Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

AEROSPACE AIR5914™

INFORMATION REPORT Issued 2014-06

Reaffirmed 2020-02

Landing Gear Fatigue Spectrum Development

For Part 25 Aircraft

RATIONALE

This document provides a means for deriving a spectrum of loads for assessing the life of a main and nose landing gear
for Part 25 tricycle landing gear structural components. Many of the recommendations herein are generalizations based
on data obtained from a wide range of landing gears.

FOREWORD

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides recommendations for the derivation of analytical fatigue spectra
for the design and qualification of landing gear structural components and the relevant actuation systems for Part 25
tricycle landing gear configuration.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. SCOPE .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Purpose ......................................................................................................................................................... 3

2. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Applicable Documents .................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1 Military ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Regulatory Requirements ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Standards ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.4 Other Publications ......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Terminology .................................................................................................................................................. 5

3. GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................................... 6

4. SERVICE LIFE .............................................................................................................................................. 6

5. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 6

5.1 Typical Flight Profile ...................................................................................................................................... 6
5.2 Scatter Factor................................................................................................................................................ 6
5.3 Aircraft Mission Profile .................................................................................................................................. 7
5.3.1 Method 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.3.2 Method 2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.3.3 Method 3 ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

6. LANDING CONDITIONS .............................................................................................................................. 8

6.1 Landing Impact.............................................................................................................................................. 8
6.2 Landing Impact with Drift Landing................................................................................................................. 9
6.3 Torsion Due to Asymmetry of the Drag Forces .......................................................................................... 10
6.4 Additional Landing Conditions .................................................................................................................... 10
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely
voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.”
SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and
suggestions.
Copyright © 2020 SAE International
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE.
TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)
Tel: +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA)
For more information on this standard, visit
Fax: 724-776-0790 https://www.sae.org/standards/content/AIR5914/
Email: [email protected]
SAE WEB ADDRESS: http://www.sae.org
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 2 OF 18

7. GROUND MANEUVERING ........................................................................................................................ 10

7.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
7.2 Taxiing ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
7.3 Turning ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
7.3.1 Turning Cases Consideration for Truck/Bogie Beam ................................................................................. 11
7.4 Braking ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
7.4.1 Maximum Braking Effort .............................................................................................................................. 11
7.4.2 Anti-Skid Effort ............................................................................................................................................ 12
7.5 Pivoting ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
7.5.1 Commercial Aircraft with Two Main Wheel Gear Shock Strut Configuration.............................................. 12
7.5.2 Slow Turn Cases Consideration for Truck/Bogie Beam ............................................................................. 13
7.6 Engine Run-Up............................................................................................................................................ 13
7.7 Steering Spectrum ...................................................................................................................................... 13
7.8 Push Back and Nose Gear Towing ............................................................................................................. 14
7.8.1 Conventional Towbar Towing ..................................................................................................................... 14
7.8.2 Towbarless Towing ..................................................................................................................................... 15

8. FREE EXTENSION/REBOUND (TAKEOFF TRANSITION) ...................................................................... 16

9. FLIGHT LOADINGS (GUST AND MANEUVERING LOADS) .................................................................... 16

10. SUSTAINED ENGINE IMBALANCE CONDITIONS (IE. WIND MILLING ENGINE AND
BLADE OUT VIBRATION CONDITIONS) .................................................................................................. 17

11. EXTENSION, RETRACTION, AND BRAKING WHEELS IN AIR ............................................................... 17

11.1 Braking Wheels in Air .................................................................................................................................. 17
11.2 Gear Retraction and Extension ................................................................................................................... 17

12. INTERNAL PRESSURES ........................................................................................................................... 17

13. GROUND-AIRGROUND CYCLES ............................................................................................................. 18

14. NOTES ........................................................................................................................................................ 18

TABLE 1 DISTRIBUTION OF DESCENT RATE PER 1000 LANDINGS ..................................................................... 9

TABLE 2 TAXING LOADS AND OCCURRENCES ................................................................................................... 10
TABLE 3 TURNING SIDE LOAD LOADS AND OCCURRENCES ............................................................................ 11
TABLE 4 MLG BRAKING LOADS AND OCCURRENCES ........................................................................................ 12
TABLE 5 NLG REACTIVE LOADS AND OCCURRENCES DUE TO MLG BRAKING ............................................. 12
TABLE 6 ENGINE RUN-UP ....................................................................................................................................... 13
TABLE 7 NLG STEERING APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................................. 14
TABLE 8 TOWBARLESS TOWING FATIGUE SPECTRUM ..................................................................................... 16
TABLE 9 FREE EXTENSION ..................................................................................................................................... 16
TABLE 10 GUST AND MANEUVER “G” LOADS ........................................................................................................ 17
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 3 OF 18

1. SCOPE

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) provides guidelines for the development of landing gear fatigue spectra for
the purpose of designing and certification testing of Part 25 landing gear. Many of the recommendations herein are
generalizations based on data obtained from a wide range of landing gears. The aircraft manufacturer or the landing gear
supplier is encouraged to use data more specific to their particular undercarriage whenever possible.

1.1 Purpose

With the ever-increasing length of aircraft operating life, design for good fatigue resistance assumes greater prominence,
particularly for civil aircraft with low reaction factors where landing loads are assumed to have little significance.

In recent years, the ability to gather field data on actual aircraft landing gear loading has allowed aircraft manufacturers to
develop large data sets for use in developing fatigue spectra for new aircraft. This spectrum generally varies with the type
of aircraft such as military versus commercial, as well as the various configurations of commercial aircraft from wide body
transports to regional aircraft and business jets. In most cases, in the past the aircraft manufacturer has provided the
fatigue spectrum in the design specification. This has ranged from block loads for similar maneuvers to the modern flight-
by-flight spectrum. In cases where the fatigue spectrum is not provided, a standardized method of developing the fatigue
spectrum is needed. This methodology can be used by landing gear supplier to develop the fatigue spectrum based on a
set of parameters supplied by the aircraft manufacturer.

The purpose of this document is to establish guidelines for the landing gear supplier to develop Landing Gear Fatigue
Spectra (LGFS) from loads data supplied by the aircraft manufacturer or with no data supplied by the manufacturer. It is
the intent to base the recommendations for the various aircraft configurations upon historical data used in landing gear
design as well as input from the aircraft manufacturers and in some cases, the aircraft users.

Individual landing gear units may be initially designed and qualified to fatigue requirements in excess of those stated in
this report. This maybe for a variety of reasons such as:

a. Simplifying analysis and testing.

b. Ensure adequate life availability for future increased weight versions of the airplane.

This report addresses the fatigue load spectrum requirements of the landing gear. Requirements in addition to those of
this report may be imposed to verify functional and endurance aspects of the gears.

2. REFERENCES

2.1 Applicable Documents

The following publications form a part of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications
shall apply. The applicable issue of other publications shall be the issue in effect on the date of the purchase order. In the
event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the text of this document takes
precedence. Nothing in this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unless a specific exemption
has been obtained.

2.1.1 Military

2.1.1.1 MIL-A-8866, Airplane Strength and Rigidity Requirements, Repeated Loads, Fatigue and Damage Tolerance

2.1.1.2 MIL-S-8812D, Steering System: Aircraft General Requirements For

2.1.1.3 MIL-L-8552C, Landing Gear, Aircraft Shock Absorber

 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 4 OF 18

2.1.2 Regulatory Requirements

2.1.2.1 FAR 14 CFR Part 25, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation Part 25--Airworthiness
Standards: Transport Category Airplanes

2.1.2.2 EASA CS 25, European Aviation Safety Agency Certification Specifications for Large Airplanes CS-25

2.1.2.3 NPA No. 2011-09, Notice of Proposed Amendment (NPA) No 2011-09, “Incorporation of generic SC and AMC
CRIs in CS-25”, May 2011.

2.1.3 Standards

2.1.3.1 ARP1383, Aerospace - Impulse Testing of Hydraulic Components

2.1.3.2 AIR1489, Aerospace Landing Gear Systems Terminology

2.1.3.3 ARP5429, Landing Gear Fatigue Tests with Equivalent Damage Spectra

2.1.3.4 AS8860, Landing Gear Structural Requirements as Listed in the MIL-886X Series of Specifications

2.1.4 Other Publications

2.1.4.1 Royal Aircraft Establishment Library Translation No. 1462, Cumulative Frequency Distribution of Aircraft
Landing Gear Loads, O. Buxbaurn and E. Gassner

2.1.4.2 Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) 75008, Frequencies of Vertical and Lateral Loads Factors Resulting
from Ground Maneuvering of Aircraft

2.1.4.3 Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD), Report No. 118, A Review of Landing
Gear and Ground Loads Problems, J.F. McBearty

2.1.4.4 DEF-STAN-00-970, Leaflet 41, Part 1 Section 4, Issue 2, Dec 1999, Fatigue Loads Spectra for Main
Undercarriage Units, Design of Undercarriages-General Requirements, Fatigue Load Spectra for Main
Undercarriage Units

2.1.4.5 NASA Technical Note TN D-4586, Trends in Repeated Loads on Transport Airplanes, Coleman, Thomas L.

2.1.4.6 Aeronautical Fatigue: Key to Safety and Structural Integrity, Loads at the Nose Landing Gears of Civil Transport
Aircraft During Towbarless Towing Operations, G. Buxbaum, J.J. Cuny, H. Klatschle, H. Steinhilber

2.1.4.7 DOT/FAA/AR-97/106, Video Landing Parameter Survey Washington National Airport (DCA):June 1995

2.1.4.8 DOT/FAA/AR-00/72, Video Landing Parameter Survey - Honolulu International Airport, May 2001

2.1.4.9 18th Annual Airport Conference, March 1995, Landing Survey Discussions of Landing Parameter Data for
Typical Transport Operations

2.1.4.10 UDR-TR-2002-00108, Statistical Loads Data for Bombardier CRJ200 Aircraft In Commercial Operations,
University of Dayton Research Institute

2.1.4.11 DOT/FAA/AR-02/35, Statistical Loads Data for the Airbus A-320 Aircraft in Commercial Operations, April 2002

2.1.4.12 DOT/FAA/AR-00/10, Statistical Loads Data for B-767-200ER Aircraft in Commercial Operations, March 2000

2.1.4.13 DOT/FAA/AR-98-65, Statistical Loads Data for MD-82-83 in Commercial Operations, February 1999.

2.1.4.14 DOT/FAA/AR-00/11, Statistical Loads Data BE-1900D Aircraft in Commuter Operations, April 2000
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 5 OF 18

2.1.4.15 DOT/FAA/AR-02/129, Side Load Factor Statistics from Commercial Aircraft Ground Operations, January 2003

2.1.4.16 AGARD Conference Proceedings 484, Landing Gear Design Loads; October 1990.

2.1.4.17 DOT/FAA/AR-98/28, Statistical Loads Data for Boeing 737-400 Aircraft in Commercial Operations, August
1998.

2.2 Terminology

CG Center of Gravity

Dmax, Dmin Maximum/Minimum Drag Load

EASA European Aviation Safety Agency

FAR Federal Aviation Regulations

Ftow Towing Load applied in the Horizontal Direction

JAR Joint Airworthiness Requirements

LGFS Landing Gear Fatigue Spectra

MAC Mean Aerodynamic Chord

MLG Main Landing Gear

NLG Nose Landing Gear

RR Tire Rolling Radius (Dynamic)

TLR Tire Loaded Radius

RTO Rejected Takeoff

Smax, Smin Maximum/Minimum Side Loads

SF Scatter Factor

SSVP Shock Strut Vertical Position

VAT Vertical Axle Travel

VBR1 NLG reaction load for the corresponding MLG Vertical and Drag Load during Medium Braking

VBR2 NLG reaction load for the corresponding MLG Vertical and Drag Load during Maximum Braking

V Vertical Load

VD MLG/NLG vertical load at the design maximum descent rate

Vdr Aircraft Descent Rate

VST MLG/NLG Static Vertical Load at the prescribed weight usage

Wl Landing Weight

Wr Ramp Weight
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 6 OF 18

3. GENERAL

The structural design of the landing gear is such that repeated loads do not cause failure or permanent deformation of
any part of the landing gear, interfere with its mechanical operation, or affect its aerodynamic characteristics. Further, the
design does not require repair, inspection, or replacement of components other than as specifically approved by the
contracting activity. The above requirements apply to the planned service life of the airplane for the repeated loads
environment resulting from ground and flight operations.

4. SERVICE LIFE

The service life of the airplane should not be less than that specified by the contracting activity in terms of the following
(as applicable):

1. Flight hours

2. Ground-air-ground cycle (flights)

3. Taxi runs

4. Takeoff runs

5. Landings

5. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

5.1 Typical Flight Profile

The fatigue life requirements are specified in terms of airplane flights. One airplane flight is defined, in sequence of ramp-
to-ramp events, which includes pushback/towing, taxi out, takeoff run, liftoff, gear retraction, cruise, gear extension,
touchdown, landing rollout, and taxi in.

5.2 Scatter Factor

The life requirements for the landing gear structure should be specified in number of airplane flight hours or flight cycles
with a relationship between airplane flight hours and number of landings.

Appropriate life scatter factors (SF) should be used for analysis and test.

Fatigue design life implies the average life expected under average aircraft utilization and loads environment. To this
design life, application of a scatter factor accounts for the typical variations from the average utilization, loading
environments, and basic fatigue strength allowable. This leads to a safe-life period during which the probability of a
detectable structural crack occurring is very low.

Scatter factors ranging from four to five have been used to account for statistical variation in component fatigue tests and
unknowns in loads. Load unknowns involve both methods of calculation and type of service actually experienced.

CFR 14 Part 25 AC 25.571 and EASA AMC 25.571 present guidance in determining the scatter factor.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 7 OF 18

5.3 Aircraft Mission Profile

The ground loading of the landing gear is a function of the weight carried by the gear. The design of the gear ought to
withstand the full variation of possible gear loads during the design life of the landing gear without crack initiation. The
variation of gear loads, due to the variation of the aircraft takeoff and landing weight, is such that it is not possible to
define a weight that meets the design aims for all possible aircraft use. There will always be some difference in weight
and CG position from mission to mission for both takeoff and landing. Unless provided by the aircraft manufacturer, three
methods are provided that cover the operational spread of aircraft weights. Method selection will need due consideration
for aircraft applicability.

5.3.1 Method 1

In general, it will be acceptable to use an average takeoff weight and CG position for takeoff and similarly an average
landing weight and CG position for landing for aircraft that are primarily operating within a known mission. However, there
will always be some difference in weight and CG position from mission to mission for both takeoff and landing. A flight
mission can be short, medium or long range. The development of the fatigue spectrum should be such that it can
withstand any mix of missions. The most conservative mission mix will typically be a mix of the two extreme missions.

5.3.2 Method 2

An alternate weight usage approach is deriving the percentage distribution on heavy versus average mission.

 Landing - 20% of all landings are at the maximum landing weight (heavy mission) while the remaining 80% are at
85% of maximum landing weight (average mission).

 Ground Maneuvering at Takeoff Weight - 50% of ground maneuvering occurrences are at takeoff weight.

o 20% of ground maneuvering occurrences at takeoff weight are at the maximum takeoff weight while the remaining
80% of occurrences are at 85% of maximum takeoff weight.

 Ground Maneuvering at Landing Weight - 50% of ground maneuvering occurrences are at landing weight.

o 20% of ground maneuvering occurrences at landing weight are at the maximum landing weight while the
remaining 80% are at 85% of maximum landing weight.

 Takeoffs - 20% of takeoff run occurrences at takeoff weight are at the maximum takeoff weight while the remaining
80% of occurrences are at 85% of maximum takeoff weight.

 Center of Gravity - The center of gravity locations used to derive landing gear loads should be specified in the
relevant fatigue spectrum loads report.

5.3.3 Method 3

Another weight usage approach is for all landing and ground operations to be assumed to occur on an aircraft weight
equal to 95% of the average ramp and landing weight, and at a center of gravity position equal to 2/3 aft MAC for the MLG
and 1/2 aft MAC for the NLG.

Fatigue Design Weight = 0.95 (Wr + Wl)/2

MLG C.G. = 2/3 aft MAC

NLG C.G. = 1/2 aft MAC

This method is applicable to smaller to medium size aircraft that perform mostly the same flight mission.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 8 OF 18

6. LANDING CONDITIONS

All landings are assumed to occur at the landing weights specified in 5.3 or other statistical data provided by the
purchaser.

Wing lift should equal airplane weight and act through the airplane center of gravity.

Forward speed during landing is determined for each airplane variant and specified in the appropriate fatigue spectrum
loads report.

For the main landing gear, appropriate distribution of level versus tail-down attitude should be considered.

For the nose landing gear, all landings are at level attitude.

For fatigue analysis, it is assumed that the following can represent the landing load sequence for three separate loading
phases:

a. Landing Impact - the landing phase during which maximum vertical load is developed, with an associated drag
applied;

b. Drag Oscillation - the landing phase when maximum positive and negative drag load is developed - an associated
vertical load is applied;

c. Side Loads - On some landings, it is assumed that a side load occurs. This lateral load is combined with an
associated vertical load. Paragraph 6.3 provides the side load distribution.

6.1 Landing Impact

The airplane loads should be determined by a rational combination of sink speeds as presented in Table 1 with variations
in landing attitudes (pitch and roll) and forward landing speeds, including drift-landing loads.

The landing loads are calculated using landing dynamic simulation software. Industry practice has shown by performing
landing simulation for three different landing events (i.e., 10, 6, and 4 fps), a linear extrapolation can be made for the
remaining sink speeds assuming damping is linear. For damping controlled by a valve system, the recommendation is to
perform multiple landing simulation events (>5) and verify if the approach is acceptable with the landing gear design
office.

For the MLG, it assumes that all landings are two-point with the nose wheel just off the ground at instant of touch down.

The following force components are assumed to act on the MLG in the above three landing phases as noted in
Section 6(a), (b) and (c):

 For each landing, the effects of vertical load combined with dynamic drag oscillation loads are considered. The
magnitude and occurrences of the vertical load with drag oscillation loads are based upon landing gear performance
simulation analysis with two occurrences of spin-up and spring back drag oscillation loads.

 Vertical load of spin-up and drag load and vertical load of second spin-up and drag load are calculated from the
dynamic analysis without side loads. The highest drag load point and the vertical load at that stroke were selected as
the critical spin-up load. The first lowest drag load point and the vertical load at that stroke were selected as the first
critical spring-back load. A tire coefficient of friction ranging from 0.70 to 0.80 is recommended for the landing
simulation. The usage of 0.70 to 0.80 friction coefficient is a conservative assumption and this value will change
depending on the type of tire used, and one should consult with the tire manufacturer for a more accurate value

 The second spin-up and spring back loads are chosen in a similar way.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 9 OF 18

 There may be other loading cases that may need to be considered depending on the landing gear type. The design
office should review other loading cases that are critical for fatigue. This includes the review of time histories and
calculated bending moments at the lower bearing. Dependent on damping, it may be found that peak bending
moment at the lower bearing occurs at lower drag loads than peak with the associate small shock absorber closures.
So on certain gears the fatigue spectrum is maximum bending, maximum drag, maximum spring back, and maximum
vertical load cases. The vertical axle travel (VAT) position and tire loaded radius (TLR) correspond to the vertical load
obtained from the simulation analysis.

The landing analysis should be correlated with drop test results.

The vertical and drag landing loads act at the axle while the side loads act at the tire ground contact point.

The following is the descent rate distribution taken from reference 2.1.4.7 and 2.1.4.8:

TABLE 1 - DISTRIBUTION OF DESCENT RATE PER 1000 LANDINGS

Number of Landings for

Number of Landings for Medium Wide Body or Twin Aisle
Sinking Speed Narrow Body or Single Aisle Aircraft per 1000 Flights
at Landing Impact Aircraft Per 1000 Flights (150 000 pounds < A/C Weight
feet/second (m/s) (A/C Weight < 150 000 pounds) < 500 000 pounds)
10 (3.05) 1 -
9 (2.74) 3 1
8 (2.44) 7 3
7 (2.13) 15 11
6 (1.83) 35 34
5 (1.52) 75 91
4 (1.22) 142 193
3 (0.92) 233 294
2 (0.61) 284 268
1(0.31) 205 105

6.2 Landing Impact with Drift Landing

Reference document 2.1.3.4 provides a rationale for developing the landing events with drift landing

 All 4 feet/second landing events in Table 1 include a drift landing for which the following apply.

 The side load is 0.4 times the maximum vertical load for the main landing gear and 0.2 times the maximum load for
the nose landing gear.

 The side load acts in combination with the maximum vertical load.

 The shock strut stroke or vertical axle travel and the drag load should correspond to those occurring at the instant of
maximum vertical load.

 Tire loaded radius (TLR) is taken from the corresponding tire curve.

 The side load is applied alternatively, one flight to the left, one flight to the right.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 10 OF 18

6.3 Torsion Due to Asymmetry of the Drag Forces

In landing gears with laterally spaced wheels, a torque can arise during landing from differential spin-up and spring-back
forces on the inner and outer wheels. The asymmetry of the forces may be caused, for example, by bank angle at
touchdown, by cambered runway, by unequal wear of the tires or by unequal pressures in the tires. In the absence of
measured data, it will be acceptable to represent the torque by apportioning the spin-up and spring-back forces between
the inner and outer wheels of the landing gear in the ratio of 55 to 45% - alternating between the wheels on each landing.

In lieu of above distribution, consideration could be given to calculating the rational wheel load distribution using the
parameters per References 2.1.2.1 and 2.1.2.2 paragraph 25.511(b). For example, calculate three sets of rational wheel
load distributions using 25%, 50%, and 75% of the delta parameters given per these regulations. Calculate the applied
torque using 1/3 of the load cases at each distribution and alternating between the wheels on each landing similar to
55%/45% method suggested above. Other rational load distributions could be used pending upon each OEM’s particular
requirements.

6.4 Additional Landing Conditions

Additional landing conditions may be required should the review of landing gear performance, for the particular landing
gear, suggest that landing conditions do not adequately cover the effects of a full landing cycle.

7. GROUND MANEUVERING

7.1 General

The ground maneuvering loads should include vertical, drag and lateral loads resulting from braking, pivoting, turning,
towing and taxiing. These loads are based upon the weight usage criteria of 5.3, unless otherwise specified by the aircraft
manufacturer.

The airplane weights and center of gravity locations used to derive landing gear loads for this section are specified in the
appropriate fatigue spectrum loads report.

The airplane attitude for all ground maneuvering conditions are at the 3-point “static” attitude for the specific airplane
weight and center of gravity.

The Vertical Axle Travel (VAT) position and tire loaded radius (TLR) may be based upon the landing gear vertical load
assuming a “static” airplane, for the specific airplane weight and center of gravity.

Vertical and drag loads act at the axle while brake drag and side loads act at the tire-ground contact point.

All loads are based on a rational landing gear performance analysis by applying the appropriate factors where applicable.

7.2 Taxiing

The MLG and NLG vertical load spectrum for taxiing is taken from Reference 2.1.3.4 and presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2 - TAXING LOADS AND OCCURRENCES

Vertical Load Factor

at Aircraft CG No. of Cycles per Maximum Cycles Minimum Cycle
1 ± n 1000 Landings Vertical Load Vertical Load
1 ± 0.05 300 000 1.05 VST 0.95 VST
1 ± 0.15 165 000 1.15 VST 0.85 VST
1 ± 0.25 27 000 1.25 VST 0.75 VST
1 ± 0.35 2000 1.35 VST 0.65 VST
1 ± 0.45 90 1.45 VST 0.55 VST
1 ± 0.55 4 1.55 VST 0.45 VST
1 ± 0.65 0.15 1.65 VST 0.35 VST
1 ± 0.75 0.005 1.75 VST 0.25 VST
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 11 OF 18

VST = MLG or NLG Static Vertical Load at the prescribed weight usage.

Fatigue cycle loads are:

Maximum Cycle Vertical Load = (1 + n) VST

Minimum Cycle Vertical Load = (1 - n) VST

7.3 Turning

The landing gears are designed for the alternating lateral load factors produced during airplane turning.

Table 3 presents the load factors and occurrences per 1000 flights derived from Ref. 2.1.4.2. In the table, one cycle
consists of one left turn followed by one right turn of equal magnitude. It is assumed that there are equal number of left
and right turns. Therefore, the number of occurrences listed in the table are half of the turns taken from Ref 2.1.4.2. Some
airframer may choose to add a factor on the occurrences to account for the correlated data taken from the recorded flight
test taxi data.

TABLE 3 - TURNING SIDE LOAD LOADS AND OCCURRENCES

Incremental Spectrum
Incremental Cycles
Lateral Load Factor per 1000 Flights
±0.50 0.40
±0.40 4.25
±0.30 46
±0.2125 250
±0.15 700
±0.10 2300

V = Vertical Load at the prescribed weight usage and turning maneuver

Fatigue cycle loads are given by:

Maximum Cycle Side Load = n V

Minimum Cycle Side Load = - n V

An alternate approach, taken from Reference 2.1.3.4, is for the total side load to be 0.4 times the aircraft weight applied
inboard and alternately outboard occurring five times per taxi run with two taxi cycles (out and in) per airplane flight.

7.3.1 Turning Cases Consideration for Truck/Bogie Beam

The spectrum presented in Table 3 may not be applicable for truck/bogie beams with four or more wheels. With truck type
landing gears, cornering forces need to be considered with each ground turn. If cornering forces are not provided by the
airframer or other references, it is recommended a dynamic simulation of the aircraft be developed using representative
landing gear models to determine the impact of side loads during cornering conditions.

7.4 Braking

7.4.1 Maximum Braking Effort

Taken from Reference 2.1.3.4, maximum braking effort is to occur twice per flight. The brake force is limited either by the
maximum brake torque available in the appropriate phase of operation or by a coefficient of friction between tire and
runway. A conservative friction value of 0.8 can be assumed until specific data is available for the aircraft in question.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 12 OF 18

7.4.1.1 Medium Braking Effort

Medium braking effort is to occur five times per flight with friction.

For each medium braking effort occurrence, the brake drag load varies from zero to a value equal to either half of the
maximum brake torque or to a coefficient of friction of 0.3 whichever gives the greater value.

7.4.2 Anti-Skid Effort

If anti-skid unit is fitted, the oscillations in the drag force caused by its function should be considered if structurally
significant. In the absence of information to the contrary, it is assumed that 30 oscillations occur between levels
corresponding to coefficients of friction of 0.20 and zero.

TABLE 4 - MLG BRAKING LOADS AND OCCURRENCES

Occurrences
Braking Intensity per Landing Maximum Cycles Minimum Cycles
Load DRAG Loads DRAG
VERT (Dmax) VERT. (Dmin)
Anti-Skid 30 VST 0.20 VST VST 0
(when applicable)
Medium 5 VST 0.4 VST VSTM 0
Maximum 2 VST 0.8 VST VSTM 0

TABLE 5 - NLG REACTIVE LOADS AND OCCURRENCES DUE TO MLG BRAKING

Maximum Cycles
Occurrences Load VERT DRAG Minimum Cycles Loads
Braking Intensity per Landings (Dmax) VERT. DRAG (Dmin)
Medium 5 VBR1 0 VSTN 0
Maximum 2 VBR2 0 VSTN 0

VBR1 and VBR2 = NLG reaction load for the corresponding MLG Vertical and Drag Load

VSTM = MLG Static Vertical Load at the appropriate weight usage criteria

VSTN = NLG Static Vertical Load at the appropriate weight usage criteria

On landing gears with laterally spaced wheels, torsional loads will be caused by differential application of the brakes on
the inner and outer wheels. In the absence of specific data, it is assumed that any increment in the total braking force is
applied to the inner and outer wheels of the landing gear in the ration of 55 to 45% - alternating between the wheels on
successive missions.

7.5 Pivoting

7.5.1 Commercial Aircraft with Two Main Wheel Gear Shock Strut Configuration

The following rationale is from Reference 2.1.4.4

A pivot turn (which produces torque but negligible net side force on a landing gear) should be assumed to occur on
average once per flight. For a clockwise pivot, the starboard gear is braked while for a counter clockwise pivot the port
gear is braked.

Half the occurrence may be assumed to occur at the average landing weight, and half at the average takeoff weight,
successive turns being to port and to starboard.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 13 OF 18

The pivoting load is in the form of differential brake drag loads with a forward acting brake drag load on the outboard
wheel and an aft acting brake drag load on the inboard wheel.

The wheels on the inside of the turn are assumed braked to produce a drag co-efficient of 0.4.

The vertical load during pivoting occurrences is assumed constant, equal to the “static” load for the applicable airplane
weight and center of gravity.

7.5.2 Slow Turn Cases Consideration for Truck/Bogie Beam

The spectrum presented in 7.5.1 may not be applicable for truck/bogie beams with four or more wheels. With truck type
landing gears, cornering forces need to be considered with each turn. When the airframer does not provide cornering
forces or any referenced information, the recommendation is to develop a dynamic simulation of the aircraft with
representative landing gear models for determining the side load impact during cornering conditions

7.6 Engine Run-Up

The landing gears are designed for the loads produced during engine run-up operations against brakes.

For this condition, takeoff weight only is used.

TABLE 6 - ENGINE RUN-UP

Condition (at Take Off Weight Occurrences

and 80% Max Engine Thrust) per 10 Flights Vertical Load
Engine Run (without Main 9 Nose Gear: NLG Static Vertical
Gear Braking) Load + Static Reaction
Increment Due to Engine Thrust

Main Gear: MLG Static Vertical

Load - Static Reaction
Increment Due to Engine Thrust
and the appropriate drag force
on the MLG
Engine Run (with Main Gear 1 Nose Gear: NLG Static Vertical
Braking) Load + Static Reaction
Increment Due to Engine Thrust
and Braked Main Gear

Main Gear: MLG Static Vertical

Load - Static Reaction
Increment Due to Engine Thrust
and the appropriate drag force
on the MLG

7.7 Steering Spectrum

The nose landing gear should be designed for the loads occurring during gear steering operations.

The steering loads, presented in Table 7, are simplified into three basic cases and the gear is assumed to be in the zero
degree steering position during application of the steering loads.

The vertical load during steering occurrences is assumed constant, equal to the “Static” load for the applicable airplane
weight and center of gravity.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 14 OF 18

TABLE 7 - NLG STEERING APPLICATIONS

NLG, Steering
Intensity and Occurrences
Direction Side Load Factor per 1000 Flights
Severe, Right 0.5 500
Severe, Left -0.5 500
Hard, Right 0.4 2000
Hard, Left -0.4 2000
Normal, Right 0.20 4000
Normal, Left -0.20 4000

An alternative to the above is taken from MIL-S-8812D (Reference 2.1.1.2). The spectrum presented below is primarily
applied to the steering system however, can also be used as the input loads applied at the NLG steering interfaces.

The following cycling should be conducted on the total system to give a total of 100 000 cycles:

 Full steering angle at full steering load for 2500 cycles

 50% steering angle at 50% rated steering load for 7500 cycles

 10 degrees steering angle each side of the centerline at 25% rated steering load, for 15 000 cycles

The above schedule will be repeated four times. Hydraulically actuated systems are subjected to 5000 ON-OFF cycles of
full system pressure during each of the four phases.

7.8 Push Back and Nose Gear Towing

The landing gear is subjected to a vertical load equal to the “Static” load for the applicable airplane weight and center of
gravity and the horizontal load applied to the towing fitting as defined below with the wheels on the center-line and pivoted
wheels.

NOTE: Paragraphs 7.8.1 and 7.8.2 assume either towbar or towbarless towing are applied exclusively. The aircraft
manufacturer should provide the expected operation of towbar versus towbarless towing distribution.

7.8.1 Conventional Towbar Towing

The nose landing gear should be designed for the loads occurring during nose gear towing or push back operations.

a. Center Line

Once per flight, alternating drag tow loads are applied to the tow point, at a magnitude ranging from ±0.06 to ±0.08
times the airplane ramp weight.

Ftow = ±0.08 x Aircraft Ramp Weight < 100 000 pounds

Ftow = ±0.06 x Aircraft Ramp Weight > 100 000 pounds

For this case, the wheels are in the fwd-aft axis.

b. Steered Towing Operation

Once every ten flights, alternating drag tow loads are applied to the tow point, at a magnitude equal to ±0.05 times the
airplane weight.

Ftow = ±0.05 x Aircraft Ramp Weight

 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 15 OF 18

During Push back and towing the nose wheels are steered through 45 degrees from the plane of symmetry of the
aircraft;, alternating one flight to the left, one flight to the right.

The drag tow loads for this case are along the centerline of the wheels.

The vertical load during towing occurrences is assumed constant.

An optional case is to combine the Ftow and a medium brake application (0.2 x Vertical Load applied at the ground
contact point) with the vertical load once for every tenth flight.

c. Maintenance Towing

Maintenance towing is assume to occur once per day, therefore the frequency of occurrence in the spectrum is
1.0 cycle/(Average Number of Flights per Day)

Ftow = ±0.05 X Aircraft Weight (No Passengers, 50% Fuel Weight)

7.8.2 Towbarless Towing

Fatigue evaluation of the impact of towbarless towing on the airframe is conducted under the provisions of EASA CS
25.571 and CS 25.1579.

Specifically, the contribution of the towbarless towing operational loads to the fatigue load spectra for the nose landing
gear and its support structure needs to be evaluated.

The fatigue spectra used in the evaluation consists of typical service loads encountered during towbarless towing
operation. The loading scenarios taken from Notice of Proposed Amendment (NPA) No 2011-09, Reference 2.1.2.3,
include:

1. Pushback towing: Moving a fully loaded aircraft (up to Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)) from the parking position to
the taxiway. Movement includes pushback with turn, a stop, and short tow forward to align aircraft and nose wheels.
Engines may or may not be operating.

2. Maintenance towing: The movement of an airplane for maintenance/remote parking purposes (e.g., from the gate to a
maintenance hangar). Aircraft is typically unloaded with minimal fuel load.

3. Dispatch (operational) towing: Towing a revenue aircraft (loaded with passengers, fuel, and cargo up to Maximum
Ramp Weight (MRW)) from the terminal gate/remote parking area to a location near the active runway. The
movement may cover several kilometers with speeds according to ARP5983 technical standards, with several starts,
stops and turns. This operation would replace a typical taxiing operation prior to takeoff.

Furthermore, the spectra should be based on measured statistical data derived from simulated service operation or from
applicable industry studies.

With the improved driving stability and the handling qualities, towbarless towing would allow higher towing speeds and
quicker operation during pushback. These facts may influence the fatigue loads of the nose gear and require careful
investigation before a towbarless tractor can be approved.

The following is a conservative recommended fatigue spectrum when considering towbarless towing on the Nose Landing
Gear. The drag loads dominate the longitudinal load spectrum of the nose gear by the tow tractors. The spectrum
proposed is provided in Table 8.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 16 OF 18

TABLE 8 - TOWBARLESS TOWING FATIGUE SPECTRUM

Tow Load
Towbarless Operation Occurrences per Flight (Drag Loads are Positive in the Aft Direction)
Pick-Up Loads 1 -0.25 X Vertical Static Nose Landing Gear
Load (Main Gears are assumed braked) or
-0.25 X 0.10 x Maximum Aircraft Weight
Push-Back - Operational 1.0 ±0.05 X Maximum Ramp Weight (with
passengers and Engine Thrust at Idle)
Push-Back - Maintenance 1.0/(Average Number ±0.05 X Aircraft Weight (No Passengers,
of flights per day) 50% Fuel Weight and No Engine Thrust)
Dispatch Towing (Start- 6 ±0.06 X Maximum Ramp Weight (with
Stop from Gate to Takeoff passengers)
Runway)
Maintenance Towing 1 ±0.02 X Aircraft Weight (No Passengers,
(Start-Stop from Gate to 50% Fuel Weight and No Engine Thrust)
Hangar)
Release Operation 1 0.1 X Vertical Static Nose Landing Gear
Load (Main Gears are assumed not braked)
or
0.1 X 0.10 x Maximum Aircraft Weight

8. FREE EXTENSION/REBOUND (TAKEOFF TRANSITION)

The landing gears should be designed for the transition of landing gear loads from “static” loads to zero, simulating
airplane takeoff.

Free extension/rebound loads occur once per flight.

The associated load is a free extension from the following Shock Strut Vertical Position (SSVP). A free extension is
defined as extension of the oleo strut from SSVP to the fully extended oleo position. The free extension loads may be
substituted with rebound loads from a rational takeoff analysis if available to account for the interaction of tire unloading
during lift off. For additional guidance on free extension and rebound, see MIL-L-8552C (Reference 2.1.1.3).

TABLE 9 - FREE EXTENSION

Landing Gear Vertical Position from Static

Nose Landing Gear SSVP static 1 g position for the appropriate mission
weight
Main Landing Gear SSVP static 1 g position for the appropriate mission
weight

9. FLIGHT LOADINGS (GUST AND MANEUVERING LOADS)

The landing gear structure is expected to have unlimited life due to low frequency vibratory loadings. When these low
frequency vibratory loading are combined with the other various airplane loading conditions (i.e., Pull-ups, banks, high
angle of attack (AOA), gusts, etc.), the vibratory loadings are not expected to cause the structural fatigue life to be
degraded.

Table 10 presents a summary of flight loadings, in terms of “G” loads taken from a very conservative interpretation taken
from Reference 2.1.4.5.

For this case, the landing gears are retracted and locked.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 17 OF 18

TABLE 10 - GUST AND MANEUVER “G” LOADS

Vertical “G” Loadings Occurrences Per 1000 Flights

1 ± 0.25 20 000
1 ± 0.50 4000
1 ± 0.75 800
1 ± 1.00 150
1 ± 1.25 30
1 ± 1.50 5
1 ± 1.75 1

10. SUSTAINED ENGINE IMBALANCE CONDITIONS (IE. WIND MILLING ENGINE AND BLADE OUT VIBRATION
CONDITIONS)

The landing gear and the associated landing gear components attached to the landing gear structure (i.e., hydraulic and
electrical dressing, actuators, manifolds, etc.) are to be evaluated for sustained engine imbalance (SEI) such as wind
milling and blade out frequencies. In cases where the purchaser does not provide the SEI spectrum, the FAA AC 25.24
can be used as guidance.

11. EXTENSION, RETRACTION, AND BRAKING WHEELS IN AIR

The following sequence for extension, retraction and braking wheels in air is taken from Reference 2.1.1.1. The number of
applied cycles is equal to the number of ground-air-ground cycles. The applied load for each phase of operation is
determined as specified in MIL-A-8863. The sequence of each cycle is as follows:

 Landing gears in the extended and locked position

 Braking wheels in air

 Full retraction of landing gears to the locked position

 Extension of landing gears to the locked position

 Actuation is by a normal power system

11.1 Braking Wheels in Air

The airplane is airborne in the takeoff configuration with the landing gear in all positions between fully extended and fully
retracted. The airspeed and wheel peripheral speed is 1.3 times the stalling speed in the takeoff configuration. The
maximum hydraulic brake pressure ramp rate or electric brake controller power is applied to stop the wheel rotation.

11.2 Gear Retraction and Extension

Retraction/extension cycling should be incorporated in the ground load design sequence for the structure to allow for
potential pairing with the ground load cases. Additional maintenance cycling may be analyzed separately. Reference
2.1.3.2 presents methods for developing fatigue spectrum for actuators. The release from uplock can in certain cases
back power the hydraulics giving a high load peak. The retraction actuator attachment load could be dominated by this
phenomenon rather than standard retraction loading. The same spectrum developed can be used on the landing gear.
The effects of air loads should be simulated

12. INTERNAL PRESSURES

Internal pressures should be considered in the fatigue substantiation. In addition, any hydraulic actuator loads (such as
occur in the landing gear retraction actuator) should be superimposed on the spectrum loads laid down for all components
where this is likely to be significant.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Chalmers University of Technology, Friday, December 22, 2023

SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5914™ 18 OF 18

13. GROUND-AIRGROUND CYCLES

To account for load variation between “in flight” and “on ground” conditions, the following loads cycles should be added:

Add one load cycle of magnitude:

Max. Vertical Load = Maximum Vertical Load for that flight (Block Loading only)

Min Vertical Load = 0 (Block and Flight by Flight loading)

Drag Load = 0

Side Load = 0

If block loading is accomplished, consideration should be given to adding drag and side loads into the Ground-Air-Ground
cycle. The loads should be the corresponding load for the maximum vertical load for that flight. The use of Ground Air
Ground (GAG) cycles is more associated with the need to account for the "rainflow" effect when using a block by block
approach to analysis or test. A flight by flight spectrum, by definition, should include the GAG cycles automatically. This
leads on to the fact that the rainflow effect is associated with the stress cycles rather than the load cycles and cannot truly
be accommodated by a standard extra "load" cycle. Any particular load cycle will generate different stress cycles in
different parts of the landing gear and selecting one load case will not necessarily result in the maximum stress cycle. A
simple example is where the maximum vertical landing load may be used for GAG cycles but it doesn't produce any load
in the wheel axle nut thread. The approach should be to calculate the max and min stress in each critical location for any
loading condition during a flight and use that as the GAG cycle.

14. NOTES

14.1 A change bar (l) located in the left margin is for the convenience of the user in locating areas where technical
revisions, not editorial changes, have been made to the previous issue of this document. An (R) symbol to the left
of the document title indicates a complete revision of the document, including technical revisions. Change bars and
(R) are not used in original publications, nor in documents that contain editorial changes only.

PREPARED BY SAE SUBCOMMITTEE A-5B, GEARS, STRUTS AND COUPLINGS OF

COMMITTEE A-5, AEROSPACE LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS