HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOL.

OGY
Skeletal System

OBJECTIVES:

1. Describe and explain the structure and functions of the bones and joints of the
human body
2. Identify the different types of bones and joints
3. Explain bone development and growth
4. Differentiate the different types of cartilage
5. Classify and identify the different types of bones according to location and
function

The skeleton of the human body is essential for locomotion and movement. It also
gives the form or structure to a living organism. Functions include housing and
protecting vital organs, it contains the bone marrow that is essential to hematopoietic
system, attaches and anchors the muscles, ligaments and joints. Bone can also act as
lever, together when the muscle contracts it will start and retain the movement.

Skeletal system is divided into 2 divisions: the Axial skeleton and Appendicular
skeleton. The Axial Skeleton is the central core unit; consist of skull vertebrae and
sternum. The Appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the extremities. There are
4 parts of the skeletal system: bones, joints, cartilages and ligaments.

Bone clinically is pinkish white in color and deep red in the inner portion. The adult
skeleton has 206 bones. There are 2 types of bones, Compact bone and Cancellous
Bone. Compact bones which are often called cortical bone is a well packed and densely
organized bone and appears ivory-like and is very strong. It is mainly found in the
diaphysis of the long bone. Cancellous bone or often called woven bone has loosely
woven lattices with relatively less dense organization of the bone tissue. Cancellous
bone is found in the epiphyses and metaphyses of long bones.
1. Classification of bones
There are 4 classifications of bones:

1. Long bone
- it is typically longer than wide
- have a shaft with heads at both ends
- contain mostly of compact bone
- clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, femur, tibia and fibula,
metatarsals, and phalanges; the metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges
are sometimes referred to as short long bones
2. Flat bone
- thin and flattened
- usually curved
- skull, mandilble, scapula, sternum and ribs
3. Short bone
- generally cube – shaped
- contains mostly of spongy bone
- carpal and tarsal bones, patella and sesamoids
4. Irregular bone
- irregular in shape
- does not fit into other bone classification categories
- vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, and hyoid bone
2. Gross Anatomy of Long Bone 3. Parts of the Long bone
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
1. Diaphysis
- This is the central and cortical shaft of a long bone
- Narrowest part of the diaphysis is referred to as the isthmus of the long bone
- Composed of compact bone
2. Epiphysis
- This lies on either end of the long bone
- In the adult, it is the remnant of the growing end of the long bone
- In a child, the ends of the long bone possess the growth plate and the
epiphyses
3. Periosteum
- Fibrous connective tissue membrane of the bone
- Outside covering of the diaphysis
- Has multiple small vessels
- Vessels that provide a major part of its blood supply
- Function is to nourish and protect the underlying cortical bone
- This function is evident to the subcutaneous bones like tibia.
- This is very important for the appositional growth and remodeling of the bone.
- However, bone resorption is more evident as the person grows older, the
medullary canal appears to widen in aging.
4. Sharpey’s fibers
- It attaches the periosteum to the bone
 - A fibrous connective tissue sheath that surrounds the outer cortical surface of
bone,
5. Arteries
- This supplies the bone cells with nutrients
6. Articular cartilages
- It covers the external surface of the epiphysis
- Made up of hyaline cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint surfaces
7. Medullary cavity
- Cavity of the shaft
- Contains yellow marrow, mostly fats, in adults
- In infant it contains red marrow for the blood cell formation

4. Bone markings
5 Bone markings (2)

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Bone is composed of an organic and an inorganic phase. The organic phase is

formed by cells and the collagen-forming part of the matrix. The inorganic phase
contains hydroxyapatite, calcium salts, and other minerals. The bone is essentially
working as a reservoir of calcium, which is important for most metabolic functions in the
human body.
 6. Microscopic anatomy
of bone

1. Osteon
- haversian system
- a unit of bone
2. Central canal
- also known haversian canal
- opening in the center of an osteon
- carries blood vessels and nerves
3. Perforating canal
- also known as Volkman’s canal
- canal is perpendicular to the central canal
- it carries blood vessels and nerves
4. Lacunae
- cavities containing bone cells or osteocytes
- arranged in concentric rings
5. Lamellae
- rings around the central canal
- sites of lacunae
6. Canaliculi
- tiny canals
- radiate from the central canal to lacunae
- form a transport system

Bone Formation, Growth and Remodeling

In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage. During development, this

cartilage will be replaced by bone. However, some cartilage remains in certain areas
such as bridge of the nose, parts of the ribs and the joints. The process of bone
formation is called ossification. This will involve two major phases:
1. The hyaline cartilage model is completely covered with bone matrix by bone
forming cells called OSTEOBLASTS
2. Then, the enclosed hyaline cartilage model is digested away, opening up a
medullar cavity within newly formed bone

7. Long Bone Formation and

Growth

Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone to the external face of the diaphysis as
osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the inner face of the diaphysis wall.
This process is called APPOSITIONAL GROWTH, which the bones increase in
diameter. Bones are remodeled continually in response to changes in the calcium levels
in the blood and the gravity pull and muscles on the skeleton.

8. Formation and Growth of Long

Bone
Types of Bone Cells

1. Osteocytes
- mature bone cells
2. Osteoblasts
- bone forming cells
3. Osteoclasts
- bone destroying cells
- break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium

Bone remodeling is in need of both osteoblasts and osteoclasts cells. It is

important for bone to retain its normal proportions and strength during the long bone
growth as the body increases in size and weight. Bones will become thicker and form
large projections to increase their strength in areas where bulky muscles are attached.

Bone fractures are basically a break in the bone. There are two types of bone
fractures: Closed or simple and open or compound fracture. The closed or simple
fracture is break that does not penetrate the skin. The open or compound fracture is a
break in the bone that penetrates through the skin. Bone fractures can be treated by
reduction or immobilization by means of realignment of the bone.

9. Bone Fracture (Open Fracture)

 10. Common Types
of Fracture

11. Type of Bone

Fracture

Repair of Bone Fractures

Hematoma or a blood filled swelling formed initially to repair the bone. A break is
splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus. The fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony
callus, as more the more osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into the area and multiply.
The bony callus made of spongy bone. Over a next few weeks or month , it will be
remodeled as a response to the mechanical stressed placed on it and it forms a strong
permanent patch at the fracture sight.
 12. Stages in the healing of
bone fracture
Axial Skeleton

Axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body. It is divided into 3 parts:
Skull, Vertebral column and Bony thorax.

Skull has 2 set of bones: Cranium and Facial bones. These bones are joined by
sutures. However, only the mandible is attached by freely movable joint. Cranium is a
boxlike cranium is composed of eight large flat bones. The Frontal bone it formed the
forehead, the bony projections under the eyebrows and the superior part of each eye’s
orbit. The Parietal bones forms the most of the superior and lateral walls of the cranium.
They meet in the midline of the skull at the sagittal suture and form the coronal suture
where they meet the frontal bone. Termporal bone lies inferior to the parietal bones and
joined at the squamous sutures. Occipital bone is the most posterior part of the cranium.
It forms the floor and black wall of the skull. Sphenoid bone is the butterfly shaped
sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial
cavity. Lastly, the Ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the
sphenoid. It forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits.
 13. The Skull

14. Bones of the skull

15. Human skull, Superior view

16. Human Skull, Inferior view

Paranasal Sinuses

These are hollow portions of bones that surround the nasal cavity. The functions
of the structure are to lighten the skull and give resonance and amplification to voice.
 17. Paranasal
Sinus

Hyoid Bone

The Hyoid bone is the only bone that does not articulate with another bone. It
serves as a moveable base for the tongue.

18. The Hyoid bone

The Fetal Skull

The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body length. Fetal skull have
fontanelles, these are fibrous membranes connecting to the cranial bones. The
fontanelles will allow the brain to grow and convert to bone within 24 months after birth.
 19. The Fetal Skull

The Vertebral Column

The vertebrae is separated by intervertebral discs. The spine has a normal

curvature, Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location.

20. The Vertebrae 21. Structure of typical vertebrae

The Bony Thorax

It forms a cage to protect the major organs.

 22. The Bony Thorax

The Appendicular Skeleton

This includes limbs or the appendages, pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle. The
pectoral or shoulder girdle is composed of two bones: the clavicle or collarbone and the
scapula or shoulder blade. These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free
movement.

23. Bones of the

Shoulder Girdle
Bones of the Upper Limb

The arm is formed by a single bone example the humerus. The forearm has two
bones the Ulna and Radius. The hand composed of Carpals or the wrist, the
Metaacarpals or the palms and the Phalanges or fingers.

24. Bones of the Upper Limb

25. The Forearm

 26. The Hands

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

These are the Hip bones, composed of three pair of fused bones the Ilium,
Ischium and Pubic bone. The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis. The
function of pelvic girdle is to protect several organs the reproductive organs, the urinary
bladder and the part of the large intestine.

27. The Pelvis

Bones of the Lower Limbs

The thigh has one bone, the Femur or the thigh bone. The leg has two bones the
Tibia and Fibula. Foot is included in the lower limbs and it includes Tarsus or the ankle,
the Metatarsals or sole and the Phalanges or toes.
28. Thigh 29. The Leg Bones

30. The Foot

Joints
 31. Joints

The ends of bones articulate to form mobile or sometimes non mobile units. They
are the connections between the bony elements of the skeleton. Joints are classified as
functionally and structurally.

Classification of the joints

32. classification of the joints

Functional classification of joints

1. Synarthroses
- immovable joints
2. Amphiarthroses
- slightly moveable
3. Diarthroses
- freely moveable joints

Structural classification of joints

1. Fibrous joints
- generally immovable
 - bones united by fibrous tissue
2. Cartilaginous joints
- immovable or slightly moveable
- Synchondroses
- bones are connected by cartilage
3. Synovial joints
- freely moveable
- articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
- synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
- Diarthroses
- articular cartilage or hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the bones
- joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
- ligaments reinforce the joint
- bursae
o these are flattened fibrous sacs
o it is lined with synovial membranes
o filled with synovial fluid
o not actually part of the joint
- tendon sheath
o these are elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

33. Fibrous joints

 34. Cartilaginous joint

35. Synovial joints

 36. Classification of joints
based on shape