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LIFS1902 Revision notes: Endocrine system

Endocrine signalling involves signalling molecules or hormones, which are typically (but not always)
produced by cells of the endocrine organs. These hormones act on target cells that are at some
distance.

An overarching theme of the endocrine system is that a hormone acts at a distance from where it is
made. So endocrine signalling is signalling at a distance.

In contrast to endocrine signalling, there is:

Paracrine signalling – signalling molecules affect cells that are nearby. e.g., communication between
a nerve cell and its target synapse.

Autocrine signalling – signalling molecules released and sensed by same cell. e.g. some growth
factors in feedback loop.

Two types of gland:

Endocrine gland – gland/group of cells that releases a hormone which travels (usually) in the blood
and usually for great distances to act on distant target cells.

Exocrine gland – acts at a distance BUT these glands make chemicals that are secreted/excreted via
a duct. – e.g., sweat/oil glands, mammary glands, salivary glands.

Hormones – small molecules such as amino acids, peptides or steroids. Not broken down. Usually
travel in blood stream, diffuse out of blood vessel, diffuse around tissue, interact with a specific
receptor on a target cell.

Classes of hormones:

Polypeptide – e.g., growth hormone, insulin – (Hydrophilic – binds to receptor on cell surface)

Amino acid – e.g., epinephrine, thyroxine, melatonin – (Hydrophilic – binds to receptor on cell
surface)

Steroid – e.g., estradiol, testosterone, cortisol – (Hydrophobic – lipid soluble, receptor inside cell).

Hormones interact in different ways with each other:

Antagonistic - one hormone opposes another hormone – e.g., insulin and glucagon on glucose
uptake.

Synergistic – hormones have an additive effect – e.g., epinephrine and norepinephrine on heart
rate.

Permissive – one hormone is needed for a second hormone to work – e.g., estrogen and
progesterone on uterine growth.
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Hormones help to maintain homeostasis – when everything is at balance in your body.

Hypothalamus and Pituitary glands

Both located in brain.

Pituitary gland divided into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Posterior pituitary contains nerve endings from hypothalamus.

Hormones made by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus travel down axons to the posterior
pituitary and are released into the blood.

Anterior pituitary itself contains secretory cells. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce
hypothalamic-releasing or inhibiting hormones, and these are secreted into a portal system. These
hormones then stimulate or inhibit the production and secretion of hormones from secretory cells in
the anterior pituitary. These hormones are then released into the blood.

So, both the anterior and posterior pituitary respond to the hypothalamus but in different ways. The
posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones made in the hypothalamus, whereas the anterior
pituitary responds to hormones produced by the hypothalamus by making/secreting other
hormones.

Therefore, the hypothalamus produces ADH, and oxytocin as well as hypothalamic-releasing and
inhibiting hormones.

Posterior pituitary

Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus synthesize the peptide hormones - oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH). These hormones move down axons to the end terminals in posterior
pituitary where they are stored until they are released into the blood.

Scenario 1 – Balancing the salt concentration in the blood

1 Blood too concentrated

2 Neurons in hypothalamus sense that salt balance is too high

3 These neurones secrete ADH

4 ADH travels along axons to posterior pituitary where it is released into blood

5 ADH travels to kidneys – stimulates them to release less water into urine

6 More water resorbed into blood

7 Salt concentration of blood decreases

8 Neurons in hypothalamus sense that salt balance back to normal

9 Production of ADH is shut off

10 Kidneys go back to normal function

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Anterior pituitary

Human female cycles

Ovarian cycle – comprising follicular phase and luteal phase

Uterine cycle – comprising the secretory phase, proliferative phase and menstruation.

Ovarian cycle (in ovary)

Anterior pituitary produces follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

FSH – stimulates the follicle to mature

LH – stimulates the formation of a luteal spot in the ovary.

A spike in FSH and LH stimulates ovulation – when the egg is released from the follicle.

Once the egg is released and is ready for fertilization, FSH and LH drop back to normal levels and the
ovary goes into luteal phase.

This is when LH acts on the remaining follicle cells to form a corpus luteum.

The corpus luteum then regresses until it is a small spot on the ovary.

Uterine cycle (in uterus) – happening at same time as ovarian cycle in ovary

During follicular phase in ovary there is the proliferative phase in the uterus.

The presence of a mature follicle stimulates estrogen to build up the inner uterine lining
(endometrium) to get ready just in case fertilization occurs.

Estrogen increases during the follicular phase and up to ovulation in the ovary.

Estrogen (partly) stimulates the spike in FSH and LH.

After ovulation, the corpus luteum signals via progesterone that it is time to start preparing the
uterus for its normal non-pregnant state.

The increase in progesterone stimulates another increase in estrogen, which instructs the
endometrium to develop further.

When the corpus luteum starts to regress then the progesterone and estrogen levels drop…at this
time the endometrium sloughs off in a process called menstruation.

If fertilization occurs, then the embryo produces human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG).

hCG maintains the corpus luteum.

This prevents the drop in levels of estrogen and progesterone (until later when the placenta takes
over the production of these hormones).
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The elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone prevent ovulation by acting on anterior pituitary
and they help to maintain endometrium.

So now there are 4 tissues communicating with each other:

Anterior pituitary gland – FSH and LH

Ovary – estrogen and progesterone

Endometrium

Embryo - hCG

Birth

When the foetus is big enough, sensory receptors in the uterus are activated by the stretching.

Posterior pituitary releases oxytocin

Oxytocin acts on uterus and leads to uterine contractions, which ultimately lead to birth.

When the baby is born and starts suckling at the breast, sensory receptors sense this.

Posterior pituitary releases oxytocin

Oxytocin acts on mammary glands to stimulates them to let down their milk.

Same hormone has 2 jobs – stimulates birth and stimulates mother’s exocrine glands to secrete milk.
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Anterior pituitary contd.

Other hormones produced in anterior pituitary gland (in addition to FSH and LH)

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Prolactin

Growth hormone

Tropic hormones

TSH, ACTH, FSH and LH are tropic hormones – they act on other endocrine glands.

TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones

ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to make cortisol

FSH and LH act on ovary, which acts like a gland and makes sex hormones

THEREFORE, the anterior pituitary is called the ‘MASTER GLAND’ as it stimulates other endocrine
glands.

Non-tropic hormones

Prolactin, MSH and GH are non-tropic hormones.

Prolactin acts on mammary glands (exocrine not endocrine)

MSH stimulates production of pigment in skin

GH acts on bones, muscles and other tissues of body.

Endocrine disorders

Pituitary dwarfism -defect in production of GH by anterior pituitary.

Leads to failure of bone growth.

Gigantism – too much GH – usually due to tumor in pituitary gland.

Good example to show that too much hormone or too little hormone is bad, what you want is just
the right amount, not just for the physiology of the body but also in the regulation of the hormones
themselves.

Typically, the endocrine system can both respond and also stop responding via a feedback loop to
inhibit the production of hormone…this is the main way that the endocrine system works and how
homeostasis (balance) is maintained.
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Adrenal glands

Small glands that sit on the kidneys.

Involved in regulating stress response.

Stress response has two phases – short-term and long-term.

Short-term stress response involves adrenal medulla (inner part of gland)

Long-term stress response involves the adrenal cortex (outer part of gland)

Both medulla and cortex under the control of the hypothalamus.

Short term stress response

Starts in hypothalamus

Nerve impulses go to spinal cord and directly innervate adrenal medulla via sympathetic fibers.

Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine released.

Heart rate and blood pressure increased, blood glucose increased, muscles energised.

Long term stress response

Hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary, which produces ACTH

ACTH travels in blood to adrenal glands, stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and to a
lesser extent, mineralocorticoids.

Glucocorticoids increase metabolism of protein and fat and reduce inflammation.

Mineralocorticoids regulate blood volume and blood pressure (increase amount of water in blood).

Here, epinephrine and nor-epinephrine act synergistically, and glucocorticoids and

mineralocorticoids act synergistically.

Mineralocorticoids – e.g. aldosterone

Aldosterone targets the kidney where it promotes the absorption of sodium ions and excretion of
potassium ions, and in this way helps to regulate volume and pressure of blood.

Low blood pressure

Low blood pressure – i.e., sodium levels drop.

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Kidneys sense this drop and they secrete renin

Renin triggers conversion of angiotensinogen into angiotensin I , then angiotensin I is converted to

angiotensin II via action of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).

Angiotensin II makes blood vessels constrict, and blood pressure increases.

Angiotensin II also stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.

Aldosterone signals to kidney to resorb (take up) sodium ions and water, and blood pressure
increases.

SO, but changing the amount of fluid in your blood you can change the blood pressure and therefore
restore homeostasis.

High blood pressure

If blood volume and pressure are high, then heart stretches more as its pumping.

The cardiac (heart) cells sense the stretch and secrete atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH).

ANH goes to the kidneys, where it stimulates the excretion of sodium ions and water.

This leads to a drop in blood pressure and homeostasis is restored.

Pancreas

Part of digestive system

Part of the pancreas functions as an endocrine gland.

These are clumps of cells, which were first described by Paul Langerhans. Now called islets of
Langerhans.

Some cells in the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and other produce glucagon.

The rest of the pancreas is an exocrine organ – producing digestive juices.

In the islets of Langerhans, insulin is produced by beta cells and glucagon is produced by alpha cells.

After a meal, blood glucose levels rise.

Pancreatic beta cells make insulin.

Insulin stimulates liver to take up glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen. Also stimulates
muscles to store glycogen and make protein, and adipose (fat) tissue to take up glucose to help in
fat production.

Blood glucose levels drop, and homeostasis is restored.

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When the liver, muscle and adipose tissues are well fed, but the blood glucose levels are running
low, the pancreatic alpha cells make glucagon.

Glucagon instructs the liver to break down glycogen and the adipose tissue to break down fat.

Glucose levels rise, and normal blood glucose level (homeostasis) is restored.

If you cannot control your blood glucose levels, then you end up with diabetes mellitus.

Symptoms: high blood glucose levels over a long period of time, frequent urination and increased
hunger and thirst.

If you can’t control your blood glucose levels, then it might be because your pancreatic beta cells
cannot produce enough insulin (Type 1 diabetes) OR your cells might become insensitive to insulin
(Type 2 diabetes). So, it might be a problem with the hormone OR its receptor.

To test for diabetes, use a glucose tolerance test – test if blood glucose levels come down again over
the next few hours after being given glucose. In diabetics, the blood glucose stays high.

Type 1 diabetes - pancreas cannot make insulin so glucose stays in the blood and therefore the cells
and tissues are started. Sometimes cause is unknown, sometimes it is an autoimmune disease as
immune system attacks the pancreatic beta cells. Type 1 diabetes can be treated by injecting insulin.

Type 2 diabetes – pancreas still makes insulin, but the cells don’t respond. Therefore, injecting
insulin does not work.

Pineal gland

Located in the brain.

Regulates sleep/wake cycle

Secretes melatonin but only in total darkness.

The day/night cycle is controlled by a cluster of neurons in hypothalamus

Neurons in retina project into hypothalamus, then the hypothalamus controls the release of
melatonin from the pineal gland.