substation.

Ans :
[Link] Comparison GIS AIS

1 Space Less Large

2 Maintenance Free maintenance for Every year and based on

5 years operation

3 Usage In polluted area and Out side the cities

Inside the big cities

4 Foundation cost and More Less

capitalized cost

5 Special design of Essential Not essential

HVSG

6 Maintenance procedures Completed and needed experts Easy and don’t needed an
in a GIS expert

7 Installation Easy and don’t require much Required more time for
time In assembly installation

8 Reliability More reliable Less reliable

9 Safety More safety Less safety

10 Main bus In SF6 gas In air

11 Exposure of live part Fully surrounded Exposed

5. Need of gas insulated substation

Ans: Need of Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
• In case of AIS large dimensions required due to clearness and poor dielectric strength of
air.
• Wastage of space in AIS.
• Non availability of sufficient space.
• Difficult climatic and seismic (condition at side, related to earthquake).
• High rise buildings
• High altitudes (High above sea level)
• Life of steel structure danger degrades in case of AIS

6. List any two advantages of GIS substation

Ans: Advantages of GIS substation are as follows:
1. Safe
2. Reliable
3. Space Saving
4. Economical
5. Maintenance Free
6. Low weight
7. Shop assembled

[Link] the precautions taken while carrying out preventive maintenance of GIS
Ans: Safety precautions taken are as follows:
1) Safety measures
2) Isolation of equipment
3) Cleaning of equipment
4) Inspection of equipment
5) Testing of equipment
6) Documentation

8. Define partial discharge and explain its effect on performance of GIS

Ans: Partial discharge :

It is a contained electric breakdown of a small portion of a solid or fluid electrical installation

system under high voltage stress, which does not bridge the space among two conductors.

Effect o performance of GIS:

• Other cause of failure are discharges from any protrusion round which field enhancement
occurs capacitive sparking form an electrode which is not properly restricted to HV
conductor or ground. Cavities and holes in the conductors and insulators
• In case of cavities and poor contacts or movement of conducting elements, high rates of
change of current are observed
• In all these cases a very fast rise time of the PD pulse causes electromagnetic energy to be
joined into the GIS chamber and the energy dissolute in the discharge is replaced through
a pure of current in the EHV supply circuit.
• In case of small sparks and strong coronas, the discharge is followed by rapid growth of
the ionized gas channel and an acoustic pressure wave is generated.

9. List the merits of mast protection

Ans: Merits of mast protection are as follows:
1) Earthworks can be completed in advance.
2) Construction in (manufactured) bucked foundation with low on site effort.
3) With projection plate for fast mounting.
4) Easily adjustable with threaded bolts M24.
5) Detailed mounting directions.
6) Provable statics (upon request).
7) Erection on on-site concrete foundation with foundation basket.

10. State disadvantages and application of GIS

Ans: Disadvantages of GIS are as follows:

1) Cost is greater compared to AIS or conventional substation.

2) Obtaining of SF gas and source of gas to the site is problematic
3) Generally this type of substations are indoor type and requires isolated building
4) Maintaining Cleanliness is very important. Dust or moisture inside the compartment
causes the flash overs.
5) When fault happens inside, the outage period will be very long. The damage effect will
also be severe.

Application of GIS are as follows:

1) Power Transmission
2) Renewable energy integration
3) Urban areas
4) Industries
5) Railway system

11. Elaborate the causes of fire in gas insulated substation and list fire fighting
equipment’s mainly used based on the reason of Fire.

Ans: Causes of fire :

• Electrical fault
• Mechanical failures
• Human error
• External faults

Fire fighting equipment’s:

• Fire extinguisher
• Fire blanket
• Fire hoses
12. Enlist any four advantages of Gas Insulated Substation (GIS).
Ans:
Advantages of Gas Insulated Substation:
1. It occupies very less space (1/10th) compared to ordinary substations. Hence gas insulated
substations are most preferred where area for substation is small. (e.g.: In crowded cities).
2. It is very safe as the earthed metal enclosure makes for a safe working environment for the
attending personnel.
3. Most reliable compared to air insulated substations, because the number of outages due to the
faults are very less.
4. Initial high investment is required for installation but the cost can be comparable for the less
maintenance, reliable and safe operation against conventional substations hence economical.
5. An extremely careful selection of materials, an expedient design and a high standard of
manufacturing quality assures long service life with practically no maintenance requirements.
6. Low weight due to aluminum enclosure, leads to low cost foundations and buildings.
7. Can be assembled at the shop and modules can be commissioned in the plant easily.
8. As gas insulated substations are enclosed type of substations very Lesly impacted by pollution,
outside disturbances etc.
9. The over voltages while closing and opening line, cables motors capacitors etc. are low hence
less impacted by such ON and OFF operations.
10. As in gas insulated substations, SF6 gas is used in the circuit-breaker unit for arc quenching.
This type of breaker can interrupt current without over-voltages and with minimum acing time.
Contacts have long life and the breaker is maintenance free.
11. As gas pressure (4 kg/cm2) is relatively low so not poses serious leakage problems.
OR Equivalent Answer
13. Illustrate application of high speed Earthing Switch in Gas Insulated Substation (GIS).
Ans:
Illustration of Application of High-Speed Earthing Switch in Gas Insulated Substation
(GIS):
1. The high speed ground switches can be furnished for single pole or group operated
applications to provide grounding for inspection, maintenance, repair or replacement of other
substation equipment such as transformers, capacitor banks, circuit breakers, circuit switchers,
etc.
2. High speed earthing switch have the additional capability of closing an energized conductor,
creating a short circuit without receiving significant damage to the switch or the enclosure.
3. High speed earthing switches are used to ground various active elements of the substation, such
as transmission lines, transformer banks and main bus etc.
4. In GIS facilities high speed earth switches are used to initiate protective relay functions. They
are typically, not used to ground circuit breakers or voltage transformers.
5. High speed earthing switches are designed & tested to interrupt electrostatically induced
capacitive currents & electromagnetically induced inductive currents occurring in de-energized
transmission lines in parallel / close proximity to energized transmission lines.
6. High speed earthing switches can also remove DC trapped charges on a transmission line.

14. Explain operation of circuit breaker and disconnecting switch in Gas Insulated
Substation (GIS).
Ans:
Operation of circuit breaker in GIS:
The circuit breaker is the most critical part of a gas insulated substation system. The circuit
breaker in a gas insulated system is metal-clad and utilises SF6 gas, both for insulation and fault
interruption.
The SF6 gas pressure in a circuit breaker is around 0.65 MPa.
At the core of the gas insulated switchgear is the interrupter unit which is housed in the circuit
breaker module. It operates on a modern self compression principle. The current path consists of
a base, a movable contact cylinder and a contact carrier in closed position.
The operating current flows through the main contact and through the contact cylinder. During
the breaking of operating currents the main contacts opens first but the current still commutes
through the arcing contact which remains closed at this stage of the switching process, this avoids
erosion of the main contact. During the further course of opening the arcing contacts open and an
electric arc is drawn between the arcing contacts at the same time the contact cylinder moves into
the base and compresses the arc quenching SF6. This gas compression generates a gas flow
through the contact cylinder and the nozzle to the arcing contact. This way the arc is
extinguished.

Operation of disconnecting switch in GIS:

Disconnectors (or disconnect switches) are placed in series with the circuit breaker to provide
additional protection and physical isolation. In a circuit, two disconnectors are generally used,
one on the line side and the other on the feeder side. Disconnect switches are designed for the
interruption of small currents, induced or capacitively coupled. Disconnecting switches can be
motorized or driven manually. In GIS system, motorized isolators are preferred. A pair of fixed
contacts and a moving contact form the active parts of disconnect switch. The fixed contacts are
separated by an isolating gas gap. During the closing operation, this gap is bridged by the moving
contact. The moving contact is attached to a suitable drive, which imparts the desired linear
displacement to the moving contact at a pre-determined design speed. A firm contact is
established between the two contacts with the help of spring-loaded fingers or the multi-lam
contacts. The isolation gap is designed for the voltage class of the isolator and the safe dielectric
strength of the gas.
An insulator is used to drive the moving contact and to isolate the drive from the high voltage
components of the disconnector. The shape and size of the insulator are controlled by the
electrical and mechanical requirements of the isolator. In three-phase ac systems, the individual
phase isolators are ganged together to operate simultaneously. Leak-tight rotary seals are used in
gas insulated isolators for transferring motion from external drive to the gas. Disconnectors in
high voltage GIS operate at SF6 pressures of 0.38 MPa to 0.45 MPa. The operating speed of the
disconnector moving contact ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 m/sec.
This is how disconnectors are operated inside SF6 filled switchgears (GIS).

15. Distinguish between Air Insulated Substation (AIS) and Gas Insulated Substation (GIS).
Sr. No. Air Insulated Substation Gas Insulated Substation
1. Equipment deteriorates when Equipment are housed in
exposed to ambient metal enclosed modules,
atmospheric conditions. hence there is no problem of
deterioration.
2. Requires a lot of real estate, The space occupied by SF6
which can be expensive to installation is only about 10%
acquire in dense urban areas of that of a conventional
outdoor substation.
3. Requires regular GIS requires less
maintenance. maintenance as compared to
AIS as moisture, pollution,
dust etc., have little influence
on SF6 insulated sub-stations.
4. Conventional Air insulated The principle of building-
sub-stations require a few block construction (modular
months for installation. construction) reduces the
installation time to a few
weeks.
5. System at high voltage and is As the enclosures are at earth
open in the air, hence potential, there is no
minimum standard clearance possibility of accidental
between the equipment as contact by service personnel
well as working personnel has to live parts.
to be maintained.
6. i) Site development cost will i) Site development cost will
be higher than GIS as AIS be lesser because smaller
needs a lot of room for the space is required for
long distances of atmospheric installation of GIS .
air. ii) Equipment cost is more
ii) Equipment cost is less as due to grounded metal
compared to GIS. enclosure & high degree of
iii) Installation cost is more factory assembly.
than GIS. iii) Installation cost is less
than as compared to AIS as it
is mostly assembled at the
factory.
7. Vacuum, air or oil is more SF6 gas is used in the circuit-
generally used as arc breaker unit for arc
quenching medium in circuit quenching. This type of
breakers. And it requires breaker can interrupt current
regular maintenance. without over voltages and
with minimum acing time.
Contacts have long life and
the breaker is maintenance
free.
8. Requirements of cleanliness Requirements of cleanliness
are not so stringent. are very stringent. Dust or
moisture can
cause internal flashovers.
9. AIS can be installed indoor Such sub-stations generally
or outdoor. indoor. They need a separate
building.
10. AIS system will have shorter GIS system will have longer
lifespan as compared to GIS. life than its AIS counterpart.
11. Difficult to install at high Suitable for installation at
altitude and in seismic high altitude and in seismic
conditions. conditions.

16. Illustrate visual, minor and major maintenance plan of Gas Insulated Substation (GIS).
Ans:
Visual, Minor and Major maintenance plan of Gas Insulated Substation (GIS):
Visual Inspection Plan:
On a frequent basis (few times a year), it is suggested to complete a visual inspection of all GIS
devices. The equipment does not require de-energization. The objective of this inspection is to
verify that there is no sign of unexpected wear or equipment disoperation. Common operations
completed during this inspection are:
- Examine compressor run times and adequate operation for pneumatic systems. In the case of
spring operators conduct a visual inspection for any defects.
- Verify oil pressure and tightness.
- Note down switching equipment operations using the operation counters.
- Record and verify SF6 density using meters or installed probes.
- Verify adequate functioning of low voltages devices.
Minor maintenance Plan:
Minor verification can be completed every 5–10 years on GIS devices but the verification can
also depend on a number of operations of switching elements. The objective is to verify the
adequate operation of all switching elements. For this, the corresponding equipment has to be de-
energized. Laboratory assessment of the gas may assist in identifying unusual wear, insulator
defects or other problems due to arcing or partial discharge and can be repaired before it
degenerates to an unexpected major fault. This maintenance procedure does not demand opening
gas chambers. Common operations completed during this inspection are:
- Verification of SF6 by-product and impurity content (SO2 and moisture, in situations when
chambers are not equipped with absorbers)
- Verification of SF6 pressures (density)
- Find any SF6 leakages (in case of alarms since the last verification)
- Verification of SF6 gas purity
- Verify proper operation of pressure switches, in the case of hydraulic mechanism use
- Verification of SF6 density relay operations
- Verification of control and alarm functions
- Verify the correct alignment and operation of position indicators
- Note down and verify circuit breakers operating times (from auxiliary switches) Exercise the
circuit breakers and switching elements.
Major maintenance Plan:
This verification can be completed every 15–20 years but it strongly depends on the number of
operations of switching equipment. Typically, major verifications are more condition-based than
time-based maintenance. Opening of some chambers may be needed during such verifications. In
addition to the tasks completed during minor verifications, the common operations completed
during major inspections are:
- Lubrication of different linkages and drives
- Replacement of gaskets and absorbers when chambers are opened
- Record and verification of travel curves for circuit breakers
- Opening and verification of the switching elements if they have reached the limits suggested by
the GIS manufacturers
- Overhaul of the hydraulic mechanism with oil, filter, and switches replacement plus
maintenance on the rams and drive mechanisms. Inspection of the circuit breaker interrupter
mechanism including nozzles and contacts.
Overhaul of devices is required when it has reached its end-of-life. Typically, this is determined
based on the suggestions and end user experience. Nevertheless, an overhaul operation asks for
the expertise of the original equipment provider, while the other inspections can typically be
completed by the user, provided that adequate training has been given by the GIS
manufacturer. The conditions of the tools and devices used for maintenance, such as the gas-
recovery cart, have also to be carefully verified.
17. List any two properties of the SF6 gas used in GIS.
Ans:
Properties of SF6 gas used in GIS:
5. It is extremely chemically stable.
2. It is non-flammable.
3. It is highly electronegative.
4. It has excellent dielectric property of approximately 2.5 times more than air, five times the
density of atmospheric air at mean sea level.

[Link] any one type of battery trouble, its cause, maintenance, remedy to be taken.
Ans:
Sr. Type of Battery Cause Maintenance/ remedy to be
No. Trouble taken
1. Excessive gassing and Setting of floating Reduce the floating voltage to a
progressive increase in voltage high lower value and check the
specific gravity during accuracy of the voltmeter in the
float charging charger if necessary.
2. Battery voltage falling (i) Loose connections (i) Tighten the loose
too rapidly on discharge. (ii) Corroded connections.
terminals (ii) Corroded parts should be
cleaned with hot water and
coated with jelly.
3. Continuous lowering of (i) Leakage of (i) Replace container
electrolyte level. electrolyte level immediately in case of leakage.
(ii) Loss of water in (ii) Adjust the floating voltage.
the electrolyte by too
high floating voltage
or excessive charging.
4. Continued low reading Internal short circuit. Examine the plates for accidental
of specific gravity or contacts or missing or sheared
low open circuit
voltage in any cell.
5. Over flowing in cell due Damp atmosphere in Improve ventilation in the battery
to increase in electrolyte battery room causing room.
level even condensation in the
without the addition of cell covers of spray
distilled water. arrestors.
 6. High voltage Open circuit in the i. Check the Voltage at control
sensing circuit leads. board terminals.
ii. Check pulse generator circuit
for internal shoring.
7. Low output/ flickering Input to the main i. Check SCRs if SCRs are
voltage (hunting). rectifier low or in only healthy, check the fuses.
one or two main SCRs ii. If low output is noticed with
are conducting or if any increase in load then check the
of the rectifier fuse is current limit circuit. The
blown or filter bank setting of potentiometer may
is out of order. have been disturbed and this
have to be re-adjusted. Also
check the filter bank.

[Link] the material used in a fire-fighting equipment for GIS.

Ans:
Material used in a fire-fighting equipment for GIS:
1. Dry powder: Ammonium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or a
combination of these chemicals, graphite or sodium chloride-based formulations.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Water
Inert gases: Nitrogen, Argon

20. Explain partial discharge & describe the method of monitoring it.
Ans:
Partial discharge:

• It is a flashover of part of the insulation system due to a localized electric field greater
than the dielectric withstand capability of that part where the overall insulation system
remains capable of withstanding the applied electrical field.
• It is a localized dielectric breakdown (DB) (which does not completely bridge the space
between the two conductors) of a small portion of a solid or fluid electrical insulation
(EI) system under high voltage (HV) stress.
• PD can occur in a gaseous, liquid or solid insulating medium.
• It often starts within gas voids, such as voids in solid epoxy insulation or bubbles in
transformer oil.
• Protracted (long lasting) partial discharge can erode solid insulation and eventually lead
to breakdown of insulation.
Method of monitoring Partial Discharge:
Whenever partial discharge is initiated, high frequency transient current pulses will
appear and persist for nanoseconds to a microsecond, then disappear and reappear
 repeatedly as the voltage sinewave goes through the zero crossing.
• The PD happens near the peak voltage both positive and negative.
• PD pulses are easy to measure using the HFCT method.
• The HFCT is a "high frequency" current transducer which is clamped around the case
ground of the component being tested.
• The severity of the PD is measured by measuring the burst interval between the end of a
burst and the beginning of the next burst.
• As the insulation breakdown worsens, the burst interval will shorten due to the
breakdown happening at lower voltages. This burst interval will continue to shorten until
a critical 2 millisecond point is reached. At this 2 ms point the discharge is very close to
the zero crossing and will fail with a full blown discharge and major failure.
• The HFCT method needs to be used because of the small magnitude and short duration
of these PD events.
• The HFCT method is done while the component being tested stays energized and
loaded. It is completely non-intrusive.
• Another method of measuring these currents is to put a small current- measuring
resistor in series with the sample and then view the generated voltage on
an oscilloscope via a matched coaxial cable.

21. Explain maintenance schedule of GIS substation.

Ans:
Maintenance schedule of GIS substation:
• Generally GIS requires no or very little maintenance and monitoring the SF6 gas
pressure and quality is considered sufficient.
• For maintenance of the GIS, regular inspections, Routine scheduled maintenance and
overhaul maintenance are specified by the manufactures.
• The maintenance to be carried out and their periodicity is indicated in the
“Maintenance Schedule”.
• Manufacturer’s instructions are to be followed for special tests, if any, for that
particular make of GIS substation.
In GIS substation some of the equipment like Bushings, Surge Arresters, Transformers
shall be provided outside the GIS area. Condition monitoring of these equipment is to be
carried out as followed for AIS substation equipment.
Typical Maintenance processes GIS manufacturers provide end users with suggested
maintenance plans. These plans can insignificantly differ between manufacturers but the
basic principles are as follows:
1. Visual Verification:
On a frequent basis (few times a year), it is suggested to complete a visual inspection
of all GIS devices. The equipment does not require de-energization. The objective of
this inspection is to verify that there is no sign of unexpected wear or equipment
disoperation. Common operations completed during this inspection are:
• Examine compressor run times and adequate operation for pneumatic systems. In the
case of spring operators conduct a visual inspection for any defects.
• Verify oil pressure and tightness.
• Note down switching equipment operations using the operation counters.
Record and verify SF6 density using meters or installed probes.
• Verify adequate functioning of low voltages devices.
2. Minor Verification
 This verification can be completed every 5–10 years on GIS devices but the
verification can also depend on a number of operations of switching elements. The
objective is to verify the adequate operation of all switching elements. For this, the
corresponding equipment has to be de-energized. Laboratory assessment of the gas
may assist in identifying unusual wear, insulator defects or other problems due to
arcing or partial discharge and can be repaired before it degenerates to an unexpected
major fault. This maintenance procedure does not demand opening gas chambers.
Common operations completed during this inspection are:
• Verification of SF6 by-product and impurity content (SO2 and moisture, in
situations when chambers are not equipped with absorbers)
• Verification of SF6 pressures (density)
• Find any SF6 leakages (in case of alarms since the last verification)
• Verification of SF6 gas purity
• Verify proper operation of pressure switches, in the case of hydraulic mechanism use
• Verification of SF6 density relay operations
• Verification of control and alarm functions
• Verify the correct alignment and operation of position indicators
• Note down and verify circuit breakers operating times (from auxiliary switches)
Exercise the circuit breakers and switching elements
3. Major Verification:
This verification can be completed every 15–20 years but it strongly depends on the
number of operations of switching equipment. Typically, major verifications are
more condition-based than time-based maintenance. Opening of some chambers may
be needed during such verifications. In addition to the tasks completed during minor
verifications, the common operations completed during major inspections are:
• Lubrication of different linkages and drives
• Replacement of gaskets and absorbers when chambers are opened.
• Record and verification of travel curves for circuit breakers.
• Opening and verification of the switching elements if they have reached the limits
suggested by the GIS manufacturers.
• Overhaul of the hydraulic mechanism with oil, filter, and switches replacement plus
maintenance on the rams and drive mechanisms. Inspection of the circuit breaker
interrupter mechanism including nozzles and contacts.
4. Repairing SF6 Gas Leakage:
SF6 gas leakage is an important concern on numerous levels including the
environmental effects, degradation of the GIS insulation system integrity and gas
cost. Releases of SF6 are also becoming reportable incidents in some countries due
to the atmospheric greenhouse gas effects. In GIS installations most leaks are
discovered during the initial assembly and are related to flange mis-alignment,
pinched O-rings or gaskets and dirty or corroded surfaces. Leaks are also assigned to
wrongly installed by-pass piping, loose flange nuts, poor gas density gauge mounting, and
similar instrumentation adjustments.
22. Explain Partial-discharge phenomenon in detail.
Ans:
Partial discharge:
 • It is a flashover of part of the insulation system due to a localized electric field
greater than the dielectric withstand capability of that part where the overall
insulation system remains capable of withstanding the applied electrical field.
• It is a localized dielectric breakdown (DB) (which does not completely bridge the
space between the two conductors) of a small portion of a solid or fluid
electrical insulation (EI) system under high voltage (HV) stress.
• PD can occur in a gaseous, liquid or solid insulating medium.
• It often starts within gas voids, such as voids in solid epoxy insulation or bubbles in
transformer oil.
• Protracted (long lasting) partial discharge can erode solid insulation and eventually
lead to breakdown of insulation.
Partial-discharge phenomenon:
• PD usually begins within voids, cracks, or inclusions within a solid dielectric, at
conductor-dielectric interfaces within solid or liquid dielectrics, or in bubbles within
liquid dielectrics. Since PDs are limited to only a portion of the insulation, the
discharges only partially bridge the distance between electrodes. PD can also occur
along the boundary between different insulating materials.
• Partial discharges within an insulating material are usually initiated within gas-
filled voids within the dielectric. Because the dielectric constant of the void is
considerably less than the surrounding dielectric, the electric field across the void is
significantly higher than that across an equivalent distance of dielectric. If the
voltage stress across the void is increased above the corona inception voltage (CIV)
for the gas within the void, PD activity will start within the void.
• PD can also occur along the surface of solid insulating materials if the surface
tangential electric field is high enough to cause a breakdown along the insulator
surface. This phenomenon commonly manifests itself on overhead line insulators,
particularly on contaminated insulators during days of high humidity.
Overhead lines use air as their insulation medium.

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