AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Unit 1 Atomic Structure and Properties Student Notes
Recommended Videos/Screencasts:
Tyler DeWitt https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMnkSb2YsXI
Mole Concept
Tyler DeWitt https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMAOrGpkTsQ&t=16s
Mole Some More
Tyler DeWitt https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnRaBWvhYKY
Empirical and Molecular Formula
Tyler DeWitt - Models of the Atom https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Timeline v=NSAgLvKOPLQ&list=PL3hPm0ZdYhyxYBS94sd8iqDttfDiaY19Z
Tyler DeWitt - Playlist of 7 review videos https://www.youtube.com/watch?
about Atomic Mass, Isotopes, and v=7fYpEnxhKQk&list=PL3hPm0ZdYhywV7J-
Calculations of average atomic mass IfeuOaCws8qKyVCh0
UV-Vis Spectroscopy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=svFbQ6dXr8g
Electron configurations using the Periodic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOlac8ruD_0
Table - Part 1
Electron configurations using the Periodic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lR2vqHZWb5A
Table - Part 2
Mass Spectrometer - how it works and https://www.youtube.com/watch?
basic spectra v=EzvQzImBuq8&list=PL0W3bEC-cI7Y5y378uyCq4KTjRGCo-
0zr&index=5&t=0s
PES Part 1 - How it works, the https://www.youtube.com/watch?
Photoelectric effect v=fnLLERYDHsY&t=443s&list=PL0W3bEC-
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PES Part 2 - Interpreting data https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2h6GeXrfGzY
Basic atomic structure review QUIZ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OH-aSu-
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Quantum model – Orbital simulations and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewtgUFSMsnY
e- config.
Orbital notation of e- configurations https://www.youtube.com/watch?
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Ionization Energy trend and explanation https://www.youtube.com/watch?
review v=LNVEBURpTcQ&index=119&list=PL0o_zxa4K1BWziAvOKdqs
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Electron affinity trend review https://www.youtube.com/watch?
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The mole
The mole concept connects how many molecules or atoms with the mass of a sample.
For example
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
20.18 g of Neon gas = 1 mole =22.4 L of Neon at 1.00 atm and 273K
Important Facts to Know
1.00 mole of any atom or compound = 6.022 x 1023 atoms or molecules
1.00 mole of any atom or compound = mass from the periodic table (the molar mass)
Percent Composition
Based on the Law of Definite Proportions: The ratio of the mass of the constituent elements in any pure sample
of that compound is always the same. Compounds can be molecules (nonmetals covalently bonded) or
formula units (ionically bonded ions)
Based on mass, what percent of each element is present in a compound.
Empirical Formula
The simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound. For example, glucose is C6H12O6 and the
empirical formula would be C1H2O1.
To find the empirical formula: % to mass → mass to mole → divide by the smallest → make it whole
Molecular Formula
The actual ratio of elements in a compound. Sucrose (table sugar) is C12H22O11. Two different molecular
formulas can have the same empirical formula: C5H5 and C6H6 both have the empirical formula C1H1.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
To find the Molecular Formula: Find the mass of the empirical formula. Divide the molecular mass given in the
problem by the mass of the empirical formula. Use that answer to multiply the empirical formula to get the
molecular formula.
Composition of a Mixture
Mixtures contain molecules or formula units of two or more types in varying proportions.
Elemental analysis can be used to determine the relative numbers of atoms in a substance and to determine
its purity.
= 9 mol Ca to 1 mol Mg
The Quantum Model (the current model)
Louis de Broglie postulated particle-wave duality, that is electrons (and all other matter) have wave properties.
Erwin Schrodinger emphasized these wave properties of the electron to describe the structure of the atom.
Instead of thinking of electrons as particles moving around the nucleus he imagined electrons as waves around
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
the nucleus. He developed his wave equation that gave correct energy values for the hydrogen atom electron
energy levels.
ĤΨ = ΕΨ (this is a simplified version of his equation)
Where Ψ (psi), the wave function, is a function of the x, y, and z coordinates of the position of an electron.
Each mathematical solution to this equation consists of a wave function with a particular E (energy) value.
Each specific wave function is called an orbital.
The lowest energy wave function is called the 1s orbital.
An orbital is not a Bohr orbit.
If the electron is not moving in a circular orbit then how is it moving?
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle tells us that we cannot know both the exact position and the momentum (or
velocity) of an electron (or any other very small particle) at the same time. Therefore, we don’t know what path
an e- follows, if any, around the nucleus.
So where are electrons?
If we square the wave function it indicates the probability of finding an electron near a particular point in space.
Orbitals are regions around the nucleus where you have at least 90% probability of finding an electron.
We still imagine the atom having energy levels, indicated by increasing values of n.
n=1, n=2, n=3, etc.
We represent these energy levels with the Bohr model.
The orbitals are in sublevels of these energy levels. The orbitals in increasing order of energy are s, p, d, f.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Now that you are completely confused a video that does a pretty good job of modeling the quantum model
would be useful. Here it is!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewtgUFSMsnY
Electron Configurations
In order to indicate the energy level, sublevel, and orbital where electrons are likely to be found electron
configurations were developed.
There are four different types of electron configurations.
1. electron configuration - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
2. orbital notation (arrows)
3. noble gas notation (shorthand e- configuration) Te = [Kr]5s24d105p4
4. Valence configuration = Te = 5s2 5p4
Use the periodic table to determine the order to fill the energy levels and sublevels.
Remember that the atomic number = number of electrons for a neutral atom.
When writing electron configurations remember to follow these rules:
– Aufbau principle - lowest energy positions fill first
– Hund’s Rule
• place only one electron in each equal energy orbital before any pairing
• all electrons in equal energy orbitals have the same spin
– Pauli Exclusion Principle - electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
PRACTICE
1. Write a ground state electron configuration for these neutral atoms.
Ne
2. Draw a ground state orbital diagram for these neutral atoms.
Ne
3. Write a ground state electron configuration for these ions.
O2-
Na+
Electron Configurations and Position of Elements on the Periodic Table
Elements are in the same Group on the Periodic Table because they have similar properties. These properties
are due to their same number of valence electrons which results in same ionic charges. If an unknown metal is
in a compound, its identity or at least Group number can be determined from its charge. For example, M 3N2
Since N has a -3 charge the unknown metal M must be 2+. We can tell it must be a metal from Group 2.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Electron Configurations for Transition Metal IONS
Transition metal e- configurations end with the d sublevel. When ions are formed the first electrons lost are
valence e-.
However, the d sublevel in NOT where valence electrons are! Remember, valence electrons are in s and p
sublevels only.
Example:
Fe 1s22s23s23p64s23d6 To form the ions remove the 4s e- first. Then for the Fe 3+ ion remove one
e- from 3d which is the next highest energy e-
Fe2+ 1s22s23s23p63d6 Fe3+ 1s22s23s23p63d5
Write the e- configuration for the following transition metal atoms and their ions.
Zn
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Zn2+
Mo
Mo5+
Isoelectronics - atoms and ions that have the same electron configuration
– Cations - positively charged ions formed by losing electrons. Subtract lost e- from total # e-
– Anions - negatively charged ions formed by gaining electrons. Add gained e- to total # e-
The ions O2- and Na+ above have the same electron configuration; therefore, they are isoelectronic.
Spectroscopy
Technique Energy Source How it works Why you choose it
Mass spectrometry magnetic fields, does not separates isotopes by determines number of
use light mass isotopes and masses
PES X-rays (sometimes other measures Ionization physical evidence of
high E waves) Energy electron configurations
Mass Spectrometry
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
How many isotopes are represented by this spectrum?
Which element does this spectrum represent?
Calculate the average atomic mass if the first peak represents 7.42% and the second peak 92.58% of the
naturally occurring isotopes of this element. (Show your work below.)
Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES)
*Label the peaks as 1s, 2s, 2p, etc.
PES data confirms electron configurations.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Periodicity (Periodic Trends)
Increase down a Decrease across a Decrease down a Increase across a
group period (left to right) group period
Atomic Radius Atomic Radius Ionization Energy Ionization Energy
Ionic radius * Ionic radius * Electronegativity Electronegativity
Reactivity of metals Reactivity of metals Electron affinity Electron affinity
Reactivity of nonmetals Reactivity of nonmetals
*Cations are smaller than anions.
You should already know the trends shown above. However, you probably don’t know how to explain WHY
those trends exist. Remember, a trend is an observation, not an explanation!
How to justify or explain Periodic Trends
First we need to take a look at Coulomb’s Law.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
Coulomb’s Law is a physics law that describes the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged
particles.
F = force
k = constant
q1 and q2 = charges of the two particles
r2 = square of the radius (distance) between the particles
As the magnitude of the charges increase so does the strength of the force between them. For example, Na +
and Cl- are not as strongly attracted as Mg2+ and Cl- because the magnitude of charge of the Mg is greater than
that of the Na.
However, the size of the particles matters too. For atoms atomic and ionic radius determine the size of the
particle, and the size is proportional to the r2 term. As the particles get larger the attraction between them
weakens.
We will use the charge and distance terms in Coulomb’s Law whenever we can to explain why periodic trends
exist.
Follow the link below if you would like to see Coulomb’s Law in motion.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-Interactives/Static-Electricity/Coulomb-s-
Law/Coulomb-s-Law-Interactive
Another tool we will use to explain periodic trends is called Zeff. Z stands for atomic number which is the
charge of the nucleus, and “eff” is short for effective. So Zeff means effective nuclear charge. Here is how to
calculate Zeff.
Zeff = Z - S
Z = nuclear charge (atomic number)
S = number of shielding electrons (inner core e- = protons - valence e-)
1. Calculate Zeff for valence electrons in Chlorine.
2. Calculate Zeff for a 1s electron in Magnesium.
There are three different explanations that we can give for why the periodic trends occur.
1. Charge magnitude of particles - Zeff (same as # valence e-)
a. higher Zeff the more positive the effect of the nucleus on electrons
b. greater Zeff requires more energy to remove electrons
2. Distance between charged particles
a. more distance between electrons and nucleus requires less energy to remove electrons.
3. Electron-electron repulsions
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
a. When electrons move to positions that minimize repulsions (like Cr and Cu where a paired s
electron moves to a d orbital) the atom is at a lower energy state and makes it more stable.
b. Electrons repel each other. If you add more electrons to an atom, like when an anion is formed,
the increased number of electrons will cause the cloud to swell. This is one reason that the
radius of an anion is larger than its parent atom.
c. Electrons paired in the same orbital repel. These repulsions reduce the amount of energy
required to remove one of the electrons.
Justifying all of the trends on the periodic table can be simplified using these two generalizations:
1) Use Zeff to justify trends across a period.
2) Use increased distance (greater value of n) to justify trends down a group.
When answering questions that require you to justify a trend you must...
1. Mention BOTH of the atoms or ions that the question is comparing.
2. You may state the trend, but also be sure to state the explanation they are looking for.
3. Refer to Coulomb’s Law whenever you can.
4. Emphasize ENERGY of attractions and repulsions in your answers.
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AP Chemistry New CED Compatible Unit 1 Student Notes
In the table below complete the following:
1. What It Is - define the periodic property.
2. Under “Across a Period” and “Down a group” state what the trend is. Does it increase or decrease
under those circumstances?
3. In the box labeled “Justification” use as many of the four explanations on the previous page to explain
why the periodic trend occurs.
Trend What It Is Across a Period Down a Group
Atomic
radius
Justification Justification
First
ionization
energy
Justification Justification
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