FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

Department of NaRM

COURSE TITLE: Biodiversity Conservation and Management

TARGET GROUP: NARM, REGULAR DEGREE PROGRAM,

By

Gatluak Gatkuoth (Phd )

Gambella,Ethiopia

April 2024
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY AND ITS COMPONENTS

1.1. Definition of Biodiversity

There are varied scientific definitions of the term biodiversity that used by resource

managers and ecologists.

 According to Gaston and Spicer (2004), "Biodiversity or biological diversity refers the

variation of life at all levels of biological organization'. It is also viewed as a measure of

the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems.

 The Convention on Biological Diversity (Glowka et al, 1994)

define biodiversity is the variety and variability among living organisms from all sources

including, among other things, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the

ecological complexes in which they occur.

Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency.

Diversity also includes variation within species and among species, and comparative

diversity among ecosystems. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many

levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular

basis of heredity (i.e. the genes).

Biological diversity, simply stated, is the diversity of life. As defined in the proposed US

Congressional Biodiversity Act, HR1268 (1990), "biological diversity means the full

range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and the ecological

complexes in which they occur.

 Biodiversity is defined as the abundance, number, composition, interactions, spatial

distribution, population, species, communities and their functions, genotypic and

phenotypic traits, landscape units in a biological system (Díaz et al., 2009). It is the

interaction between different types of diversities like genetic, species and ecosystem

diversity Composition has to do with the identity and variety of elements in a collection, and

includes species lists and measures of species diversity and genetic diversity.

Structure is the physical organization or pattern of a system (e.g. the vertical layers

of vegetation from delicate herbs to tree canopies within a single forest stand), from habitat

complexity as measured within communities to the pattern of patches (i.e. heterogeneity) and

other elements at a landscape scale. For example, there is more structure in a multi-layered

forest (herbs, shrubs, young trees, canopy trees) than in a single grassland or woodland.

Function involves ecological and evolutionary processes, including gene flow, disturbances,

succession, and flow of energy in the different trophic level, competition, predation, nutrient

cycling, and the likes. Ecological and evolutionary processes (e.g. erosion,

disturbances, succession, etc.) in turn create landscapes and diverse environmental conditions.

Composition, structure, and function are all interdependent.

1.2. Level of Biological Diversity

The biodiversity is explored at three levels, which are genetic diversity, species diversity, and

ecosystem diversity. All these three work together to create the complexity of life on Earth:

1. Genetic diversity is the diversity of the basic units of hereditary information (genes)

within a species, which are passed from one generation to next. In short it is the variety

present at the level of genes. Genes, made of DNA (right), are the building blocks that determine

how an organism will develop and what its traits and abilities will be. This level of diversity can

differ by alleles (different variants of the same gene, such as blue or brown eyes), by entire
genes (which determine traits, such as the ability to metabolize a particular substance), or by

units larger than genes such as chromosomal structure.

Why genetic diversity is important?

The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents the raw material

for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a species or population means a greater

ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes in the environment. Less diversity

leads to uniformity, which is a problem in the long term, as it is unlikely that any individual in

the population would be able to adapt to changing conditions.

As an example, modern agricultural practices use monocultures, which are large cultures of

genetically identical plants. This is an advantage when it comes to growing and harvesting

crops, but can be a problem when a disease or parasite attacks the field, as every plant in the

field will be susceptible. Generally to conserve genetic diversity, different populations of a

species must be conserved.

2. Species Diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. It is the variability found

within the population of a species or between different species of a community.

The species is the real basic unit used to classify the organisms and its diversity is the most

commonly used level for describing the biodiversity. Species are therefore distinct units of

diversity, each playing a specific role in the ecosystem. So the addition or loss of single species

may have consequences for the system as a whole. Conservation efforts often begin with the

recognition that a species is endangered in some way, and a change in the number of species

in an ecosystem is a readily obtainable and easily comprehensible measure of how healthy the

ecosystem is. In nature, the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals

per species vary, leading to greater diversity. The species are grouped together into families
according to shared characteristics.

Species are relatively easy to identify by eye in the field, whereas genetic diversity (above)

requires laboratories, time and resources to identify and ecosystem diversity (see below)

needs many complex measurements to be taken over a long period of time. Species are also

easier to conceptualize and have been the basis of much of the evolutionary and ecological

research that biodiversity draws on.

3. Ecosystem Diversity: - An ecosystem is a set of life forms (biotic components) interacting

with one another and with the non-living elements (abiotic components) of their environment.

It means, the ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment

interacting together. Ecosystem diversity is therefore the diversity of habitats (place where

an organism or a population of organisms naturally occurs), which include the different life

forms within. For example, ecosystems like mountains, desert, and grasslands show diversity.

This type of ecological diversity is more stable and productive as they are capable to tolerate

unfavourable environmental condition

1.3. Agro- biodiversity

1.3.1. Definition and concept

Agro-biodiversity is also known as agricultural biodiversity. It is a broad term that includes all

components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture. It is a vital sub-set of

biodiversity and central to overall biodiversity. It variety and variability of animals, plants and

micro-organisms on earth that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture.
 It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food,

fodder, fibre, fuel and pharmaceuticals. Agro-biodiversity or the genetic resources for food

and agriculture, includes;-

 Harvested crop varieties, livestock breeds, fish species and non-domesticated (wild)

resources within field, forest, rangeland including tree products, wild animals hunted for

food and in aquatic ecosystems (e.g. fish);

Non-harvested species in production ecosystems that support food provision, including

soil micro-biota, pollinators and other insects such as bees, butterflies, earthworms; and

 Non-harvested species in the wider environment that support food production

ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic ecosystems

1.3.2. Distinctive feature of agro- biodiversity

Compared to other components of biodiversity, there are several distinctive features of agro

biodiversity.

 Agro-biodiversity is actively managed by male and female farmers;

 Many components of agro-biodiversity would not survive without human intervention;

 Local knowledge and culture are integral parts of agro-biodiversity management

 In industrial-type agricultural systems, much crop diversity is now held ex-situ in gene

banks or breeders‘ materials rather than on-farm.

 Many economically important agricultural systems are based on ‗alien‘ crop or livestock

species introduced from elsewhere (for example, horticultural production systems

 This creates a high degree of interdependence between countries for the genetic resources

on which our food systems are based;

 As regards crop diversity, diversity within species is at least as important as diversity

between species.

1.3.3. The role of Agro- biodiversity

Agricultural biodiversity or agro biodiversity consists of all the aspects of biodiversity that

relate to agriculture and food. It includes economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects

and is essential to food and livestock security.

Availability of Food and Raw Materials:- Agro biodiversity is responsible for human beings

having access to food and raw materials. Materials like cotton, wood, and fuel allow us to

earn livelihoods, grow food and provide shelter for ourselves. Cotton allows us to make

clothing, and wood can be used for fires and creating homes, whilst various plants and roots

can be used for medicinal purposes. Crops are used as sustenance, as are animals. Animal

byproducts also serve to fulfill our needs.

Increase productivity, food security, and economic returns; Food Security is dependent

on agro biodiversity because it's so essential for the provision of food. It‘s also critical for the

provision of a healthy, nutritious, and balanced diet since it provides human beings with

diverse foods that can provide adequate nutrients and aid our health.

Reduce Climate change has become an increasingly relevant topic, especially as it pertains to

agriculture. Crop yields and food production are suffering because of climate change, with

the world seeing extreme temperature changes and weather conditions. Agro biodiversity can

help fight climate change and reduce the environmental footprint that conventional farming
leaves behind. By using less fertilizer and pesticides, the world can benefit from reduced

water pollution, less greenhouse gas emissions and much more

Reduce the pressure of agriculture on fragile areas, forests and endangered species;

 Make farming systems more stable, robust, and sustainable;

 Conserve soil and increase natural soil fertility and health;

 Contribute to sustainable intensification

 Diversify products and income opportunities;

 Reduce or spread risks to individuals and nations;

 Help maximize effective use of resources and the environment;

 Reduce dependency on external inputs;

 Improve human nutrition and provide sources of medicines and vitamins, and

 Conserve ecosystem structure and stability of species diversity

 Contribute to sound pest and disease management;

CHAPTER TWO: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

2.1. Biological resource and their use

Broadly speaking, biological resources refer to the living landscape—the plants, animals, and

other aspects of nature that occur on farmland, forests, and other natural lands. Biological

resources are the materials derived from living organisms that can be used to benefit humans.

They are important to society for the various services they provide, and for the problems they

may create

2.1.1. Plant genetic resource

Genetic resources are the genes found in all living things. While all biological resources

contain genes, discussions about genetic resources tend to focus on agricultural plants and

livestock breeds and their wild relatives

Plant genetic resources are plant genetic materials of actual or potential value. They describe

the variability within plants that comes from human and natural selection over millennia.

According to FAO, plant genetic resource are defined as the entire generative and vegetative

reproductive material of species with economical and/or social value, especially for the

agriculture of the present and the future, with special emphasis on nutritional plants.

2.1.1.1. Forest Resource

Forest is one of the most important natural resource of the earth. According to the FAO,

forest is defined as Land with tree crown cover of more than 10 percent and an area of more
than 0.5 hectares (ha) and the trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 meters (m)

at maturity. Forest resources are important resources for the livelihood of human societies.

Among these resources non timber forest products plays an important role. Non-timber

forest products (NTFPs) are biological resources of plant and animal origin. It harvested from

natural forests, manmade plantations, wooded land, farmlands and trees outside forests.

These products are vital sources of income, nutrition for many forest based communities

around the world. The most important NTFPs includes edible oil, and fat; fodder; fibers,

essential oils; resins; ornamental plants, edible plant products like leaves and, fruits, seeds,

tubers, mushrooms, natural gum Arabic and frankincense, honey and wax..etc

Forests resource provides a wide range of ecosystem services. In addition to providing food,

fuel and fiber, forests clean the air, filter water supplies, control floods and erosion, sustain

biodiversity and genetic resources, and provide opportunities for recreation, education, and

cultural enrichment.

Economic Uses of Forest:- Forests provide wood, timber, raw materials, vegetables, and

fruits, which have significant economic value. The timber is used in construction and making

furniture. Wood is also essential in the production of paper. The rubber extracted from trees

is used to make several products.

2.1.1.2. Field crops resource

The meaning of field crop is an agricultural crop (such as hay, grain, or cotton) grown on

large areas. They are usually annual with a life cycle of 3 to 5 months. Field crops include

corn, cotton, rice, sorghum, soybeans, wheat, teff, barley,etc

From the agronomic stand point field crop may be classified on basis of uses, those are cereal
or grain crops, legumes crop, forage crops, fibers crop, sugar crops, oil crops

Cereal or grain crops are grasses grown for their edible seed. They include wheat, rice,

maize, barley and others. Legumes crop are a significant source of protein. It includes bean,

pea, chick pea, lentil and other crops. Forage refers to vegetable matter, fresh or preserved

utilized as a food for animal‘s example: - alfalfa, clover etc. Fiber crops are field crops

grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to make cloth, or rope. The best example

is cotton. Sugar crops are those crops cultivated primarily for the manufacture of sugar.

sugar beet and sugar cane are good example for sugar crop. Oil crop are high-value

agricultural commodity for use in refined edible oil products. It include peanut, sunflower

and soybean etc

2.1.1.3. Horticultural Resource

Horticulture is a science and practice of growing, processing and marketing fruit, vegetables

and ornamental plants. Horticulture is divided into the cultivation of plants

for Food (pomology(deals the growing and study of fruit and nut crops) and olericulture

(deals the growing of vegetables example , carrots (edible root), tomatoes (edible fruit),

and peas (edible seed). ) and Plants for ornament (floriculture and landscape horticulture

2.1.1.4. Medicinal Plant resource

Medicinal plant refers to using plant seed, roots leaves, bark or flower for medicinal purpose.

Their use ranges the production of mainstream pharmaceutical product to herbal medicinal

preparation. Today more than half of the population in developing world doesn‘t have access

to adequate healthcare services. This may be due to the fact that poor people neither have

access to nor could afford the modern healthcare services. Medicinal plants provide an

innovative and alternative remedy with remarkable opportunities by not only providing them
access and affordable medicine, but they can also generate income and employment from

these resources. Plant products are not only used in traditional healthcare but also as raw

material in the formulation of modern medicine. Due to increasing demand for medicinal

plants and the growth of human population, a constant pressure is created on existing

resources which lead to continuous depletion and extinction of some of the species in the

wild, and on the other hand, natural wild flora is being lost at an alarming rate.

2.1.1.5. Pasture and Forage Genetic resource

Forage genetic resources play a very important role in food security and poverty alleviation,

particularly in developing countries. Forage species have adapted over the centuries to

increased human and animal pressure, to erosion, and climate changes. They have continued

to provide food for the world‘s growing grazing animal populations through their flexibility

and adaptation. In dry lands pastoralists have developed management systems adapted to

uncertainty of water and forage availability

2.1.1.6. Essential oil bearing plant resource

Essential oil plants‖ in particular are those plant species delivering an essential oil of

commercial interest. Oilseeds are a mainstay of the rural and national economy in Ethiopia

Jatropha is an oil-bearing plant growing in tropical and subtropical regions.

2.1.2. Animal genetic resource

Animal Genetic Resources include all species, breeds and strains that are economic, scientific

and cultural interest to agriculture, now and in the future. Common species include sheep,
goats, cattle, horses, pigs, buffalo and chickens, but many other domesticated animals such as

camels, donkeys, elephants, reindeer, rabbits and rodents are important to different cultures

and regions of the world. Animal domestication began some 12 000 years ago when people

began selecting animals for food, fiber, work power and other agricultural uses. Livestock

provide valuable products, such as hides, wool and manure, that are important both for

subsistence and as sources of income for rural communities. Livestock process forage and

crop waste, inedible to humans, into nutritionally important food products.

2.1.3. Microbial genetic resource

A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single

celled form. They include algae, bacteria (including cyanobacteria), fungi (including yeasts),

and viruses.

Microbial genetic resources are used in food industry, vaccine production; detoxification.

They support diverse aspects of agriculture and human well-being. In ecosystems,

microorganisms are important as symbionts (mycorrhizae, and in insect guts), nitrogen

fixation (rhizobia, cyanobacteria,), biodegradation of dead animal and plant material, and

controlling the size of populations of plants and insects through natural bio control.

Beneficial microbes include root-nodulating bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, and other microbes

on the surface or interior of plants that influence subsequent growth characteristics. Among

these, non-toxigenic fungi can be applied directly to plants, seeds, or to soil to pre-colonize

plants and prevent subsequent colonization by mycotoxin producers. This has benefits to

large and small farm holders and to animal production directly.

2.2. Ecosystem and Biodiversity Service and Value

2.2.1. Ecosystem Service

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) defines ecosystem services as ―the benefits

people obtain from ecosystems. The role of biodiversity in providing ecosystem services is

twofold.

Biodiversity is also crucial to ecosystem services — the services that nature supplies

— such as pollination, climate regulation, flood protection, soil fertility and the production of

food, fuel, fibre and medicines.There are four (five) ecosystem services

 Provisioning services -products obtained from ecosystems E.g. food, wood

 Regulating services - benefit obtained from regulation of

ecosystem processes. Climate regulation, disease regulation and water and air

purification..etc

 Cultural services - non-material benefits. E.g. Spiritual, regional and aesthetic

 Supporting services - services that are important for provision of

other services e.g. Soil formation, Nutrient cycle

 Preserving services – genetic and species diversities for future

uses (biodiversity conservation)

2.2.2. Biodiversity value and valuation

Biological diversity plays a very crucial role for the survival of human beings on earth. The

humans directly or indirectly depend upon biological diversity for fulfilling almost every

need in their life such as food, energy, medicine, housing etc. Biological diversity helps to

maintain the ecological balance (Dietsch et al., 2016). It provides various ecological services

and vital for maintaining, preserving and restoration of various ecological process. Biological

diversity is helpful in maintaining biogeochemical cycles, maintaining the flow of water

bodies like river and streams all-round the year, soil formation, control in floods, prevention
from soil erosion, circulation of air globally and its cleansing, nutrient recycling and life

support of all the species.

Consumptive use value: The consumptive use of values includes the direct consumption of

resources without passing through the market. Biological diversity provides direct food,

shelter, medicines, proteins, enzymes, fats, macro and micro nutrients, beverages, specimens

for educational and scientific purposes, tourism and raw material for various commercial

purposes (Thapa et al., 2020). For example, Aloe Vera is directly consumed for its medicinal

properties, timber is used for fire and animals are consumed directly after hunting.

Productive use value: Productive use value is the value which put on marketable products.

The different professionals from various fields‘ studies biological diversity for its productive

values. The agricultural scientist uses biological diversity for improving the yield and quality

of crops. The biotechnologist studies different genetic properties of plants, animals and

microbes. The best traits can be selected from the organism with which new improved

(disease resistant and high yield) variety of crops can be produced. It also helps to develop

better livestock (high nutrient value and fast growth) (Jactel et al., 2018). Pharmacist use

biological diversity as a raw material for the production of various plants based and animals

based drugs.

Social values: From the ancient time people used to protect biodiversity for their needs.

Ancient people used to value biological diversity worship various plants, animals,

waterbodies, stones and mountains as they are helpful for their survival and have high

esteem. Earlier needs were few as less population so most of biological diversity is conserved

(Griffiths et al., 2019). Still many tribal people directly depend on forests for their daily

needs. Many indigenous people are helpful for conserving biological diversity as they used to
cut only old tree branches for wood and only the leaves of young trees are used only for

livestock. Modern people are least concerned about the conservation of biological diversity.

They only care about their own usage and try to grab it as much as one can at once and

exploit it which sometimes leads to irreversible loss (Evers et al., 2018).

Ethical and moral values: It is the moral duty of human beings to conserve biological

diversity. Planet earth belongs to every species in this world and humans have no right to

harm any species if it is of no use to them. Ethical values are related to conservation of

biological diversity from animal trafficking, smuggling, illegal activities like cloning,

inhuman treatment with animals, biopiracy, unauthorized animal testing, poaching,

desertification and uncontrolled deforestation. To meet the high demand of resources due to

population explosion benefits are given more importance rather than ethics and moral values

Aesthetic values: Biological diversity is secret for the beauty of our planet. The different

kinds of plants, animals, flowers and birds provide great aesthetic value. Various recreational

activities are linked to it like bird watching, butterfly parks, river rafting, national parks,

aquarium and botanical gardens (Collins et al., 2017).

Economic values: Biological diversity has a great economic value; food is the basic

necessity which is the product of it. The agricultural sector, various industries depend upon

biodiversity products. The revenue generated from biodiversity products is essential for the

growth of any country (Hanley et al., 2015)

Scientific values: Various research work has been done on many species of plants, animals,

insects etc. and many has to be done to attain knowledge. This scientific knowledge can be

utilized for the things which of great value to human beings (Titley et al., 2017). During the

COVID-19 pandemic we have learned various lessons for conservation of biodiversity. An

enzyme used in COVID-19 testing is extracted from a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus which

was discovered in a geyser in Yellowstone National Park, US (Buchanan, 2021)

CHAPTER THREE:- MEASURING AND MONITORING BIODIVERSITY

3.1. Measuring Biodiversity: Structural, Functional and Methodological Aspect

The dynamics of biodiversity play a key role with regard to the indication, measurement,

understanding and prediction of changes within living ecosystems. Based on this context,

monitoring, i.e. the measurement of recent changes of biodiversity, is providing important

information for an understanding of the properties and dynamics of each system.

Quantitative indexes of biodiversity have been developed primarily to denote species

diversity at three different geographical scales;

1. Alpha diversity (α):- refers to diversity within a particular area, or community at a small

scale or local scale. Or it is a number of species in a certain community (species richness)

2. Beta diversity (β): - Beta diversity links alpha and gamma diversity. It represents rate of

change of species composition along an environmental or geographical gradient.

3. Gamma diversity (γ):- It applies to larger geographical scales. It refers to the number of

species in a large region or on a continent.

3.1.1. Species Diversity

Species diversity is defined as the number of different species present in an ecosystem and

relative abundance of each of those species. Diversity is greatest when all the species present

are equally abundant in the area. Basically, there are two constituents of species diversity,

those are species richness and species evenness.

A. Species Richness is a measure of the number of different species represented in an

ecological community, landscape or region. It is simply a count of species.

B. Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species

making up the richness of an area. It quantifies how equal the abundances of the

species are. Evenness compares the similarity of the population size of each of the

species present.

Evenness can be calculated as:-

Example ;To give an example, we might have sampled two different fields for wild

mammals. The sample from the first field consists of 300 Oryx, 335 gazelle and 365 zebra.

The sample from the second field comprises 20 Oryx, 49 gazelle and 931 zebra. Both

samples have the same richness (3 species) and the same total number of individuals (1000).

However, the first sample has more evenness than the second. This is because the total

number of individuals in the sample is quite evenly distributed between the three species. In

the second sample, most of the individuals are zebra, with only a few Oryx and gazelles

present. Therefore, Sample 2 is considered to be less diverse than sample 1.

Species abundance refers to how common or rare a species is relative to other species in a

defined location or community. It is usually measured as large number of individuals found

per sample. How species abundances are distributed within a community or an ecosystem is

referred to as relative species abundance. Relative species abundance is calculated by

dividing the number of individuals of a species from one group by the total number of

individuals of the existing species from all groups.

Usually relative species abundances are described for a single trophic level. Because such

species occupy the same trophic level, they will potentially or actually compete for similar

resources. For example, relative species abundances might describe all terrestrial birds in a
forest community. A variety of sampling methods are used to measure abundance. In many

plant communities, the abundances of plant species are measured by plant cover, i.e. the

relative area covered by different plant species in a small plot

Dominant Species is the species that is present in the greatest numbers. In other words, the

species with the largest population in the community. Species frequency is the number of

times a species is present in a given number of quadrats of a particular size or at a given

number of sample points. Frequency is usually expressed as a percentage.

3.1.2. Species Diversity metric and indices

A diversity index is a quantitative measure that reflects how many different types (such as

species) are in a dataset, and simultaneously takes into account how evenly the basic entities

(such as individuals) are distributed among those types. In short a diversity index is a

mathematical measure of species diversity in a given community.

The most commonly used indexes for measurement of biodiversity are Shannon Diversity

Index and Simpson’s Index. They are wholly unsuitable for measuring biodiversity. This

becomes clear from consideration of the following points:

 Biodiversity studies need rapidly gathered data from as many plots as possible, over large

areas. This requires presence/absence (binary) data, not detailed, time-consuming

measures of quantity.

Biodiversity deals with organisms ranging in size from trees to bacteria, making

comparable quantitative measurements on such different scales is impracticable.

 Use of binary data overcomes difficulties with quantitative data, such as the

size of herbaceous plants changing rapidly with the seasons.

 In many animals (e.g., insects), population sizes fluctuate enormously from year to year.
Binary data are much less affected than quantitative data by such quantitative variability.

A. Simpson’s Index is a measure of diversity which takes into account both richness (the

number of species present) and evenness (the relative abundance of each species). In

ecology, it is often used to quantify the biodiversity of a habitat. A community dominated

by one or two species is considered to be less diverse than one in which several different

species have a similar abundance

Simpson's Index (D) measures the probability that two individuals randomly selected

from a sample will belong to the same species. There are two versions of the formula for

calculating D

Note:- The value of D ranges between 0 and 1 but now, the greater the value of the

Simpson's Index of Diversity, the greater the sample diversity. With this index, 0 represents

infinite diversity and 1, no diversity. That is, the bigger the value of D, the lower the

diversity. This is neither intuitive nor logical, so to get over this problem, D is often

subtracted from 1 to give:

B. Shannon Diversity Index is also known as Shannon–Wiener index, the Shannon–

Weaver index and the Shannon entropy. It is a popular diversity index in the ecological

literature and commonly used diversity index that takes into account both abundance and

evenness of species present in the community. The Shannon index quantifies the
uncertainty (entropy or degree of surprise) associated with this prediction

It is explained by the formula:

Where, H = the Shannon diversity index, Pi = fraction of the entire population made-up of

species, i (proportion of a species i relative to TOTAL number of species present, not

encountered) S = numbers of species encountered

Shannon’s equitability (J1) measures the evenness of a community and can be easily

calculated by dividing the value of H with H_max, which equals to lnS (S=number of species

encountered). Its value ranges between 0 and 1, with being complete evenness.

If abundance is concentrated to one type, and the other types are very rare (even if there are

many of them), Shannon equitability approaches zero. When there is only one type in the

dataset, Shannon equitability exactly equals zero (there is no uncertainty in predicting the

type of the next randomly chosen entity.

3.2. Monitoring Biodiversity status

Biodiversity monitoring is the process of determining status and tracking changes in living

organisms and the ecological complexes of which they are a part. It is important because it

provides a basis for evaluating the integrity of ecosystems, their responses to disturbances,

and the success of actions taken to conserve or recover biodiversity. Assessment and

monitoring of the state of biodiversity and its possible changes are not only theoretical but

also practical interest for the conservation of certain species and natural communities.

For the rational use of natural resources, and for ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems and

the biosphere as a whole, preserving human health and implementing the concept of

sustainable development

Monitoring of biodiversity serves many goals. Monitoring the population sizes of

protected species in their conservation areas gives feedback on the success of

conservation measures. Monitoring the spread of a toxic invading species or of an

infectious organism can feed into an early warning system for farmers or for medical

services. Monitoring systems at game farms allow optimization of population management

systems

3.2.1. Biodiversity pattern

Biodiversity pattern in species is understanding that the number of species found on earth

vary globally, locally as well as with time. The pattern of species diversity in an area or at

any one time is set by some combination of three factors: - chance, history and necessity.
Chance is a random processes of birth, death and migration and it will be abundant today

whereas history is correlation through time as a function of reproduction in the other word if

a species was an abundant in the near past. Necessity is the low of growth, competition

interaction and different species flourish in different condition. The number of species that

can co-exist will depend on complex environment and how strongly they compete with one

another.

3.2.2. Hotspot and their identification

Hotspot is a large region containing exceptional concentration of plant, animal endemism

and experiencing high rate of habitat loss. Biodiversity hotspot are a method to identify

those region of the work where attention is needed to address biodiversity loss and to guide

investment in conservation. It is the areas that are extremely rich in flora and fauna and have

a high level of endemism, which includes flora and fauna which are under the threat of

getting endangered. There are mainly two criteria to be checked to qualify a region under the

category of a biodiversity hotspot.

A. It must have at least 1500 or 0.5 % species of vascular plants that are endemic to the

region.

B. It has to have lost ≥ 70% of its original native habitat and must be in the threatened

list of IUCN (Johnson et al., 2015).

Based on these criteria around 36 areas of the world qualify as biodiversity hotspots. These

covers just 2.5% of Earth‘s land surface but it constitutes more than half of the world‘s plant

species as endemics i.e., belonging to the particular place only and nearly 43% of mammal,

bird, reptile and amphibian species as endemics. Presently there are 36 biodiversity hotspots

these areas are of extreme importance and need utmost protection (Huang et al., 2018). The
36 biodiversity hotspots of the world have been classified on the basis of locations which are

North and Central America, Europe and Central Asia, Africa, Asia and Australia and South

America.

Hotspot identification (HSID) is the first and key step of the expressway safety management

process.This study presents a new HSID method using the quantitative risk assessment

(QRA) technique. Overall, hotspots have lost around 86% of their original habitat and

additionally are considered to be significantly threatened by extinction induced by climate

change

3.2.3. Indicator for biodiversity monitoring

Indicator means a measure based on verifiable data that convey information about more than

itself. Biodiversity indicator can cover more than direct measure of biodiversity but it also the

action to ensure conservation and sustainable use. Two main types of indicator those are

impact indicator and implementation (performance) indicator. Impact indicator used for

measuring progress towards a target and a desire state of biodiversity. Implementation

(performance) indicator used to monitoring the implementation of particular action.

The use of biodiversity indicator help to:- understand the current and past status of

biodiversity and why it may be changing, decide on the most appropriate goals, policy and

action to address an issue, raise awareness and build support about an issue through different

communication channel and mean, put the issue and response into context and assess the

progress, success and effectiveness of policy decision and action taken to address an issue as

part of adaptive management.

CHAPTER FOUR: - BIODIVERSITY LOSS

4.1 Biodiversity Loss and Its trend

Our biological resources are being overused, hampering their regenerative capacity. The

crucible of extinction is already threatening our natural environment.

What are the current trends in biodiversity?

For all aspect of biodiversity, current pace of change and loss is hundreds of time faster than

previously in recorded history. Virtually the entire earth ecosystem has been dramatically

transformed through human action. Land area where the change has been particularly quick

over the past two decades. Across the world, ecosystem has continued to be converted for

agricultural. Over the past few hundred years, human have increased the species extinction

rate by as much as three orders of magnitude Genetic diversity has decline globally,

particularly among domesticated species. Biodiversity loss has been a natural part of the

history of Earth's biota. It has always been countered by origination and except for rare event,

has occurred at extremely slow rate

Why biodiversity loss a concern?

Because biodiversity loss is rapid and on-going, over the last 50 years human have changed

ecosystem faster and more extensively and every year between 17,000 and 100,000 species

vanish from our planet.

4.2. Causes of Biodiversity Loss

In order to save our remaining forests from ultimate destruction, a clear understanding of the

major causes of biodiversity losses is needed.

4.2.1. Direct cause of biodiversity loss

The millennium ecosystem assessment identified 5 causes

1. Habitat loss also termed as habitat destruction, habitat alteration and habitat reduction.

It is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native

species. It occurs when habitat is converted to in to other uses. Loss of habitat can be

preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation occurs when a large

habitat is separated in to smaller patches. The organism that previously inhabited the site

is displaced or dead, thereby reducing biodiversity and species abundance. Habitat loss

has negatively influences biodiversity directly through its impact on species abundance,

species richness and species distribution and genetic diversity.

Human activities that contribution to habitat loss are harvesting natural resource,

industrial production and urbanization.

2. Overexploitation is a serious threat to many species, such as marine fish and, tree, and

animals hunted for meat. The trade in wild plants and animals and their derivatives is

estimated to reach nearly $160 billion annually. Because this trade crosses national

border, the effort to regulate it required international cooperation to safeguard certain

species from overexploitation

3. Climate Change;- Rapid climate change affect ecosystem and species ability to adapt

and so biodiversity loss increases. It affect species distribution, population size, timing

of reproduction or migration events, as well as frequency of pest and disease outbreaks.

Temperature, rainfall, severe events, CO2 concentrations, and ocean dynamics are all

likely to have an impact on biodiversity at all levels, including gene, species, and habitat

diversity. Climate change can lower genetic variety of population‘s at the most

fundamental level of biodiversity due to directional selection, genetic drift, population

divergence, and rapid migration. As a result, population adaptation to changing

environmental conditions becomes less likely, increasing the risk of extinction. Fire is a

major cause of biodiversity loss in Africa. As global warming increase these fire are

likely to get more intense and extensive and may result in significant ecosystem change

that would affect biodiversity through species loss or change in species composition.

4. Invasive species also called introduced species, alien species, or exotic species,

nonnative species that significantly modifies or disrupts the ecosystems it colonizes.

Exotic species is any organism that happens to live outside its natural habitat range as a

consequence of anthropogenic activity. It becomes invasive when the population start to

increase reproduction if no natural enemies in the new habitat. Invasive species can be

plants, animals, and other living organisms (e.g., microbes). They can harm the

environment, the economy, or even human health. Invasive species are capable of

causing extinctions of native plants and animals, competing with native organisms for

limited resources, altering habitats and

serve as disease vectors that

spread parasites and pathogen.

They are primarily spread by human activities

Characteristics of Invasive species are lack of natural predators, fast growth rapid

reproduction, high dispersal ability, utilizing limited resource more efficiently, high

adaptability and tolerance, widespread distribution and abundance in their native range,

survive in a wide range of environmental condition and mature rapidly

5. Pollution is unwanted things that have a harmful or poisonous effect on the

environment. Chemical pollution is defined as the presence or increases in our

environment of chemical pollutants that are not naturally present there are found in

amounts higher than their natural background values. Most pollution is created by

human activity. Most of the chemicals that pollute the environment are man-made,

resulted from the various activities in which toxic chemicals are used for various

purposes.

4.2.2. Cross cutting/root causes of biodiversity loss

The root causes of biodiversity loss are change human population, income or lifestyle

change in economic activity, inequality and poverty and public Policies, Markets, and Politic

4.3 Consequences of Biodiversity loss

4.3.1. Genetic erosion/loss of genetic pool

Genetic erosion/loss also known as genetic depletion. It is a process where the limited gene

pool of an endangered species diminishes even more when reproductive individuals die

before reproducing with others in their endangered low population. The term is sometimes

used in narrow sense, when describing the loss of particular alleles or genes, more broadly, as

when referring to the loss of a whole species. Genetic erosion occurs because each individual

organism has many unique genes which get lost when it dies without getting a chance to

breed. Low genetic diversity in a population of wild animals and plants leads to a further

diminishing gene pool.

4.3.2. Species extinction:- refers to the loss of species or other taxonomic units occurring

when there are no surviving individuals elsewhere. The extinction of any species is an

irreversible loss of part of the biological richness of the Earth. The idea of biodiversity is

most often associated with species richness and thus biodiversity loss is often viewed as

species loss from an ecosystem or even the entire biosphere.

4.3.3. Loss of ecosystem service and livelihood

Livelihood comprises the capabilities assets (including both material and social resource and

activities required for a means of living. It is sustainable recover from stresses and shocks and

maintain now and in the future. Ecosystem services are ecological processes or functions,

which have value to individuals or society at large. Each of these services supports different

aspects of human well-being, providing among other things, security and material for life.

Generally loss of Ecosystem services are loss of varied benefits to humans provided by the

natural environment and from healthy ecosystems.

CHAPTER FIVE;-BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

5.1. Biological Conservation

What is Conservation and preservation?

The distinction between the terms "preservation" and "conservation" is somewhat unclear, as

the use of these terms has varied over time, depending on the context of their use.

Since the 1980s, the library and archival communities have used "preservation" as an

umbrella term for activities that reduce or prevent damage to extend the life expectancy of

collections, while "conservation" refers more specifically to the physical treatment of

individual damaged items.

In the context of biodiversity, preservation is the protection (i.e. the strict control) of

biodiversity from human use. Thus, from its definition, preservation is less applicable in the

field condition especially in the developing world where most people are dependent on the

direct use of biodiversity.

Conservation is the proper use (i.e. the sustainable and wise use) of the biodiversity to satisfy

the needs of the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the aspiration of

the coming generation. Compared to biodiversity preservation, it is relatively easier to apply

biodiversity conservation in the field in any country regardless of its level of development

because conservation allows the sustainable use of the biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation is briefly defined as about saving life on earth in all its forms and

keeping natural ecosystems functioning and healthy. It involves the sustainable exploitation

of the biodiversity to satisfy the needs of the present generation while maintaining its

potential to meet the aspiration of the coming ones.

Conserving biodiversity means ensuring that natural landscapes, with their array of

ecosystems, are maintained, and that species, populations, genes, and the complex

interactions among them, persist into the future.

5.1.1. Need for Conservation of biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation plays an integral role in supporting many sectors of development

Biodiversity conservation is vital for economic growth and poverty reduction

 Food security depends upon natural resources that form the basis of food production.

 Biodiversity conservation protects plant, animal, microbial and genetic resources for

food production, agriculture, and ecosystem functions such as fertilizing the soil,

recycling nutrients, regulating pests and disease, controlling erosion, and pollinating

crops and trees

 Biodiversity conservation can help to address the effects of climate change.

 Scarce natural resources are often at the root of conflict. Mismanaging natural resources

and harming biodiversity can increase poverty and instability.

Generally, Biodiversity is the key indicator of the health of an ecosystem. A wide variety of

species will cope better with threats than a limited number of them in large populations. The

objectives of biodiversity conservation are to preserve the diversity of species, sustainable

utilization of species and ecosystem and to maintain life supporting system and essential

ecological process.

5.1.2. Value and priority for conservation

It is crucial to plan and prioritize biodiversity for better decision making bearing in mind

benefits derived such as a source of food, medicine, building materials, energy, attracting

tourism etc. Despite this, countries in the region are still losing significant amounts of
biodiversity as a result of human pressures and associated exploitation of land resources. This

calls for governments to seriously maintain ecosystems, species, genetic resources and

ecological processes for support of life on earth and the improvement of human conditions

5.2. Biodiversity Conservation approach/ strategy or measures

Conserving biodiversity does mean the proper management of the biosphere by human beings

in such a way that it gives maximum benefits for the present generation and also develops its

potential so as to meet the needs of the future generations. The best way to conserve

biodiversity is to save habitats and ecosystems rather than trying to save a single species. The

conservation of biological diversity has now become a global concern. There are basically

two main approaches of biodiversity conservation namely, in-situ conservation and ex-situ

conservation

5.2.1. In-situ conservation measures

In-situ conservation is the conservation of species within their natural habitat.

It maintaining viable populations in their native environment. It also achieved through the

designation and management of protected areas. Example:-national parks – covers 12% of

the Earth‘s terrestrial surface, wilderness areas and nature reserves

National park is a park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national

governments. It used to preservation of the natural environment particularly wild plant and

indigenous plant variety. It may be set aside for purposes of public recreation and enjoyment

or because of its historical or scientific interest.

Wilderness area

The term ―wilderness‖ has several dimensions: a biological dimension, because wilderness

refers to mainly ecologically intact areas, and a social dimension, because many people –
from urban dwellers to indigenous groups – interact with wild nature, and all humans depend

on our planet‘s wilderness resource to varying degrees. Wilderness or wildlands (usually in

the plural) are natural environments on Earth that have not been significantly modified by

human activity or any no urbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation.

A wilderness protected area is therefore an area that is mainly biologically intact, is free of

modern, industrial infrastructure, and has been set aside so that humans may continue to

have a relationship with wild nature. It a major global conservation strategy uses a

representative approach (the ecoregion approach monitored by Wildlife Fund)

Major challenges of in situ biodiversity conservation are urban encroachment, infrastructural

development, habitat conversion, illegal harvesting, fire and policy related problems

(government institutions, conflicting policies and resource tenure

5.2.2. Ex-situ conservation measures

Ex-situ conservation is the conservation and maintenance of samples of living organisms. In

short, it conserve outside their natural habitat. It can be the whole plants Seed, pollen,

vegetative propagates, tissue or cell cultures. These can be reserved in botanical garden

arboretum and gene banks

Botanical garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation, preservation and display

of a wide range of plants labeled with their botanical names. They are institutions holding

documented collections of living plants for the purpose of scientific education and research,

conservation of plant by growing important local plant species and keeping record of them.

Arboretum is a botanical garden specializing in trees or woody plants. Its purpose is to

establish and maintain a wide diversity of trees for educational and recreational uses.

Gene banks are a type of bio repository that preserves genetic material. It exist to conserve
the genetic diversity wild and domesticated organism that human depend on for food, fiber,

medicine and energy. For plants, this is done by in vitro storage, freezing cuttings from the

plant, or stocking the seeds (e.g. in a seed bank). For animals, this is done by the freezing of

sperm and eggs in zoological freezers until further need.

CHAPTER SIX: - BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION IN ETHIOPIA

6.1. Current status and trend of biodiversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6,000 species of higher plants of which 10% are

endemic. The country has 284 species of wild mammals and 861 species of birds. Data on

other wild animals are scanty; and the number of reptile, fish, amphibian and arthropod

species identified so far are 201, 200, 63 and 1,225, respectively. Of these faunal resources,

29 wild mammal, 18 bird, 10 reptile, 40 fish, 25 amphibian and seven arthropod species are

endemic to Ethiopia.

Ethiopia is a center of origin for cultivated crops such as coffee, tef, enset, and a centre of

diversity for many crop species such as durum wheat, barley and sorghum. In addition, the

country has a rich resource of indigenous farm animals comprised of 28 cattle, 9 sheep, 8

goat, 7 camel, 6 donkey, 8 horse, 2 mule and 7 chicken breeds. As the dominant economic

sector, agriculture provides employment for about 83% of the population. It contributes 90%

to the country‘s export value and 45% to the GDP. Earnings from coffee alone contribute 4 to

5% to the GDP, about 20% to government revenue and 60% to the total foreign exchange.

The livestock sector is a source of livelihoods and income for the rural and peri-urban

communities mainly, contributing about 25% to the country‘s GDP.

Ethiopia has set clear national policy directives on conservation of biological resources. In

the past, conservation efforts focused on plant genetic resources and priority was given to
field crops. Since 1998, the Institute was given a wider mandate of conservation and

sustainable utilization of all forms of biological resources including plants, animals and

microbial genetic resources as well as associated indigenous knowledge. Ecosystem

management is also recognized as one of the areas to be given priority. As to the importance

of biodiversity and our dependence on biological resources, conservation efforts give

emphasis to local and national needs and values. The Institute, thus, has power and duties

related to the conservation and promoting the sustainable utilization of Ethiopia‘s

biodiversity. This includes maintaining and developing international relations with bilateral

and multilateral bodies having the potential to providing technical assistance. The Institute,

on the basis of national legislation, has the responsibility and duty to implement international

conventions, agreements and obligations on biodiversity to which Ethiopia is a party.

6.2. Natural Ecosystem diversity in Ethiopia and their trend

Ethiopia possesses enormous traditional, cultural and natural diversities with different range

of latitudinal position and topography. East African rift valley which extends from Afar

junction to the Southwest direction possesses various arrangements of flora and fauna. The

country has also mountain, medium and flat topography with different elevations which

creates variation in climate conditions and diverse biodiversity

Ethiopia is a central place of biological diversity with large endemism due to large ecological

ranges. The ecosystem endowment is represented by cultural diversity with Varity of fauna

and flora but frequent encroachments by man resulted in widespread destruction of wildlife

and their habitats.

Natural Ecosystem in Ethiopia

1. Afroalpine and sub- afroalpine ecosystem

Afroalpine ecosystem includes areas higher than 3500 meters above sea level while sub-afro

alpine areas found in the range of 3200 to 3500 meters above sea level. Giant Lobelia, Erica

Arborea Lobelia species, and dwarf shrubs are the feature of the ecosystem. The mammals in

this ecology comprise Walia Ibex, Ethiopian Wolf and Red Chest Gelada Baboon, Mountain

Nyala and Mole Rat. Afroalpine area has cold temperature throughout the year with frequent

snow. Community which resides in this area cultivates crops like barley, oat, potato and flax.

Anthropological interference and free grazing in the niches are the major causes of the

reduction of flora and fauna biodiversity. Soil fertility depletion is observed due to

continuous farming and high leaching.

2. Montane grassland ecosystem

This ecosystem has physiognomy which comprises different floristic arrangement and

bionetwork. Montane grass land is mostly found within the range of 1500 to 3200 meters

above sea level. The grass land soil is moderately fertile and allow for the growing of

woodlands in differnt strata. Common trees species found in the ecosystem are Acacia

abyssinica, Juniperous procerra, Croton macrostachys,and Rossa abyssinica. Mixed

farming activities is practiced in the area which is the cause of disappearance of mammalian

wildlife.

3. Dry ever green montane forest grassland complex

It has complex system and comprises big trees and shrubs with different grasses which is

found in the mountainous and high land area of Ethiopia within the range of 900- 3300

meters above sea level. The dominant tree species are Juniperus procera, Olea europaea,

cuspidata, podocarpus falcatus, Acacia abyssinica found in valleys. The existing vegetation

coverage is mostly grown after serious deforestation with mixed arrangement and consists of
dry evergreen trees and grasses). Mountain Nyala which is endemic mammal and endangered

wildlife in the area.

4. Moist evergreen montane forest ecosystem

The land scape is covered by closed strata and tall trees are found in the system. This

ecosystem is found at an altitudinal range of 1500 to 2600 meters above sea level with

Aningeria adolfi-friederici, Podocarpus falcatus, Arundinaria alpi and other broad leave tree

species. The ecosystem is rich in Varity of mammals like Monkey, Leopard and, chimpanzee.

5. Desert and semi desert scrubland ecosystem

It is found in the low land area with an altitude of 500 meters above sea level. Drought

tolerant vegetation scarcely covers the area. Trees like Acacia species, Boswellia

ogadenenesis commiphora staphyleifolia and other shrubs are growing in the range. The semi

desert scrubland is mainly found in the north-western part of the nation.

6. Lowland semi-evergreen forest ecosystem

It is found in the altitudinal range of 450 to 650 meters above sea level. Most trees are

deciduous type with, 15-20-meters tall and the tree canopy is continuous. Baphia abyssinica

is dominant vegetation followed by Celtis toka, Diospyros abyssinica, Trichilia Zanha

golungensis Lecaniodiscus, and Malacantha alnifolia Zanthoxylum. Wild mammals such as

Lesser Cane rat, Nile Lechwe and White-eared Kob, are found in the jungle. Some Leopard

and Bush Elephants population are decreased from time to time and they are under threat.

Different types of birds are also found in the ecosystem.

7. Aquatic and wetland ecosystem:- Ethiopia possess several lakes, rivers and

wetlands in different agro ecologies. In the aquatic ecosystem fresh water lakes and

rivers are included. Most lakes are found in the rift valley area while rivers and
wetlands are fond in all part of the country

Chapter Seven: - International treats on Biodiversity

Biodiversity-related conventions work to implement actions at the national, regional and

international level in order to reach shared goals of conservation and sustainable use. In

meeting their objectives, the conventions have developed a number of complementary

approaches (site, species, genetic resources and/or ecosystem-based) and operational tools

(e.g., programs of work, trade permits and certificates, multilateral system for access and

benefit-sharing, regional agreements, site listings, funds).

Why were conventions on biodiversity created?

Biological diversity has becomes a global asset of tremendous value to present and future

generation. So for conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its

component convention were created.

7.1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

It is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of

biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits

arising from the use of genetic resources.

The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit (The United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio Conference

or the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29

December 1993. The United States is the only UN member state which has not ratified the

Convention. It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya

Protocol.

The conservation of biodiversity is a common concern of humankind. Convention on

biological resource covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic

resources and also covers biotechnology. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are

directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science,

politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more. Two protocols have

been established later to support and help the convention to reach its objectives

7.1.1. Cartagena Biosafety protocol

Cartagena protocol on Biosafety to the convention of biological diversity was adopted to

supplement the provisions of the Convention. This Agreement, which came into force in

September 2003, aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified

organisms (LMOs), resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on

biological diversity, and taking also into account risks to human health.

7.1.2. Nagoya Genetic resource protocol

Nagoya Protocol was adopted by Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its tenth

meeting on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. It aims to share the benefits arising from the

utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, including by appropriate access to

genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all

rights over those resources, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity

and the sustainable use of its components.

7.1.3. Aichi Targets

The parties (countries) under Convention of biodiversity (CBD), meet at regular interval.

These meeting are called conference of parties (COP). 10th such meeting was held at Aichi

precinct (district) of Nagoya, Japan. This COP-10 gave birth to two things Nagoya protocol

on Genetic Resource and Aichi Target for biodiversity.

7.3. Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and

flora(CITES)

Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) is a

multilateral treaty, drafted as a result of resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members

of the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN). It interred in to force on July1,

1975. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does

not threaten their survival. Through its three appendices, the Convention accords varying

degrees of protection to more than 30,000 plant and animal species.

Why we need CITES

Annually, international wild life trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to

include hundreds of millions of plants and animals specimen. Because the trade crosses

borders between countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to

safeguard certain species from over exploitation. CITES was conceived in the spirit of such

cooperation

7.4. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory species of wild Animal

The CMS or the Bonn Convention aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory

species throughout their range. Parties to the CMS work together to conserve migratory

species and their habitats by providing strict protection for the most endangered migratory

species, by concluding regional multilateral agreements for the conservation and management

of specific species or categories of species, and by undertaking co-operative research and

conservation activities.

7.5. International Treaty on plant Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture(ITPGRFA)
The objectives of the Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic

resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising

out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable

agriculture and food security. The Treaty covers all plant genetic resources for food and

agriculture, while its Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing covers a specific list

of 64 crops and forages. The Treaty also includes provisions on Farmers' Rights.

7.6. African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural resources

The African Convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources was adopted in

1968 in Algiers. Considered the most forward looking regional agreement of the time, it

influenced significantly the development of environmental law in Africa. Two and a half

decades of intense developments in international environmental law made it necessary to

revise this treaty, update its provisions and enlarge its scope. This was undertaken under the

auspices of the African Union (previously OAU), and the revision was adopted by its Heads

of State and Government in July 2003 in Maputo. This edition of the introduction provides an

overview of this new international treaty, as well as a commentary to each of its provisions

with texts in both English and French.

The objectives African Convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources

are to encourage conservation, utilization and development of soil, water, flora and fauna for

the present and future welfare of mankind, from an economic, nutritional, scientific,

educational, cultural and aesthetic point of view.

7.7. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

International Union for the Conservation of Nature is a membership Union uniquely

composed of both government and civil society organizations. By harnessing the experience,
resources and reach of its more than 1,400 member organizations and the input of some

15,000 experts, IUCN is the global authority on the status of the natural world and the

measures needed to safeguard it.

IUCN work focuses on valuing and conserving nature, ensuring effective and equitable

governance of its use, and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate,

food and development. IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the

world, and brings governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy,

laws and best practice