Lighter Element Lighter Element@ gn oy ) 6" ’s ¢onstant any is Stefan - Bollymann Constant. G4, “ Known 5:67 216° wall J Kh. ie js eyual to As the orcinary hot bodlies 4, hg te is efficiently than Black boy, 50 f° suas a case the stefan-Bolt3marn law can 4, wutten as, [2 = €27'|—®@ dn ey(@, “€' & a@ dimensiontess yuan. tity and ‘is Known as emissivity of te Surface. ‘ For Black body ov cavity vadtator , its value fs equal to ‘’’ ie (E51 For Surface of ordinary obfects, its value is ess than’ ‘1’ se E <1. €' is always a functzon of temperature. 440: THE poo Elécrarc EFFECT: Mt hos been found that when Ultraviolet Light —ot_~—sEeght of igh free weney falls upon metal —servfiace ,_ then electvoriz ave emitted from — metal surf ace. Shiz phenomenon of the_-—-eemiision i beght ‘“ Knsum as Photo electric effect. Vhe . Bs whieh ave emitted® known as photo electrons. The current wheek is formed due to photo ebectrans ave Known as photo electric - current. Shit phenomenon was frst Studied by Mert3 m 188.) Gur of MEH EXPLANATION : Ae the phenomenon of photo electric effect can be Studted by using a dence Known as photo electric tube- This tube Consist of two electrodes C” figure. The collector ‘c’ is connected to the positive terminal of the battery while the plate (p’ (5 Connected to the negate fevminal of the — battery. Now when an ultraviolet Leight is abowe!. to fale on the snetal surface then & + ave emilled _instantoneoutly ond moves — towards the Collectoy 2" a5 shown and ‘Pp’ a shun im the ta the — figure. In this way, current is Produced ue to which the galvanemeter® deflecteon- The fact that és are emitfed metal Surface “s that, the ult. Shows frm yaviobet bight supplies energy equal to the — bindeng energy of electrons. Thus the electrons ave emitted. tdi: Maximum K-E OF PHOTO ELECTRONS: To find) the moximum KE of photo electrons , the polarity of ebectyodes "5 Yevevsed = ine the collector ‘C* és made. negative and the plate ‘p' is made posttive- Now in such a case, the photo- electric current decreases, because under Such conditions, only those. Es - with vexek the —colleetoy ‘C’ whose » energy is maximum. Noo of the plate ‘p’ is made. more positrve and the. collectey C’ is made mere negatwe, then the _ most energetic ‘és will. also Stop» No electron unit $2 able fo move towards “C’ and * thus no current is produced. Thus the galvuno- meter wit Show jevo deflection. The vobtage at whch the become Stoped is Known: as stopping potential. Sé is representa by “Me. . *® Shas we fave to ds work. fr Stopping mest = energeteed —ebleeLvons. This work “ss given ey, . Work = Ke @ wheve ‘ea “ the charge on ebec~ tron. This work mist be eyual te the maximum k-E of electrons. So ey O > [RE e]—e £y'® vepresents the maximum KE of photo electrons. 112: EmsTern _ExplAaNAaTiONn OF PHOTOEL EeTRICc EFFECT + electro magnet: wave ‘theory 2st os foiled ae HOU an to. explain ah the pheneme- Fd % Nacleus 7M of phiston * Clectrie effect,Einstem used =Yyuentum theory 4 then explain this _ phenomena. According fo Einstein, this phen. omena oceurs due to collesiom fu inein dent photon and bound. electron. Now Consicley a bight of high freyuency f' falls upon the metal. Surface. let the . photon of emergy ‘hf’ collides with an ebectyon 2 the atom of the metal and give whole of its ene- wy hf’ to He electron. Now due to this additonal energy the electron try to comes to the metal Surface. “But . fer oerng so, The. electron mut fave to. clo work against the attractive forces of the . rucleus. This work, which te electron — es Lo cho’ in comming to the me tl surface is —_enewn as pheloebectyie work ‘funetton. $f ( represented by ‘f° ond is equal bh the threshold energy Mh ise & =6& = Af —_o@ Thus the electron spends _ energy, equal to bh” out «of ‘AE’. gg the remaining energy in electron will be “ hf hf”. this remaining energy appears in form of KE Gn the electron wi the help® of whieh it beaves — the_-— etal sur- foce. This energy is experimentally eyual to =e”, wheve “y," is the stoping potential = and ‘e’ isthe chayge on electron. Aas KE = he , fo ey @ > we = Af —Af > [We =. ACHE] ® we alse Know that, c= fd >fH.£=h. fo ey (Y > ve. = ALU- UA] > (a eED)—s Fys (2),(3),4) represents — the Emstein’ egs for explanation af Phot electnee effect. the following from photo electric effet. vesubls were abtained ® fy azechin of Bs fram metol suface |ie. | the frequency “f’ of incident 544 mast be greater than fhe thre shojy freguency of” ®@ The number of photo electrons Sjecley depends upm the intensity of Leyte @ No electwn wif be emilled, f the Freyuency of tneident Legh ase than thresholel Sreyuency. © @ Khe maximum g.€ Ff — phote electron, depend: pen the frequency of incicent bepkt. © Ke Photo ebectrec effect ts an instan. taneous offeed. WAVE THEORY To Explain PHOTO ElLEcrRIC EFFECT : The classical 114: FATLURE of CLAssTeAL wave theory of was unable fo explain — the phe nomenon of Photo electric effect , because bight fis theory cannot = explain — the flowing Features of Mote electric egyect. ®@ THE pg OBL END OF INTENSITY:® She. wave theory of — beght tells us that the oscillating electric vectoy ‘£" of fGht —ineveases with ~—inevease — in intensity of Leght. Vhevefere, the energy of photoelectrons must be — ineveases with fnevease in efectvostattec gree “P46”. Sut the experimental” fact shows that — the K-E of = photo electvons 1,8 “ (ee = Me" dloes mot: leper on the intensity of ight. @® THE PROBLEM oF FREQUENCY: The wave theory tells us that photoelectric ‘effet can oceurs at any freyuency of — keght, if Fhe = tensity maximum. But the experimental facts shou that the —photoebectvic effect can take place only, the freywency ef incident Light is net ess than threshold frey. ueny “f£"- ie Sf he — mtensity max. tmum but the freyuency fs. fess than £’, then 0 photoelectric effect will “oxe Place. in other werd, we can soy that the Photo electric effect depend: up the ——" “B freyuency of Light JE ° does not epeng on the intensity of Gkght- @ THE proBLem of TIME dELny: ee ‘the wave theory tel us thag the emission of photo eLectvens — wilf loke fongev tome Gg te mntensity of Lahe 5 mm mem. Sut the experimental fact shows that — the emission of ebectyvons js an ins. tantaneous effect. 4e the Photo electrons will emitt mstantaneously if the frey. wency of = AGht fs met hess than “£”. THE THRESHOLD FREQUENCY Koon THE minzmam FREQUENCY oF UGHT WHICH cay PRo2UeE plore ELECTEK fFFEcr. 145: COMPTON EFfeEcr : SS SH fos been found that when a photon of freyuency ‘f? is incident on @ stationary —ebeet von, then the plolod will be Scattered at a cerfain angle Such that - its Freyuency — clecveases ‘and_ wy CHAPTER 0-05 Aroric _ptysres re === SSS = 51: X-RAYS * She x. ways ave electromagnetic mdiations of very shoré wave lengths in te - yonge bt m fe "ma. SET X- RAYS * X-vays yf — Comparatively fonger wavelengths ave known as soft Kevays. Suck K-voys ave absorbed ex siby. , HARD X-~ RAYS* She X-vays of Comparattul, ~ Short umvelenghs ave Known a Sard X-vays. Suck X-rays posses high _ penetra. ing pourey. : $2: PRODUCTION OF X-RAYs + ——————— The produc tan Y Xvays is the Yeverse Process Phitoelectric effect, ied Which consists oy 9 yitament [eathet) a te i , fayget — material — Like tungsten [Anode] & A@ shorn in the feguve. as She filament 4s heated by a bokey ‘3 due to whick electrons ave emi- ted * fem the filament. These & ave fen accelerated towards the anode [target] ly pelying very hipk potenti — aifference fw anedle andl Cathocle ty = ™eans of batt. ey Bz, when these @s hit the target, Hey becomes slowed down and sme. of thew KE [inetez energy] 15 . Comerted into electrom- agnetic waves, whiel ave Known as x-rays. Now we know fat . the = morimanr kinetic emengy of Gs ts given by, CKED, = WYe——@® this energy | 1 Converted’ mt —X-vays photons, & we pué, : KE = Enegy y photon = > KE = hf —_-@ Putting ey (2) in ey @), we get, [=e] —o The intensity of x-rays — depend upon te number Sf & ~~ hithing the targa. white tesa G trays — clepends upm the vating voltage MA". >ae a [Link] PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS: ® They ave neutral vadtations, @® These Yadkations can mot be date ected by electric ard — magnetic fields. @ ese are electromagnetic —-rackattons my can travel " with velecity gf “ephtt : @ They posses very higk penetrateng pp. wer. @ Tey have fae ianization of feet. © Sey can eects from _ metal surface — @ Sey can produce flouresence when fats en certain target bake Zink Subp. fide —seveen. @® they con damage — Living tissues. _@ They can be lif vacted’ by erystols. @ Sey con expect te photographie plate. 54 USES OF -X- RAYS ; —— @ Sey ae used fir the cedectron Y fractures in bones ¥ human body. @ ghey are used for the eletectiin of. arms explosive materials and other @ preeius materials, jin cfefectior —_ depart ment. @ Shey ere sey fer the treat ment ¥g cancer = a seaces. @Q Mey are eteced for the St naty $yr @ Structure. crystal @. Shey ave used in industry for the testing ¥ matertals. hey are ho seat ia agricubture dep- artment fr various purposes. 55: X-RAY SPECTRUM : J Tho x-rays — which ‘s etained from a source usually fave sevenl usavelerghs- analysed inte Components wal- Shey 097 be elengis: hus K-74 spectrum can be obs- evvect wihick consists various spectral lines. Types of X-RAY. SPECTRUM * ghere are fue types of YAY P ectvum ‘whieh ave given ° Selo @ CONTINEOUS Spec TRUM: gt is abo known as “tack ground | Incident Speetvum" Electron dé ts emitted aa result of oleflection electrons by Strong felts surrounding these electrons g energy riecbet $ te target atom. when— Pass very close to the nuclei, they exis, enced very strong coutorrbs LF An, clin due vo fe meler. due to sue, A fon the velocity g ebectron decreases -and if deuates fom ds original path, as shown ‘ a eee of electron is trang. ered fo the target nucbei. while it: ere vay is emitted «in Ke form x x-rays ph fon. Shis process 8 responsible for the con. frneous X-may — pectram- The closer ar electron pasts” q nucleus, fos in th energy and fence greater i freyuenty He — ernitted X- oy photon. She freyuency Ff “imam and its wevelengts Y te incoming electron Cases its total in a Single encouriter, then we the greater ts. Photon is mor “a minémum: energy fave; . KE = hf s ime = At—@ $Y Vi & te accelerating potential t electron _ and ‘eis the charge on i, then te energy gained by dt i given by, KE = Ve > Emi = ve—O Comparing &% 02), we get,, (Er) fy @ vepresents the freyuency of emilled yeroys photon. we alo know Mat, cefh > he & ®@ 7 Amin = &/f,,, putting ey@ ™m ey @, we get, [LHe] —e £y (5) represents the wave length Y emitted x-ray photon. JSé is ako Known as “cud off wave Length ”. &y, 3) Shows that. the freyuency (Lu and wavetengt [A] OG Korey photon depen upon - the accelerating potential ‘Vie for barge wlue of ‘V", the freq- Weney usilfl be maximum and wavelength wie be minimum. we plat a graph between intensity Y x-rays and thew Wave, b fengiis fer olifgerent values of acce- "ating potentiak, we lative get carves as shoan siacccalin the fagure. The x-voys of | 2 x ate wavelenghs | 22) nn Longer thon "Ann ame emitted during show Karsus zur this process beca- use the energy fost by the ele- etren depends only on how close if Comes to the ruekeur Shus the energy ond freywenty F ernitted X-vays photos — vartes contineously . The emission of contimeous X-vay Spectrum is whe inverse of photoelectnc effect: vl ts Use almost independent ¢ fe properties F target element. @ cuaracrerrsrie X-RAY Spectrum * ee when an electron very Agh we (25 Kev too kev) ave ahewed te han bombard ee, heavyap sretoltic target, then in addition ty can X-way Spectrum, ¥-vays oy seme y. veguencres are alto observed whieh chavacleristres fo the target amy ove called —characteristecs X-rays. She — chavacteristtes x-rays Spectreem 4 en element consists of Several speetmot genes Tamed as K-sevies, L- series, Msevies ets. K- SERIES : She Spectral fines of K-sSeres ar observed when 0 free electron is ollie te bombard on bound efectren og k-shell She ireiclent electron knockout the ebectron yg & shell and 1s scattered itself, 95 Shown m the figure: gn this way, @ vacancy is produced im ke shett. Gn order tf fr this wcancy, te bs Kigher shelé Stavd bransitin Jn domg 0 they emité then extra enerty nm the pr s wo egs photons. She spectral Lines $ a seven ore fabetted 9% Kim he & bine it chswrved duo to brancitvons of fe Le! shalt, “hing ohare dee te transition of 1 from lat lime sett and fon. Th elect a sevies is observed hen en ‘x- shell. HtKnewn as | Sf K~ series. &® Series limit Le. series: L-seves alowed ge Le é Yon the electron tse, os m the uced vacancy, sition to thew extra Photons. The ave is observed ‘Mm’ to due to and $0 observed the as tra: & & out sicle Known Nové: In rnest even N- sevies ave Sheen. In L- shele. l- labelled L- Shee. on. he spectral fines observe! aren bombard on The incident L- shel and the figure. way, vaconey dn to digher ching the % free bound elect. Knockout & Scalteved a to shel. 6 é mn this 4S prod- LC this make tran. a order she bls so, thay Gorm of k-vays és ¥ She. In energy emitt an ones 4 transétions Spectral a olue gf L- series Le og es frm observed ; ,et. line to ‘Ly kine of & fast an to Lemme és from ‘N’ to L-shelt yf tis series electron jumps fren L- sheté, gf is ale gf L- shell. sédion The when line atem Series Characteristic y. heavy are spectra § my: M- series ond elements, the ho observed. Shey can be i a| @® explained i & — way Similar to abeve. 541 X-RAYS AND NUMBERING OF _THE ELEMENTS : [OR] MoseLéyss Law: Mosely obtained characteristic ¥-1y spectra of (Farge number (38) of elements. He determined wavelengths of Spectral bimes 4 these spectra by x-vay crystal deflec- lin method and . cabeulsted the frequencies gf these bones. He found a regularity —invayiatton freyuencies gf a particalar spectral bine eg ‘Ke. as he = moved — elements ‘to elements, he gave a law on the Sasis of his fin- dings. This law. is Known as Mosebey,s. tow. This law states that, “ the ,syuare vot of frequency f' F 4 partseular ch- Avacteristic X-ray speetval Lume Varies with charge og tho rurebeus. [atomic number 2] ¥ the atom of - target element”. Make matically , we fave, —o Qa" and are constants.MoseLeys ploT GB) MOSELEY.§ diagram, eee ee yoot of frequency f' F a particular oye, etme line [09 kK, bine] im charactenstics x yay Spectra of target elements and atomic number “z' of ese elements, we get a st. aight Eine. This bime is known as Morleys plot ey Moseley,s cliagramn. Mostey,s law was based on this experim- entae result. , Mostey.s was: first fo emphasize fat an element should be id- entified on the basis of charge of nucleus oy its atoms or atomic number of the element ‘because if if wert changed, “the freyuency of a . characteristté spectral = Lime — was also changed Thus Mosteyrs work helped’ in rum- eving the elements —accorcling to theiy atmt numbers and arranging them — in peridie table. BowR,s THEORY AND Mostey,s plor: 3 Wosleys Plot could be verified cee ENG75) peeerding fo Boks atomic theory, fF a Photon — emittecd by on jumps from nh ty we frequeny electron when PL orbit [n>p) in electric frel $F 4 nucleus x charge ‘2° B goer by, fos 26/5 > Ff = (4-4 )/5 n= — mat Yoth & =-midlodge ®@ pe fea ots we A- m] The above equation — folds Good only when tere is one elect yon outside the nucleus, aut inner — shell —tvancétiome ave cacsed when me ebectrm fs: Knocked cut from oe B the fer shells buf otker electrons Y inner shel are site vewlving around the neaelecs ancl sell the nucbeus. Thus if mamber of ae Shieldling te ueleus is ‘S’ hen charge in the fed ‘tick — electym B Fipher shell perme te fill te Meomey with be (22h). fev Ky ine, bat, bcauce amty ane ebectvm = is fet herve | then Vacancy is created in this sheeo, Vise WOM for kK, Lime, Pel ,nz2 % O's £ a jap = maviel pe 4q eek * ¥