Chapter Four

Masonry Wall Design

4-1 description of Eurocode 6 PART 1–1 (ENV 1996–1–1:1995)
Eurocode 6 is one of a group of standards for structural design being
issued by the Commission of the European Communities. It was
published in draft form in 1988 and, following a lengthy process of
comment and review, the first part was issued in 1995 as a ‘pre-standard’
or ENV under the title Part 1–1: General rules for buildings. Rules for
reinforced and unreinforced masonry. Following a trial period of use on a
voluntary basis, the document will be reissued as a Eurocode, taking
account of any amendments shown to be necessary. Other parts of EC6
dealing with special aspects of masonry design are being prepared or are
planned. Eurocodes for the various structural materials all rely on EC1
for the specification of the basis of design and actions on structures.
EC6 Part 1–1 is laid out in the following six sections:
• Section 1. General
• Section 2. Basis of design
• Section 3. Materials
• Section 4. Design of masonry
• Section 5. Structural detailing
• Section 6. Construction
The scope of EC6 extends to the design of unreinforced, reinforced and
prestressed masonry and also to what is called ‘confined’ masonry, which
is defined as masonry enclosed on all four sides within a reinforced concrete
or reinforced masonry frame (steel frames are not mentioned).
It is assumed that structures are designed and built by appropriately
qualified and experienced personnel and that adequate supervision exists in relation
to unit manufacture and on site. Materials have to meetthe requirements of the
relevant European standard (EN). It is furtherassumed that the structure will be
adequately maintained and used inaccordance with the design brief.
4-2 Basis of design
The code is based on limit state principles and in this section are defined
the design situations which have to be considered. Actions, which
include loads and imposed deformations (for example arising from
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thermal effects or settlement), are obtained from EC1 (ENV 1991) or
other approved sources. Indicative values for partial safety factors for
actions are as shown in Table (4-1).
Application of these safety factors requires a distinction to be made
between actions which are permanent or which vary with time or which
may change in position or extent. Combinations of actions require the
application of coefficients to the various actions concerned and general
formulae for such combinations are given. Values of the combination
coefficients are provided in ENV 1991, but for building structures the
following formulae may be used in conjunction with the partial safety
factors for the ultimate limit state shown in Table (4-1). Considering the most
unfavourable variable action:
considering the most unfavourable variable action
Fd = ΣγG,j Gk,j + 1,5 Qk,1
considering all unfavourable variable actions
Fd = ΣγG,j Gk,j + 1,35 ΣQk,i
i>1
whichever gives the larger value, where G,j is the partial safety factor for
permanent actions, Gk,j is the characteristic value of permanent actions
and Qk,l and Qk,j are respectively, the characteristic values of the most and
of the other variable actions considered.

Table ( 4-1 ) Partial safety factors for actions in building structures

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4-3 Materials:
This section provides the data on the material properties of the masonry to be
used in the design process.
4-3-1 Types and grouping of masonry units
Generally masonry units shall comply with any of the following types:
a) clay units
b) calcium silicate units
c) aggregate concrete units
The initial clauses deal with the standards with which the units must comply and
their strength, as well as the Groupings of the units. As part of this process, it sets
out the criteria which are used to Group the units. These Groupings are used to
identify the appropriate equations to be used when determining the properties of the
masonry, in compression, shear, and flexure.
Basically, the units are placed into one of four Groups which are dependent on a
combination of:
 The volumes of the holes,
 The volume of a single hole,
 The minimum thickness in and around holes; and
 The combined thickness of the webs and shells,
Table (4-2) containing the requirements for Grouping the units according to volumes
of the holes
Table (4-2): grouping of masonry units

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4-4 Specification of masonry mortar
Mortar is the medium which binds together the individual structural units to create
a continuous structural form e.g. brickwork, stonework etc. Mortar serves a number
of functions in masonry construction, i.e. to:
 Bind together the individual units,
 Distribute the pressures evenly throughout the individual units,
 Infill the joints between the units and hence increase the resistance to
moisture penetration,
 Maintain the sound characteristics of a wall,
 Maintain the thermal characteristics of a wall.
Mortars should be classified by their compressive strength, expressed as the letter M
followed by the compressive strength in N/mm2 as shown on Table (4-3). Type of
mortar proportion by volume is shown in Table (4-4).
The types of mortars that can be used with EN 1996-1-1 are:
1. General purpose mortar;
2. Thin layer mortar; and
3. Lightweight mortar.

Table (4-3): Classification of masonry mortar

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 Table (4-4): Type of mortar proportion by volume

4-5 Characteristic compressive strength of unreinforced masonry

Three methods for determining the compressive strength of unreinforced
masonry are set out. The first, designated as a principle, states that this
shall be determined from the results of tests on masonry. A subsidiary
note indicates that such results may be available nationally or from tests
carried out for the project. The second method, not designated as a
principle, appears to be an elaboration of the first in specifying that tests
should be carried out according to EN 1052–1 or from an evaluation of
test data in a similar way to that prescribed in the third method.
According to the latter, which may be used in the absence of specific
test results or national data, a formula is given, for masonry built with
general-purpose mortar, relating unit and mortar strengths to masonry
characteristic strength with adjustment for unit proportions and wall
characteristics. The characteristic compressive strength of unreinforced masonry fk
made with general purpose mortar, may be calculated using equation

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fk is the characteristic compressive strength of the masonry
K is constant, 0.5 for Group1 clay units, 0.4 for Group2 clay units in general purpose
mortar, reduced by 20% for construction thicker than 1 unit
fb is the normalized compressive strength of the masonry units in N/mm2, equivalent
to the strength of a 100 mm wide x 100 mm high masonry unit
fm is the compressive strength of the general purpose mortar in N/mm2.
fm is not taken to be greater than 20 N/mm2 nor greater than 2fb, whichever is the
smaller;
4-5-1 normalized compressive strength of masonry units:
The normalized compressive strength fb shall be used in design. Compressive
strength is tested in accordance with EN 772-1. The tests are carried out with
a certain number of single units. The mean value of a test sample must not be less
than the declared value. Any individual result must not be less than 80% of the
declared value. the compressive strength of masonry units converted to the air dried
compressive strength of an equivalent 100 mm wide x 100 mm high masonry unit.
The mean strength, should be converted to the normalized compressive strength fb
by multiplying by the shape factors to allow for the height and width of the units.
The shape factor shown in Table (4-5) is a form factor, as the test results depend on
the relation of the height to the least horizontal dimension of the units.
Normalised compressive strength, fb = conditioning factor x shape factor x declared
mean compressive strength
Where: conditioning factor is the factor of conditioning regimes. Equal to 1.0 in case
of clay and concrete units.
fb is not taken to be greater than 75 N/mm2 when units are laid in general purpose
mortar. When the manufacturer declares the normalised compressive strength of
masonry units as a characteristic strength, this should be converted to the mean
equivalent, using a factor based on the coefficient of variation of the units.

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 Table (4-5): The shape factor

4-6 Unreinforced masonry walls subjected to combined vertical and lateral

loading
When analysing walls subjected to combined vertical and lateral loading such as
wind load, the design should be made for the following:
1. Vertical loads directly applied to the wall;
2. lateral wind load
3. Eccentricities calculated from a knowledge of the layout of the walls, the
interaction of the floors and the walls;
4. Eccentricities resulting from construction deviations
4-6-1 The effective height of a wall
The effective height of a wall should be taken as:

where:
hef is the effective height of the wall;
h is the clear storey height of the wall;
ρn is a reduction factor = 0.75 for walls restrained at the top and bottom by
reinforced concrete floors or roofs
The reduction factor to be applied depends upon the restraint offered by adjoining
elements. Masonry walls may be stiffened by a number of rigid structural elements
such as floors, roofs and other walls. Stiffening walls should have a length of at
least 1/5 of the clear height and have a thickness of at least 0.3 times the effective
thickness of the wall to be stiffened. When the stiffening wall contains openings,
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the minimum length of wall should be as shown in Figure 4 and the stiffening wall
should extend a distance of at least 1/5 of the storey height beyond each opening.

Figure (4-1): Minimum length of stiffening wall with openings

Where a wall is restrained at the top and bottom by reinforced concrete floors or
roofs spanning from both sides at the same level or by a reinforced concrete floor
spanning from one side only and having a bearing of at least 2/3 of the thickness of
the wall then:
ρ2 = 0.75
Unless the eccentricity of the load at the top of the wall is greater than 0.25 times the
thickness of the wall, in which case
ρ2 = 1.0

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Where the wall is restrained by timber floors or roofs spanning from both sides at
the same level or by a timber floor spanning from one side having a bearing of at
least 2/3 the thickness of the wall but not less than 85 mm, then:
ρ2 = 1.0.
For walls restrained at the top and bottom and stiffened on one vertical edge, use the
value ρ3 in Figure (4-2) and where both vertical edges are stiffened, use the value ρ3
in Figure (4-3). Note that Equations (5.6), (5.7) and (5.8) in Eurocode 6, Part 1–1
may be used as an alternative to the use of the graphs.

Figure (4-2): Graph showing values of ρ3

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 Figure (4-3): Graph showing values of ρ4

4-6-2 Effective thickness of masonry walls

For a single-leaf wall, a double-leaf wall (with ties at a density of 2.5 per m2 or
greater), a faced wall, a shell bedded wall and a grouted cavity wall, the effective
thickness, tef, is taken as the actual thickness of the wall, t. provided this is greater
than the minimum thickness, t min. The value of tmin for a loadbearing wall should be
taken as 90 mm for a single-leaf wall and 75 mm for the leaves of a cavity wall.
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For a cavity wall the effective thickness is determined using the following equation:

Where
t1 = actual thickness of the outer or unloaded leaf
t2 = actual thickness of the inner or loaded leaf
Note that the effective thickness of the unloaded leaf should not be taken to be
greater than the thickness of the loaded leaf and that ties should be provided at a
density of 2.5 per m2 or greater.
When a wall is stiffened by piers the effective thickness is enhanced by using the
following equation:

where
tef = effective thickness
ρt = coefficient obtained from Table 3
t = thickness of the wall

Table (4-6): Stiffness coefficient, ρt, for walls stiffened by piers

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4-6-3 Slenderness ratio of masonry walls
The slenderness ratio of a masonry wall shall be obtained by dividing the value of
the effective height, hef, by the value of the effective thickness, tef. The slenderness
ratio of the masonry wall should not be greater than 27 when subjected to mainly
vertical loading.
4-6-4 Design of structural masonry walls
The resistance of masonry walls to vertical shall be based on the geometry of the
wall, the effect of the applied eccentricities and the material properties of the
masonry. At the ultimate limit state, the design value of the vertical load applied to
a masonry wall, NEd, shall be less than or equal to the design value of the vertical
resistance of the wall, NRd

The design of masonry walls has to be such that no damage is caused to

facings, finishes, etc., but it may be assumed that the serviceability limit
state is satisfied if the ultimate limit state is verified. It is also required
that the stability of the structure or of individual walls is ensured during
construction. Subject to detailed provisions relating to the type of construction, the
design vertical load resistance per unit length, NRd, of an unreinforced
masonry wall is calculated from the following expression:

NRd = Φim t fk /γm

where:
NRd the design vertical load resistance per unit length
γm is material partial safety factor and define according to the Categories of execution
control and masonry units Categories . There is a two categories of execution control
in EC6 and two categories of masonry units are described in Table (4-7).

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Table (4-7): Material partial safety factor

Masonry units Categories:

1) I: probability of not reaching declared compressive strength < 5%
2) II: not intended to comply with category I level of confidence

Φim is a capacity reduction factor allowing for the effects of slenderness and
eccentricity. Φi applies to the top and bottom of the wall;

Φi = 1-2ei /t
ei = (Mi /Ni ) + ehi + ea ≥ 0,05t

Mi is the design bending moment at the top or the bottom of the wall resulting from
the eccentricity of the floor load.
Ni is the design vertical load at the top or bottom of the wall,
Mi and Ni illustrated in Figure (4-4)

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 Figure (4-4): Design vertical load eccentricity

ehi is the eccentricity at the top or bottom of the wall, if any, resulting from
horizontal loads (for example, wind),
ea is the accidental eccentricity resulting from construction inaccuracies, The
recommended value of ea for average level of construction is hef/450.
Φm applies to the mid-height and is obtained from the graph shown in Figure (4-5),
t is the thickness of the wall;
fk is the characteristic compressive strength of unreinforced masonry

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 Figure (4-5): Reduction factor applies to the mid-height

emk is the eccentricity at mid-height, emk, used in calculating Φm

emk = em + ek ≥ 0.05t
em = (Mm /Nm ) + ehm + ek ≥ 0,05t

Mm is the greatest moment within the middle one fifth of the height of the wall
resulting from the moments at the top and bottom of the wall.
Nm is the design vertical load within the middle one fifth of the height of the wall,
ehm is the eccentricity at mid-height resulting from horizontal loads (for example,
wind),
ek is an allowance for creep equal to zero for walls built of clay and natural stone
units.

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4-6-5 Walls subject to shear forces
The design value of shear resistance is given by:

where
VRd = the design value of shear resistance of the wall

fvd = the design value of the shear strength of the masonry (the characteristic shear
strength fvk divided by the partial factor for masonry, γm) based on the average
vertical stresses over the compressed part of the wall that is providing the shear
resistance

t = the thickness of the wall resisting the shear

lc = the length of the compressed part of the wall, ignoring any part of the wall that
is in tension
Characteristic Shear Strength

fvk = f vko + 0.4σd

fvko – for clay masonry in general purpose mortar
• 0.30 N/mm2 in M12
• 0.20 N/mm2 in M4 and M6
• 0.10 N/mm2 in M2

σd is the design compressive stress normal to the shear stress

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