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SLDG Book - Full

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Substation Layout Design Guideline

Index
By clicking on the Part no link, the directory with the correct Chapters will Open for use
Part Eskom Unique Identifier 240-55922824 (Rev 0)
0 Approval Page
Chapters
1-1 Introduction

2-1 Miscellaneous Physical, Chemical and Technical Information

2-2 Miscellaneous Electrical Information

1 2-3 Technical Parameters Of Interconnection

2-4 Symmetrical Components

3-1 An Introduction To The Electrical System

3-2 Basic Substation Requirements

4-1 Insulation Coordination and Electrical Clearances

4-1.1 Flashover Characteristics

2
4-2 Corona

4-3 Environmental Considerations

5-1 General Criteria and Rules For The Design Of A.C. Substations
3
5-2 Function and Positioning Of High-Voltage Apparatus

6-1 Protection Schemes

6-1 Appendix A: ANSI/IEC Protection Relay Symbols and Numbering

4 6-2 Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Maintenance

6-3 Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Faults

6-4 Switching Arrangements

7-1 Technical Aspects of Grid Planning and Interconnection

5 7-2 General System Planning Data Requirements for the Design of a Substation

8-1 Impact of Busbar Layouts on Contingencies

8-2 Reliability of Substation Configurations

9-1 Substation Design Base Data

10-1 Single-Line Diagram Development

11-1 Aesthetic Influence of High Voltage Out-Door Substations on The Environment

11-2 Applications to Minimise Aesthetic Influence of High Voltage Outdoor

Substations on The Environment - Transformer Acoustic Noise Abatement

11-3 Bioremediation

6 11-4 Constructed Wetlands for Waste Water Treatment

12-1 Selection of Site

13-1 Geotechnical Investigations

14-1 Site Development

14-2 Earthworks Design of a Substation Terrace (A Worked Example)

15-1 Substation Terrace Drainage

15-1 Appendix A: Recommended Runoff Coefficients-Report 1/72

15-1 Appendix B: Duration Vs. Intensity Curves - Van Heerden WM, 1979

15-1 Appendix C: Drawing of Completed Storm Water Layout

15-2 Power Equipment Oil Drainage and Passive Fire Protection

15-2 Appendix A: Detailed Requirements for Passive Fire Protection of Oil-Filled

7 Equipment in High Voltage Yards

15-2 Appendix B: Drawing Of Completed Fire Protection Layout

16-1 Foundations

16-2 Foundations and Structures

16-2 Appendix A

16-2 Appendix B

16-3 Substation Fencing - Application Guide

17-1 The Lighting of High Voltage Substations for Operations and Maintenance

8 17-2 Operational Lighting Design Principles

17-2 Appendix B: Acceptable Electrical & Working Clearances

17-2 Appendix C: Cable and Conductor Data

17-2 Appendix D: Quick Floodlighting Design Guidelines

17-2 Appendix E: Floodlight Mast Symbols & Details

17-2 Appendix F: Standard Specifications

17-2 Appendix G: Floodlighting Luminaire

17-3 An Example Of Operational Lighting Specification, Design and Implementation

18-1 Ac Auxiliary Systems

19-1 Substation Earthing

9 19-2 Steel Earthing Design Guide

19-3 Substation Earthing Practices

20-1 Fundamentals of Lightning Protection

10 20-2 Lightning Protection

20-3 Insulation Coordination

21-1 Substation Structures

21-2 Substation Steelwork

11
21-3 Typical Main Steelwork for Overhead Strung Flexible Conductor Busbar
Systems

22-1 Corrosion

24-1 Dc Auxiliary Systems

24-2 50 V Dc Power Supplies for Telecommunications and Protection Equipment

12
25-1 Circuit Breaker

25-2 Standard Circuit Breaker Ratings

25-3 Circuit Breaker Application Guide

26-1 Isolators

26-2 Pantograph Isolators

13
26-2 Appendix A

26-3 Isolator Auxiliary Contacts

26-4 Isolators General Information

27-1 Earth-Switches

27-2 Earth-switch Auxiliary Contacts

28-1 Instrument Transformers

14 28-2 Current Transformers

28-3 Electromagnetic and Capacitor Voltage Transformers

29-1 Carrier Coupling Arrangements

29-2 Communication Room Layout

30-1 Line Traps

31-1 Coupling Capacitors

32-1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Surge Arrester Application Guide

32-2 Schedule Of Surge Arrester Protective Distances for Transformers

33-1 Post Insulators

34-1 Power Transformer Fundamentals and Measurements

15
34-2 Power Transformer Application Guide

34-3 Standard Power Transformers

34-3 Appendix A: Connections to Parallel an Existing Yd11 Transformer with a Dy1

Standard Unit

34-3 Appendix B: Power Transformer Vector Groups

34-4 Standard Transformers: In-Built Current Transformers

35-1 Shunt Reactor Fundamentals

35-2 Shunt Reactor Applications

16
35-3 Series Current Limiting Reactors

35-4 Earthing Compensators

36-1 Shunt Capacitor Banks

17 36-1 Appendix A: Inrush Current Calculations

36-1 Appendix B: Shunt Capacitor Discharge Currents (Out-Rush)

36-1 Appendix C: Parallel Banks

36-1 Appendix D: Steady State Analysis of Internally Fused Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix D1: Simplified Calculations of the Out-Of-Balance Current In

Unearthed Neutrals of Equal Split Arm External or Internally Fused Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix D2: Simplified Method of Calculating Over-Voltages Caused by Fuse

Operations In Externally and Internally Fused Capacitors

36-1 Appendix E: Neutral Earthing of Shunt Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix F1: Type T-Tin Fuse Minimum Melting Characteristics

37-1 Series Capacitor Application and Protection

38-1 Static var Compensators

38-1 Appendix A: Glossary Of Terms

18
38-2 Static Synchronous Compensators: STATCOM

40-1 Substation String Insulators

40-2 Standard Numbers of Insulator Discs

41-1 Methodology for the Dimensioning of Stranded Conductors for Mechanical

Short-Circuit Strength

41-2 Substation Flexible Conductors

19 41-2 Appendix A: All-Aluminium Conductors

41-2 Appendix B: Aluminium Alloy Conductors

41-2 Appendix C: S.C.A. Conductors

41-3 Dimensioning Tubular Conductors for Mechanical Strength

42-1 Equipment Terminal Stems

42-2 Substation Current-Carrying Clamps for Flexible and Tubular Conductors

20
42-3 Substation Clamps and Accessories for Flexible Conductors

43-1 Substation Hardware

44-1 Cables-Basic Concepts

21
44-3 Insulated Cables

22 45-1 Bay Layout and Equipment Schedules

45-2 Determination of the Equipment Bay Width

46-1 Gas Insulated Substations (GIS)

46-2 Gas Insulated Systems (GIS)

47-1 Gas Insulated Transmission Lines - Successful Underground Bulk Power

23
Transmission

48-1 Electromagnetic Compatibility

48-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility

49-1 Design Drawings

49-1 Appendix A: Typical Substation Drawing Checklist

24
49-2 Information for The Production of Substation Layout Project Drawings

49-3 Design Draughting Standards

50 -1 Substation Project Cost Estimate

50-1 Appendix A: Distance Factor Evaluation

25 50-1 Appendix B: Derivation of Common Yard Formulae

50-1 Appendix C: Using Control Equipment Bays

50-3 Transformer Cost Calculations For Estimating and Budgetary Purposes

51-1 Innovative Substation Solutions

26 52-1 Overview of HVDC Transmission

52-2 HVDC Transmission

SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 5 of 2146

S.L.D.G. 1 - 1

INTRODUCTION

Although a great deal of information relating to the design of substations is available in one form or another, it is often
not readily accessible. Design times are consequently prolonged unnecessarily because of the need to search for data
or to repeat calculations that may have been done many times before.

The first object of this Design Guide is thus to assemble into one manual (or set of manuals) as much basic design data
as possible.

Where applicable, reference is made to the source of the data e.g. Eskom Standard, SANS Standards, IEC Standards,
IEEE Standards, etc., and here it must be stressed that the Design Guides are in no way intended to supersede any
Standard documents. The basic data is merely repeated for ease of reference and it follows that every effort will be
made to ensure that the manual is updated in line with any changes to the relevant Standard. This is not expected to
be necessary very often.

The second objective of the Design Guide is to introduce a measure of Standardisation.

For a variety of reasons including site orientation, topography and environment, load requirements and local network
configurations, the layouts of even similar substations can rarely be made identical. Individual components ranging
form clamps through to complete bays do, however, lend themselves to standardisation and by concentrating on the
development of these “building-blocks”, significant contributions can be made towards:-

• Reduction of design times

• Smaller stocks of less items

• Better use of manufacturing resources and hence better deliveries

• Improved estimating techniques

• Greater accuracy in forecasting of material for bulk buying and production planning purposes

The guides are not expected to cater for every possible case that can arise in practice, but the general principles
outlined should be followed wherever possible.

CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDS database, this document is uncontrolled, and the responsibility rests with the user to
ensure that it is line with the authorised version on the database.
SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 6 of 2146

S.L.D.G. 2 - 1

MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION

1. ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

If different metals are joined together in a manner permitting conduction, and both are wetted by a liquid such as
water, acids, etc., an electrolytic cell is formed which gives rise to corrosion. The amount of corrosion increases with
the differences in potential. If such conducting joints cannot be avoided, the two metals must be insulated from each
other by protective coatings or by constructional means. In outdoor installations, therefore, aluminium / copper
connectors or washers of copper-plated aluminium sheet are used to join aluminium and copper, while in dry indoor
installations aluminium and copper may be joined without the need for special protective measures.

Table 2-1.1: Electrochemical Series, Normal Potentials against Hydrogen in Volts.

1. Lithium approx. -3,02 15. Cobalt approx. -0,26

2. Potassium approx. -2,95 16. Nickel approx. -0,20
3. Barium approx. -2,80 17. Tin approx. -0,146
4. Sodium approx. -2,72 18. Lead approx. -0,132
5. Strontium approx. -2,70 19. Hydrogen approx. -0,00
6. Calcium approx. -2,50 20. Antimony approx. +0,20
7. Magnesium approx. -1,80 21. Bismuth approx. +0,20
8. Aluminium approx. -1,45 22. Arsenic approx. +0,30
9. Manganese approx. -1,10 23. Copper approx. +0,35
10. Zinc approx. -0,77 24. Silver approx. +0,80
11. Chromium approx. -0,56 25 Mercury approx. +0,86
12. Iron approx. -0,43 26. Platinum approx. +0,87
13. Cadmium approx. -0,42 27. Gold approx. +1,50
14. Thallium approx. -0,34

If two metals included in this table come into contact, the metal mentioned first will corrode.

The less noble metal becomes the anode and the more noble acts as the cathode. As a result, the less noble metal
corrodes and the more noble metal is protected.

Metallic oxides are always less strongly electronegative, i.e. nobler in the electrolytic sense, than the pure metals.
Electrolytic potential differences can therefore also occur between metal surfaces that to the engineer appear very
little different. Even though the potential differences for cast iron and steel, for example, with clean and rusty surfaces
are small, as shown in Table 2, under suitable circumstances these small differences can nevertheless give rise to
significant direct currents, and hence corrosive attack.

Table 2-1.2: Standard Potentials of Different Types of Iron against Hydrogen, in Volts

SM steel, clean surface approx. -0.40 cast iron, rusty approx. -0.30
cast iron, clean surface approx. -0.38 SM steel, rusty approx. -0.25

2. MOMENTS OF RESISTANCE AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Table 2-1.3: Moments of Resistance and Moments of Inertia

Cross-section Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia

Torsion Bending (1) Polar (1) Axial (2)
W W Jp J
3 3 4 4
(cm ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm )

3 3 4 4
0,196.d 0,098.d 0,098.d 0,049.d
3 3 4 4
≈ 0,2.d ≈ 0,1.d ≈ 0,1.d ≈ 0,05.d
x x d

4 4
4 4 0,049.(D - d )
4 4 4 4 0,098.(D -d )
D (D − d ) (D − d )
x x d 0,196. 0,098. ≈
D D 4 4
(D − d )
0,049.
20

a 0,208 . a
3
0,018 . a
3
0,167 . a
4
0,083 . a
4

x x

b.h2 2 b.h 2 2 b.h3 3

2
0,208 . k.b .h (3) = 0,167.b.h = (b − h ) = 0,083.b.h )
6 12 12
x x h

B
3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12
x x h H

Table 2-1.3: Moments of Resistance and Moments of Inertia (Continued)

Cross-section Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia

Torsion Bending (1) Polar (1) Axial (2)
W W Jp J
3 3 4 4
(cm ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm )
B
3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12

x x h H

b/2 b/2

B 3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12
x x h H

3 3 3 3
(b.h − bo.ho ) (b.h − bo.ho )
x x ho h 6.h 12

(1) Referred to CG of area.

(2) Referred to plotted axis.
(3) Values for k: if h: b = 1 1,5 2 3 4
then: k = 1 1,11 1,18 1,27 1,36
3. GEOMETRY, CALCULATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES OF SOLID BODIES
3.1 Area of Polygons

Figure 2-1.1 : Regular Polygons

(“n” Angles)
R The area A, length sides S and radii of the outer
S r A d D and inner circles can be taken from Table 4
below.
R

Table 2-1.4: Area of Regular Polygons

No. of Area Side Outer radius Inner radius

sides A S R r
2 2 2
n S . R . r . Rx. rx. Sx . rx. Rx. Sx .
3 0,4330 1,2990 5,1962 1,7321 3,4641 0,5774 2,0000 0,5000 0,2887
4 1,0000 2,0000 4,0000 1,4142 2,0000 0,7071 1,4142 0,7071 0,5000
5 1,7205 2,3776 3,6327 1,1756 1,4531 0,8507 1,2361 0,8090 0,6882
6 2,5981 2,5981 3,4641 1,0000 1,1547 1,0000 1,1547 0,8660 0,8660
8 4,8284 2,8284 3,3137 0,7654 0,8284 1,3066 1,0824 0,9239 1,2071
10 7,6942 2,9389 3,2492 0,6180 0,6498 1,6180 1,0515 0,9511 1,5388
12 11,196 3,0000 3,2154 0,5176 0,5359 1,9319 1,0353 0,9659 1,8660

Table 2-1.5.1: Area of Irregular Polygons

Irregular Polygons

g1.h1 g2 .h2
h2 A = + .....
h3 2 2

A1 A2 =
1
(g1.h1 + g2 .h2 + ...)
A3 2
h1
g1
g2
g3

Table 2-1.5.2: Area of Regular Polygons

Pythagoras Theorem

2 2 2 2 2
a = c - b; a = c −b
2
c 2 2 2 2 2
b = c - a; b = c −a
2 2 2
b b c 2 2
c = a + b ; c=
2
a +b
a

2
a

3.2 Areas and Centres of Gravity

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity
Shape of Surface A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of
gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Triangle
1
A= .a.h
2
c C=a+b+c
h c b h b
S
Halving a and b gives
e S 1
e e= .h
a 3
a
Trapezium b 1
A= .(a + b).h
2
C = a+b+c+d
c
S
d h
1  a + 2.b 
.h.
e e = 
3  a+b 
a
Quadrangle 1
A= .(h1 + h2).D
h1 2
a
C = a+b+c+d
b
h2
D
d

Rectangle A = a.b
S C = 2.(a + b)
b 2
(Square : a = b, A = a , C = 4.a)
e

a
Parallelogram A = a.h C = 2.(a+b)

h
b

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity (Continued)

Shape Of Surface A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Circle segment b b.r
o
α .π . r
2
A= = o
2 180
o 2
α .π . r
b= o
90
S C = 2.r + b
o o
r 2 R.sinα 180
e= . .
e α 3 α
o
π

Semicircle 1 2
A= .π.R
2
S
r
e C = r . (2 + π) = 5,14 . r

1 R
e= . .0,425.r
3 π
Circle
2 2
π. R = π.d
A =π
r 4
π.r = π.d
C = 2.π
S
d

Annular segment B
αo 2
S A= .π.(R - r2 )
180 o

b C = 2.(R – r) + B + b

e
R 2 (R 2 - r 2 ) sin α 180o
e= . . .
r α 3 (R 2 - r 2 ) α o π

Semi- annulus 1 2
A= .π.(R - r2)
2
S
If b < 0,2.R, then
e r R
e ≈ 0,32.(R + r)
b

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity (Continued)

Shape of A = area
surface
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Annulus
2
A = π.(R - r2)
S r
D d π.(R + r)
C = 2.π
R

Circular b αo s.h
segment A= .π.r 2 −
h1 180o 2
S
s = 2. r 2 − h2

r αo
h e C = 2. r 2 − h2 + .π.r .
α 90o
1 s2
e= .
12 A
s
Circular b h s2
segment r= +
2 8.h
ϕ
h s = 2.r.sin 
2
ϕ
1  ϕo  2
r s A= .
 o − Sinϕ 
.r
2  180 
A=
1
[ ( )
. r. b − s + s.h ]
2
Ellipse A = ¼.a.b. π

S C = ½.(a+b) π (approx.)
b

3.3 Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies
Solid rectangle

V = a.b.c

O = 2.(a.b + a.c + b.c)

c
b

Cube
a
3
V=a =d
3
d=
d 2
2 2
O = 6.a = 3.d
a
Prism
V = A.h

O = C.h + 2.A
h
A = base surface

A
Pyramid

V = ⅓. A.h
h
O = A + Nappe

Cone
π
V = ⅓. A.h.π
S 2
h O = π .r.s + π .r

2 2
S= (h + r )
A
r
Truncated r
cone A1 2 2
V = (R + r + R.r). ⅓. π.h
2 2
π.s + π.(R + r )
O = (R + r).π
h S

2 2 2
S= (h + (R − r )
A
R

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Truncated
pyramid
A1
V =⊥ h.(A + A1 + A.A1)

O = A + A1 + Nappe
h

Sphere
4 3
V = .π .r
3
d 2
O = 4. π.r
r

Hemisphere 2 3
V = .π .r
3
r
π.r2
O = 3.π

Spherical
2
segment V = π.h .(r - ↓.h)
h
2
π.r.h + π.(2.r.h - h )
O = 2.π
= π.h.(4.r - h)
r

Spherical 2 2
sector h V = .π .r h
3

π.r.(4.h + s)
O = ½.π
r

Zone of sphere b
2 2 2
π.r.(3.a + 2.b + h )
V = ⅓.π
2 2
O = π.(2.r.h + a +b )
h

r a

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume

O = Surface
A = Area
Obliquely cut
cylinder A1
1 2
V = .π .r (h + h1)
2
h
h1 r O = π.r.(h + h1) + A + A1

Cylindrical
wedge V = ⅔.r .h
2

2
A h π.r + A
O = 2.r.h + ½.π

Cylinder
r 2
V = π.r .h
2
O = 2. π.r.h + 2. π.r
h

Hollow cylinder
h 2 2
V = π.h (R - r )
R 2 2
O = 2. π.h (R + r) +2. π (R - r )
r

Barrel 1 2 2
V = .π .l. (2.D + D.d + 0,75.d )
15

2
O = ½(D + d). π.d + ½. π.d
d (approx.)
D

Frustum
A1 V = (½(A + A1) + A1).h

h O = A + A1 + areas of sides

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Body of ρ π.ρ
V = 2.π ρ.A
rotation (ring)
A = cross-section

A O = circumference of cross-
π.ρ
section x 2.π ρ

Pappus’ Volume of turned surface (hatched) x

theorem for path of its centre of gravity
bodies of A π.A.ρ
V = 2.π
revolution
ρ Length of turned line x path of its centre
of gravity
π.L.ρ 1
O = 2.π
ρ1

3.4 Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships

Powers n n n m n m +n
a .b = (a.b) ; a .a =a

m n m.n 0 −n 1
(a ) =a ; a = 1; a = n
for a ≠ 0
a

Roots a
m
a
m m
a.b = a .m b ; m =
b m
b
Logarithms
b = Base in general : log b a = n
a = Antilogarithms log b 1 = 0; log b b = 1

Logarithms ( )
logb an = n.logb a
 1
logb n a =  .logb a
n

Powers n n m
a a a m−n
n
=  ; n
=a
b b a

Roots m n
a. a =
m.n
a
m +n
;
m
a
n
= ( a)
m
n

m n
a = m.n a

Logarithms logb (a.c) = logb a + logb c

a
logb   = logb a − logb c
c

Quadratic equation a.x 2 + b.x + c = 0

− b ± b2 − 4a.c
x1,2 =
2.a

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships (Continued)

Binomical expansion (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2.a.b + b2

(a ± b)3 = a3 ± 3.a2 .b + 3.a.b2 ± b3
Cosine theorem

a 2 = b2 + c 2 − 2.b.c . cos α
β c
b2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2.a.c . cos β
a
γ α c 2 = a 2 + b2 − 2.a.b . cos γ
b

Additional theorems sin( α ± β ) = sin α .cosβ ± cosα.sinβ

cos( α ± β ) = cos α .cosβ m sinα.sinβ

cotα.cotβ m 1
Additional theorems cot(α ± β) =
cotβ ± cotα
Triangle
a b
sinα = cosα =
c c
c
a b
a tanα = cotα =
b a
α
b
Sine theorem

γ a b c
= =
b a sinα sinβ sinγ
α
β
c

tanα ± tanβ
Additional theorems tan(α ± β) =
1 m tanα.tanβ

Transformation of trigonometrical functions sinα

sin2α + cos2α = 1; tanα =
cosα
tanα.cotα = 1

Transformation of trigonometrical functions tan α 1

sin α = 1 − cos2α = =
1+ tan2α 1 + cot2α

Transformation of trigonometrical functions

sin α 1 − cos 2α 1
tan α = = =
1 − sin2α cos α cot α

Transformation of trigonometrical functions cot α

cos α = 1 − sin2 α = 1 =
1+ tan2α 1 + cot 2α

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships (Continued)

Transformation of trigonometrical functions

1 − sin2α cos α 1
cot α = = =
sin α 1 − cos 2α tan α

Functions of double angles sin(2.α ) = sin α .cos α

cos(2.α ) = cos2α − sin2α = 1 − 2.sin2α

α 1 − cos α
sin =
Functions of half-angles 2 2
α 1 + cos α
cos =
2 2

2.tan α. 2
tan(2.α ) = =
Functions of double angles 2
1 − tan α cot α − tan α
cot 2α − 1 cot α − tan α
cos(2.α ) = =
2.cot α 2

α 1 − cos α sin α 1 − cos α

tan = = =
Functions of half-angles 2 1 + cos α 1 + cos α sin α
α 1 + cos α sinα 1 + cos α
cot = = =
2 1 − cos α 1 − cos α sin α

3.5 Conversion Tables

Table 2-1.9: Velocity

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below

dimension
below Centimetres Metres per Metres per Kilometres Kilometres Feet per Feet per Miles per Miles per Knots
per second second minute per minute per hour second minute minute hour

by the factor in the same column

Centimetres/ 1 100 1,667 1667 27,78 30,48 0,5080 2682 44,70 51,48
second

-3
Metres/ 0,01 1 1,667 16,67 0,2778 0,3048 5,080. 10 26,82 0,4470 0,5148
second
-2
10

Metres /minute 0,6 60 1 1000 16,67 18,29 0,3048 1609 26,82 30,88

-2 -2 -4 -2 -2
Kilometres/ 0,0006 0,06 0,001 1 1,667. 10 1,829. 10 3,048. 10 1,609 2,682. 10 3,088. 10
minute

-2
Kilometres/ 0,036 3,6 0,06 60 1 1,079 1,829. 10 96,54 1,609 1,853
hour

-2 -2 -2
Feet /second 3,281. 10 3,281 5,468. 10 54,68 0,9113 1 1,667. 10 88 1,467 1,689

Feet / minute 1,969 196,8 3,281 3281 54,68 60 1 5280 88 101,3

-4 -2 -4 -2 -2 4 -2 -2
Miles /minute 3,728. 10 3,728. 10 6,214. 10 0,6214 1,036. 10 1,136. 10 1,892. 10 1 1,667. 10 1,919. 10

-2 -2 -2
Miles/ hour 2,237. 10 2,237 3,728. 10 37,28 0,6214 0,6818 1,136. 10 60 1 1,152

-2 -2 -3
Knots(Nautical 1,943. 10 1,943 3,238. 10 32,38 0,5396 0,5921 9,868. 10 52,10 0,8684 1
miles / hour)

Table 2-1.10: Pressure or Force

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension
below Atmospheres Bayers per Centimetre Inches Hg Inches H20 Kilo-grams Pounds per Pounds per Tons per sq Newtons per
sq. cm Hg per sq metre sq foot sq inch foot sq metre

by the factor in the same column

-7 -2 -2 -3 -5 -4 -2 -6
Atmospheres 1 9,869.10 1,316. 10 3,342. 10 2,458. 10 9,678. 10 4,725. 10 6,804. 10 0,945 9,869. 10
(76 cm Hg at
o
0C

6 4 4 -3 4 5
Bayers or 1,013. 10 1 1,333. 10 3,386. 10 2,491. 10 98,07 478,8 6,895. 10 9,576. 10 10
dynes per sq
centimetre
(bar)

-5 -3 -2 -4
Centimetre of 76,00 7,501. 10 1 2,540 0,1868 7356. 10 3,591. 10 5,171 71,83 7,501. 10
o
mercury (0 C)

-5 -2 -3 -2 -4
Inches of 29,92 2,953. 10 0,3937 1 7,355. 10 2,896. 10 1,414. 10 2,036 28,28 2,953. 10
o
mercury (0 C)

-4 -2 -3
Inches of 406,8 4,015. 10 5,354 13,60 1 3,937. 10 0,1922 27,68 384,5 4,015. 10
o
water (4 C)

4 -2
Kilograms per 1,033. 10 1,020. 10 136,0 345,3 25,40 1 4,882 703,1 9765 0,102
square metre

-3 -2
Pounds per 2117 2,089. 10 27,85 70,73 5,204 0,2048 1 144 2000 2,089. 10
square foot

-5 -2 -3 -3 -4
Pounds per 14,70 1,45. 10 0,1934 0,4912 3,613. 10 1,422. 10 6,944. 10 1 13,89 1,45. 10
square inch

-6 -2 -2 -3 -4 -1
Tons (short) 1,058 1,044. 10 1,392. 10 3,536. 10 2,601. 10 1,024. 10 0,0005 0,072 1 1,044. 10
per sq. foot

5 -1 3 3 -4 3 4
Newtons per 1,013. 10 10 1333. 10 3,386. 10 2,491. 10 9,807 47,88 6,895. 10 9,576. 10 1
square metre

Table 2-1.11: Length

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below

dimension Centi- Feet Inches Kilo-metres Nautical Metres Mils Miles Millimetres Yards

below metres miles (statute)

by the factor in the same column

5 5 -3 5
Centimetres 1 30,48 2,540 10 1,853. 10 100 2,540. 10 1,609. 10 0,1 91,44

-2 -2 -5 -3
Feet 3,281. 10 1 8,333. 10 3281 6080,27 3,281 8,333. 10 5280 3,281. 10 3

4 4 4 -2
Inches 0,3937 12 1 3,937. 10 7,296. 10 39,37 0,001 6,336. 10 3,937. 10 36

-5 -5 -5 -8 -6 -3
Kilometres 10 3,048. 10 2,540. 10 1 1,853 0,001 2,540. 10 1,609 10 9,144. 10

-4 -4 -4
Nautical Miles 1,645. 10 0,5396 1 5,396. 10 0,8684 4,934. 10

-2
Metres 0,01 0,3048 2,540. 10 1000 1853 1 1609 0,001 0,9144

-3 4 7 4 4
Mils (10 393,7 1,2. 10 1000 3,937. 10 3,937. 10 1 39,37 3,6. 10
inches)

-6 -4 -5 -4 -7 -4
Miles (statute) 6,214. 10 1,894. 10 1,578. 10 0,6214 1,1516 6,214. 10 1 6,214. 10 5,682. 10

6 -2
Millimetres 10 304,8 25,4 10 1000 2,540. 10 1 914,4

-2 -2 -5 -3
Yards 1,094. 10 0,3333 2,778. 10 1094 2027 1,094 2,778. 10 1760 1,094. 10 1

Table 2-1.12: Area

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension
below Circular mils Sq inch Sq feet Sq yards Sq miles Acres Sq Sq Sq metres Sq
millimetres centimetres kilometres

by the factor in the same column

6 8 5 9
Circular mils 1 1,273. 10 1,833. 10 1973 1,973. 10 1,973. 10

-7 9 6 -3 9
Square inch 7,854. 10 1 144 1296 4,015. 10 6,272610 1,550. 10 0,1550 1550 1,550. 10

-3 7 4 -5 -3 7
Square feet 6,944. 10 1 9 2,788. 10 4,356. 10 1,076. 10 1,076. 10 10,76 1,076. 10

-4 6 -6 -4 -6
Square yards 7,716. 10 0,1111 1 3,098. 10 4840 1,19610 1,196. 10 1,196 1,196. 10

-8 -7 -3 -13 -11 -7
Square miles 3,587. 10 3,228. 10 1 1,562. 10 3,861. 10 3,861. 10 3,861. 10 0,3861

-5 -4 -4
Acres 2,296. 10 2,066. 10 640 1 2,471. 10 274,1

-4 4 5 6 12
Square 5,067. 10 9,290. 10 8,361. 10 1 100 10 10
millimetres

-6
Square 5,067. 10 6,452 1
centimetres

-4 -2 6 -6 6
Square 6,452. 10 9,290. 10 0,8361 2,590. 10 4047 10 0,0001 1 10
metres

-10 -8 -7 -3 -12 -10 -6

Square 6,452. 10 9,290. 10 8,361. 10 2,590 4,047. 10 10 10 10 1
kilometres
* 1 Hectare = 2,471 Acres

Table 2-1.13: Energy, Heat and Work

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
BTW Centi- Ergs Foot Hph Joules Kilo- Kwh mkg Wh

metre pounds gram

grams calories

by the factor in the same column

-8 -11 3 -4 -3
British Thermal 1 9,297. 10 9,48. 10 1,285. 10 2545 9,48. 10 3,969 3413 9,297. 10 3,413
Units (B.T.U)

7 -3 4 10 4 7 10 5 7
Centimetre - grams 1,076. 10 1 1,020. 10 1,383. 10 2,737. 10 1,020. 10 4,269. 10 3,671. 10 10 3,671. 10

10 7 13 7 10 13 7 10
Ergs or centimetre 1,055. 10 980,7 1 1,356. 10 2,684. 10 10 4,186. 10 3,6. 10 9,807. 10 3,6. 10
- dynes

-5 -8 6 6
Foot - pounds 778,0 7,233. 10 7367. 10 1 1,98. 10 0,7376 3,087 2,655. 10 7,233 2655

-4 -11 -14 -7 -7 -3 -6 -3
Horsepower - hours 3,929. 10 3,654. 10 3,722. 10 5,050. 10 1 3,722. 10 1,559. 10 1,341 3,653. 10 1,341. 10
(Hph)

-5 -7 6 6
Joules or watt - 1054,8 9,807. 10 10 1,356 2,684. 10 1 4186 3,6. 10 9,807 3600
seconds

-8 -11 -4 -4 -3
Kilogram - calories 0,252 2,343. 10 2,389. 10 3,239. 10 6413 2,389. 10 1 860 2,343. 10 0,86

-4 -11 -14 -7 -7 -3 -6
Kilowatt – hours 2,93. 10 2,724. 10 2,778. 10 3,766. 10 0,7457 2,778. 10 1,163. 10 1 2,724. 10 0,001
(Kwh)

-5 -8 5 5
Metre – Kilograms 107,6 10 1,02. 10 0,1383 2,737. 10 0,102 426,9 3,671. 10 1 367,1
(mkg)

-8 -11 -4 -4 -3
Watt – hours (Wh) 0,293 2,724. 10 2,778. 10 3,766. 10 745,7 2,778. 10 1,163 1000 2,724. 10 1

Table 2-1.14: Power

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
BTU per Ergs per Foot pounds Foot pounds Horse power Kg calories Kilowatts Metric horse Watts
minute second per minute per second per minute power

by the factor in the same column

-9 -3 -2 -2
British Thermal 1 5,689. 10 1,285. 10 7,712. 10 42,41 3,969 56,89 41,83 5,689. 10
Units per minute

8 5 7 9 8 10 9 7
Ergs per second 1,758. 10 1 2,259. 10 1,356. 10 7,457. 10 6,977. 10 10 7,355. 10 10

-6 4 4 4
Foot pounds per 778 4,426. 10 1 60 3,3. 10 3087 4,426. 10 3,255. 10 44,26
minute

-8 -2
Foot pounds per 12,97 7,376. 10 1,667. 10 1 550 51,44 737,6 542,5 0,7376
second

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Horsepower 2,357. 10 1,341. 10 3,030. 10 1,818. 10 1 9,355. 10 1,341 0,9863 1,341. 10

-9 -4 -2 -2
Kilogram calories 0,252 1,433. 10 3,239. 10 1,943. 10 10,69 1 14,33 10,54 1,433 10
per minute

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Kilowatts 1,758. 10 10 2,26. 10 1,356. 10 0,7457 6,977. 10 1 0,7355 10

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Metric horsepower 2,39. 10 1,36. 10 3,072. 10 1,843. 10 1,014 9,485. 10 1,36 1 1,36. 10

-7 -2
Watts 17,58 10 2,26. 10 1,356 745,7 69,77 1000 735,5 1

Table 2-1.15: Volume

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
Cubic Cubic Litres Cubic Cubic feet Gallons lmp Gallons U.S. Pints (liquid) Quarts Bushels
centimetre metres inches (liquid) (dry)

by the factor in the same column

6 4 4
Cubic centimetres 1 10 1000 16,39 2,832. 10 3785 473,2 946,4 3,524. 10

-6 -5 -2 -3 -4 -4
Cubic metres 10 1 0,001 1,639. 10 2,832. 10 3,785. 10 4,732. 10 9,464. 10 3,524

-2
Litres 0,001 1000 1 1,639. 10 28,32 3,785 0,4732 0,9464 35,24

-2 4
Cubic inches 6,102. 10 6,102. 10 61,02 1 1728 231 28,87 57,75 2150,4

-5 -2 -4 -2 -2
Cubic feet 3,531. 10 35,31 3,531. 10 5,787. 10 1 0,1337 1,671. 10 3,342. 10 1,2445

Gallons lmp. 1 0,8327

-4 -3
Gallons U.S. 2,642. 10 264,2 0,2642 4,329. 10 7,481 1,201 1 0,125 0,25

-3 -2
Pints (liquid) 2,113. 10 2113 2,113 3,463. 10 59,84 8 1 2

-3 -2
Quarts (liquid) 1,057. 10 1057 1,057 1,732. 10 29,92 4 0,5 1

-2 -4
Bushels (dry) 28,38 2,838. 10 4,651. 10 0,8036 1

Table 2-1.16: Mass

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
Grams Kilograms Tons (metric) Tons (long) Tons (short) Grains Ounces Adp Pounds Adp Hundred
weight

by the factor in the same column

6 6 5 -2 4
Grams 1 1000 10 1,016. 10 9,072. 10 6,481. 10 28,35 453,6 5,080. 10

-5 -2
Kilo grams 0,001 1 1000 1016 907,2 6,481. 10 2,835. 10 0,4536 50,80

-6 -5 -4
Ton (metric) 10 0,001 1 1,016 0,9072 2,835. 10 4,536. 10 0,0508

-7 -4 -5 -4
Tons (long) 9,842. 10 9,842. 10 0,9842 1 0,8929 2,790. 10 4,464. 10 0,050

-6 -3 -5
Tons (short) 1,102. 10 1,102. 10 1,102 1,120 1 3,125. 10 0,0005 0,056

4 3
Grains 15,43 1,543. 10 1 437,5 7000 784. 10

-2 4 4 4 -3
Ounces (Adp) 3,527. 10 35,27 3,527. 10 3,584. 10 3,2. 10 2,284. 10 1 16 1792

-3 -4 -2
Pounds 2,205. 10 2,205 2205 2240 2000 1,429. 10 6,250. 10 1 112
Avoirdupois

-3 -6 -6
Hundredweights 0,0197. 10 0,0197 19,7 20 17,8 0,128. 10 558. 10 0,0089 1
(cwts)

S.L.D.G. 2 - 2

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL INFORMATION

1. GENERAL ELECTROTECHNICAL FORMULAE AND TABLES

1.1 Electro-technical symbols as per DIN 4897

Table 2-2.1: Mathematical Symbols for Electrical Quantities (General)

Symbol Quantity SI unit

Q quantity of electricity, electric charge C
E electric field strength V/m
2
D electric flux density, electric displacement C/m
U electric potential difference V
ϕ electric potential V
ε permittivity, dielectric constant F/m
ε0 electric field constant, ε0 = 0,885419 . 10
-11
F/m F/m
ε1 relative permittivity 1 (ratio)
C electric capacitance F
I electric current A
2
S,J electric current density A/m
x, y electric conductivity S/m
ρ specific electric resistance Ω
G electric conductance S
R electric resistance Ω
θ electromotive force A

Table 2-2.2: Mathematical Symbols for Magnetic Quantities (General)

Symbol Quantity SI unit

φ magnetic flux Wb
2
B magnetic induction T (Wb/m )
H magnetic field strength A/m
V magneto-motive force A
ϕ magnetic potential A
µ permeability H/m
µ0 absolute permeability µ0 = 4 . π . 10 H/m
-7
H/m
µr relative permeability 1 (ratio)
L inductance H
M mutual inductance H

Table 2-2.3: Mathematical Symbols for Alternating-Current Quantities And Network Quantities.

Symbol Quantity SI unit

S apparent power W, VA
P active power W
Q reactive power VAR
D distortion power W
φ phase displacement rad
ϑ load angle rad
λ power factor, λ = P/S, λ = cos φ
(1)
1
δ loss angle rad
d loss factor, d = tan δ 1
Z impedance Ω
Y admittance S
R resistance Ω
G conductance S
X reactance Ω
B susceptance S
γ impedance angle, γ = arctan (X/R) rad
(1) Valid only for sinusoidal voltage and current

Table 2-2.4: Numerical and Proportional Relationships

Symbol Quantity SI unit

η efficiency 1
S slip 1
P number of pole-pairs 1
w, N number of turns 1
ü transformation ratio 1
m number of phases and conductors 1
γ amplitude factor 1
k overvoltage factor 1
v ordinal number of a periodic component 1
s wave content 1
g fundamental wave content 1
k harmonic content, distortion factor 1
ξ increase in resistance due to skin effect, 1
ξ = R~ /R_

1.2 Alternating-current Quantities

With an alternating current, the instantaneous value of the current changes its direction as a function of time i = f(t). If
this process takes place periodically with a period of duration T, this is a periodic alternation current. If the variation of
the current with respect to time is then sinusoidal, one speaks of a sinusoidal alternating current.

The frequency f and the angular frequency ω are calculated from the periodic time T with:-

1 2. π
f = and ω = 2. π.f = eq. 1-3.1
T T

The equivalent d.c. value of an alternating current is the average, taken over one period of the value:-

1 T 1 2π
i = . ∫ i dt = . ∫ i dωt. eq. 1-3.2
T 0 2. π 0

This occurs in rectifier circuits and is indicated by a moving-coil instrument, for example.

The root-mean-square value (rms value) of an alternating current is the square root of the average of the square of the
value of the function with respect to time:-

1 T 1 2π
2 2
I= . ∫ i dt = . ∫ i dωt eq. 1-3.3
T 0 2.π 0

As regards the generation of heat, the root-mean-square value of the current in a resistance achieves the same effect
as a direct current of the same magnitude.

The root-mean-square value can be measured not only with moving-coil instruments, but also with hot-wire
instruments, thermal converters and electrostatic voltmeters.

A non-sinusoidal current can be resolved into the fundamental oscillation with the fundamental frequency f and into
harmonics having whole-numbered multiples of the fundamental frequency. If I1 is the rms value of the fundamental
oscillation of an alternating current, and I2, I3, etc are the rms values of the harmonics having frequencies 2.f, 3.f, etc,
the rms value of the alternating current is:-

2 2 2
I= I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ........ eq. 1-3.4

If the alternating current also includes a direct-current component i_, this is termed an undulatory current. The rms
value of the undulatory current is:-

2 2 2 2
I= I _ + I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ........ eq. 1-3.5

The fundamental oscillation content g is the ratio of the rms value of the fundamental oscillation to the rms value of the
alternating current:-

I1
g= eq. 1-3.6
I

The harmonic content k (distortion factor) is the ratio of the rms value of the harmonics to the rms value of the
alternating current:-

2 2
I 2 + I 3 + .... 2
k= = 1− g . eq. 1-3.7
I

The fundamental oscillation content and the harmonic content cannot exceed 1.

In the case of a sinusoidal;-

the oscillation the fundamental content g=1

the harmonic content k = 0.

1.3 Forms of Power in an Alternating-current Circuit

The following terms and definitions are in accordance with DIN 40 110 for the sinusoidal wave-forms of voltage and
current in an alternating-current circuit:-

Apparent power S = UL.IL = P2 + Q 2 , eq. 1-3.8

Active power P = UL.IL. cos ϕ = S . cos ϕ , eq. 1-3.9

Reactive power Q = UL.IL. sin ϕ = S . sin ϕ , eq. 1-3. 10

P
Power factor cos ϕ = , eq. 1-3.11
S

Q
Reactive factor sin ϕ = , eq. 1-3.12
S

When a three-phase system is loaded symmetrically, the apparent power is:-

S = 3.UP.IP = 3 . UL.IP eq. 1-3.13

where:-

IL = rms phase current

UP = rms value of the phase to neutral voltage
UL = rms value of the phase to phase voltage

Also:-

Active power P = 3.UP.IP.cos ϕ = 3 . UL . IP . cos ϕ , eq. 1-3.14

Reactive power Q = 3.UP.IP.sin ϕ = 3 . UL . IP. sin ϕ . eq. 1-3.15

The unit for all forms of power is the watt (W). The unit watt is also termed volt-ampere (symbol VA) when stating
electric apparent power, and Var (symbol var) when stating electric reactive power.

1.4 Resistances and Conductances in an Alternating-current Circuit

UL S 2 2
Impedance Z= = 2
= R +X eq. 1-3.16
IL IL

UL .cosϕ P 2 2
Resistance R= = 2
= Z.cosϕ = Z -X eq. 1-3.17
IL IL

UL .sinϕ Q 2 2
Reactance X= = 2
= Z.sinϕ = Z -R eq. 1-3.18
IL IL

Inductive reactance Xi = ω.L eq. 1-3.19

1
Capacitive reactance Xc = eq. 1-3.20
ω.C

I S 2 2 1
Admittance Y= = 2
= G +B = eq. 1-3.21
UL UL Z

I L .cosϕ P
Conductance G= = 2
UL UL

2 2 R
= Y.cosϕ = Y B = 2
eq. 1-3.22
Z

I.sinϕ Q
Susceptance B= = 2
= Y.sin ϕ
U U
2 2 R
= Y −G = 2
eq. 1-3.23
Z

1
Inductive Susceptance Bi = eq. 1-3.24
ω.L

Capacitive Susceptance Bc = ω.C eq. 1-3.25

ω = 2.π
π.f is the angular frequency and ϕ the phase displacement angle of the voltage with respect to the current. UL,
IL and Z are the numerical values of the alternating-current quantities UL, IL and Z.

Complex presentation of sinusoidal time-dependent a.c. quantities

Expressed in terms of the load vector system:-

U = IL . Z, IL = UL . Y. eq. 1-3.26

The symbols are underlined to denote that they are complex quantities
(DIN 1344).

I
~
Figure 2-2.1: Equivalent Circuit Diagram
1
Z =
U Y

+j +j

jXi = j ωL jBc = j ωC

R+ +
1 1
− jX c = − j jB i = − j
ωC ωL

-j -j

Vector Diagram of Resistance Vector Diagram of Conductances

In the voltage vector U is laid on the real reference axis of the plane of complex numbers, for the equivalent circuit in Fig.
2 with Z = R + Xi; we have:-

UL = U, eq. 1-3.27

I = IW - j Ib = I.(cos ϕ - j sin ϕ) eq. 1-3.28

P Q
IW = ; Ib = ; eq. 1-3.29
UL UL

*
S = UL.I = UL.IL.(cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = P + j Q, eq. 1-3.30

2 2
S =  S  = U L . IL = P +Q , eq. 1-3.31

UL UL UL
Z = R + j Xi = = = .(cosϕ + jsinϕ ) eq. 1-3.32
IL I L .(cosϕ + jsinϕ ) IL

where: -

UL UL
R= .cos ϕ and Xi = .sin ϕ
IL IL

I I
Y = G - jB = = .(cos ϕ - j sin ϕ) eq. 1-3.33
UL UL

where:-

IL
G= .cos ϕ eq. 1-3.34
UL

and

IL
Bi = .sin ϕ eq. 1-3.35
UL

1.5 Alternating-current Quantities of Basic Circuits

Table 2-2.21: Alternating - Current Quantities of Basic Circuits
Circuit Z  Z

1. R R
R

L
2. j ω.L ω.L

C
3. - j / (ω.C) 1/ ω.C

4. R + j.ω.L (1) 2 2
R + ( ω.L)

5.
R − j
 1   1 
2
 R
2
+ 
 ω.C   ω.C 
6.
 
1
 1 
2
j ω.L − 
 ω.C   ω.L − 
 ω.C 
7.  1  2
R + j ω.L −  (2)  1 
 ω.C  R 2 +  ω.L − 
 ω.C 

R.ω.L R.ω.L
8.
ω.L − jR R + (ω.L)2
2

R − jω.C.R 2 R
9. (3)
2
1 + (ω.C) .R 2
1 + (ω.C)2 .R 2

Table 2-2.21: Alternating - Current Quantities of Basic Circuits (Continued)

Circuit Z Z

10. j 1

( )2
1 2
 1 
− ω.C 


 − ω.C
ω.L  ω.L 

11. 1
1
1  1 
+ j ω.C −  1  1 
2
R  ω.L  + ω.C −
2  
R  ω.L 

 1  1 
 Y = + j ω.C − 
 R  ω.L  
12. R
2 2
(1 − ω .L.C) + (R.ω.C)
2 R 2 + [L.(1 − ω 2 .L.C) − R 2 .C ]2
2 2 (1 − ω2 .L.C)2 + (R.ω.C) 2
L(1 − ω .L.C) − R .C
+j 2 2 2
(1 − ω .L.C) + (R.ω.C)

With small loss angle δ ( = 1/φ

φ) ≈ tan δ (error at 4 about 0,1 %)
o
(1)

Z ≈ ω.L(δ
δ + j) eq. 1-3.36

1
(2) Series resonance (voltage resonance) for ω.L = fres = eq. 1-3.37
ω.C

L
X res = X L = X C = eq. 1-3.38
C

1
fres = eq. 1-3.39
2. L.C

Zres = R eq. 1-3.40

∆f
Close to resonance ( <0,1 . fres) is Z ≈ R + j Xres . 2 . ∆f / fres eq. 1-3.41

with ∆ f = f - fres eq. 1-3.42

1
(3) With small loss angle δ (= 1 / ϕ) ≈ tan δ = − eq. 1-3.43
ω.C.R

δ+j
Z= - eq. 1-3.44
ω.C

C
Bres = eq. 1-3.45
L

1
fres = eq. 1-3.46
2.π. L.C

Yres = G eq. 1-3.47

∆f
(4) Close to resonance ( < 0,1 . fres) : eq. 1-3.48

Y = G + j Bres . 2 . ∆ fres eq. 1-3.49

with ∆fres = f - fres eq. 1-3.50

(5) e.g. coil with winding capacitance.

Table 2-2.22: Current / Voltage Relationships

Ohmic resistance R Capacitance (capacitor) C Inductance (choke coil) L

1 di
General law u = i.R .∫ i dt L.
C
dt
u du 1
i= C. .∫ u dt
R dt
L

Time law u = û.sin ωt û.sin ωt û.sin ωt

1 ω.L.î.cos ωt = û.cos ωt
hence u = î.R.sin ωt = û.sin ωt - .î.cos ωt = - û.cos ωt
ω.C
û 1
i = .sin ωt = î.sin ωt ω.C.û.cos ωt = î.cos ωt - .û.cos ωt = - î.cos ωt
R ω.L
Element of calculation î = û/R ω.C.û ω.L)
û / (ω

û = î.R ω.C)
î / (ω î. ω.L

 1  π  ω.L  π
arctan =− arctan
O
 ω.C . 0  2 =
ϕ = u and I in phase o  0  2
i leads u by 90 o
i lags u by 90
ω ω ω
f = 2.π 2.π 2.π
−j
Alternating current
Z = R ω.C j ω.L
impedance
1
Z
 = R ω.C ω.L
Diagrams U U U
i i i

i U U

U
i

1.6 Electric Resistances

1.6.1 Definitions and specific values

An ohmic resistance is present if the instantaneous values of the voltage are proportional to the instantaneous values
of the current, even in the event of time-dependent variation of the voltage or current. Any conductor exhibiting this
proportionality within a defined range (e.g. of temperature, frequency or current) behaves within this range as an
ohmic resistance. Active power is converted in an ohmic resistance. For a resistance of this kind is:

P
R= 2
eq. 1-3.51
IL

The resistance measured with direct current is termed the d.c. resistance R_. If the resistance of a conductor differs
from the d.c. resistance only as a result of skin effect, we then speak of the a.c. resistance R~ of the conductor. The
ratio expressing the increase in resistance is:

R~ a.c. resistance
ξ = = eq. 1-3.52
R_ d.c. resistance

Specific values for major materials are shown in Table 2-2.23.

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

Electric Conductivity Coefficient
Resistance ρ ρ
s = 1/ρ α ρ
2 2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Aluminium : 99,5 % Al, soft 0,0278 36 4. 10 2,7
-3
Al-Mg-Si 0,030 .. 0,033 33 ... 30 3,6 . 10 2,7
-3
Al-Mg 0,06 ... 0,07 17 ... 14 2,0 . 10 2,7
-3
Al bronze : 90% Cu, 10% Al 0,13 7,7 3,2 . 10 8,5
-3
Bismuth 1,2 0,83 4,5 . 10 9,8
-3
Brass 0,07 14,3 1,3 .. 1,9 . 10 8,5
-3
Bronze : 88% Cu, 12% Sn 0,18 5,56 0,5 . 10 8,6 ... 9
-3
Cast iron 0,60 ... 1,60 1,67 ... 0,625 1,9 . 10 7,86 ... 7,2
-3
Conductor copper, soft 0,01754 57 4,0 . 10 8,92
-3
Conductor copper, hard 0,01786 56 3,92 . 10 8,92
-3
Constantan 0,49 ... 0,51 2,04 ... 1,96 -0,05 . 10 8,8
-3
CrAl 20 5 1,37 0,73 0,05 . 10 -
-3
CrAl 30 5 1,44 0,69 0,01 . 10 -
-3
Dynamo sheet 0,13 7,7 4,5 . 10 7,8
Dynamo sheet alloy (1 to 5% Si) 0,27 ... 0,67 3,7 ... 1,5 - 7,8
-3
Graphite and retort carbon 13 ... 100 0,077 ... 0,01 -0,8 ... -0,2 . 10 2,5 ... 1,5
-3
Lead 0,208 4,8 4,0 . 10 11,35
-3
Magnesium 0,046 21,6 3,8 . 10 1,74

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials (Continued)

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

Electric Conductivity Coefficient
Resistance ρ ρ
s = 1/ρ α ρ
2 2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Manganin 0,43 2,33 0,01 . 10 8,4
-3
Mercury 0,958 1,04 0,90 . 10 13,55
-3
Molybdenum 0,054 18,5 4,3 . 10 10,2
Monel metal 0,42 2,8 0,19 . 10-3 -
Nickel silver 0,33 3,03 0,4 . 10-3 8,5
Ni Cr 30 20 1,04 0,96 0,24 . 10-3 8,3
Ni Cr 60 15 1,11 0,90 0,13 . 10-3 8,3
Ni Cr 80 20 1,09 0,92 0,04 . 10-3 8,3
Nickel 0,09 11,1 6,0 . 10-3 8,9
Nickeline 0,4 2,5 0,18 ... 0,21 . 10-3 8,3
Platinum 0,1 10 3,8 ... 3,9 . 10-3 21,45
Red brass 0,05 20 - 8,65
Silver 0,0165 60,5 41 . 10-3 10,5

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials (Continued)

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

electric conductivity coeficient a
2
resistance ρ ρ (mm Ω /m)
s = 1/ρ
2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Steel : 0,1% C, 0,5% Mn 0,13 ... 0,15 7,7 ... 6,7 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Steel : 0,25% C, 0,3% Si 0,18 5,5 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Steel : spring, 0,8% C 0,20 5 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Tantalum 0,16 6,25 3,5 ... 10 16,6
-3
Tin 0,12 8,33 4,4 . 10 7,14
-3
Tungsten 0,055 18,2 4,6 . 10 19,3
-3
Zinc 0,063 15,9 3,7 . 10 7,23

Resistance varies with temperature.

1.6.2 Resistances in different circuit configurations

R1 R2 R3
I

U1 U2 U3 Figure 2-2.3: Resistances Connected in Series

Total resistance = Sum of individual resistances

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...... eq. 1-3.53

The component voltages behave in accordance with the resistances U1 = I.R (1) etc.

UL
The current at all resistances is of equal magnitude IL =
R

I1 I2 I3
Figure 2-2.4: Resistances Connected In Parallel

UL 1 1 1
G1 = G2 = G3 =
R1 R2 R3

Total conductance = Sum of the individual conductances:-

1 1
= G = G 1 + G 2 + G 3 + ..... i.e. R= eq. 1-3.54
R G

In the case of n equal resistances the total resistance is the nth part of the individual resistances. The voltage at all
the resistances is the same. Total current:-

UL UL
IL = = Sum of components I i = eq. 1-3.55
R Ri

The currents behave inversely to the resistances:-

R R R
I1 = IL . ; I2 = IL . ; I3 = IL . eq. 1-3.56
R1 R2 R3

Rs1
Rd3 Rd2
Figure 2-2.5: Transformation Delta-Star And Star-Delta

Rs2 Rs3

Rd1

Conversion form delta to star connection with the same total resistance:-

R d2 .R d3
R S1 = eq. 1-3.57
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

R d1 .R d3
R S2 = eq. 1-3.58
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

R d1 .R d2
R S3 = eq. 1-3.59
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

Conversion from star to delta connection with the same total resistance:

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d1 = eq. 1-3.60
R s1

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d2 = eq. 1-3.61
R s2

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d3 = eq. 1-3.62
R s3

2. REFERENCES

th
2.1 Asea Brown Boveri Pocket Book, “Switchgear Manual”, 10 Edition, 2001

SLDG 2-3

TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF INTERCONNECTION

1. BASIC ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

This section describes the basic electrical parameters and units of measurement used in electric power systems. It is
meant to provide the non-technical reader with the concepts needed for a general understanding of the technical issues
discussed in subsequent sections.

1.1 AC & DC

Electric power comes in two forms: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). These forms are characterized by
the behaviour of their waveforms: AC alternates between positive and negative polarity with respect to ground, while
DC does not. In power systems, AC is generally a sine wave, while DC is a constant value. Early electricity systems,
such as Thomas Edison’s Pearl Street Station in New York City, which provided the world’s first public electric service
in 1882, were DC. However, by the beginning of the 20th century AC systems had become standard worldwide. The
main reason for the adoption of AC was that it is relatively simple to change AC voltage levels by using transformers,
while it is difficult to change DC voltages. The development of solid-state power electronics in recent years has allowed
an increased use of DC in the form of HVDC interconnections, but otherwise power systems remain AC.

1.2 Frequency

Frequency is the rate at which an alternating current changes from positive to negative polarity, measured in cycles per
second, or hertz (Hz). There are currently two widespread world standards for power system frequency: 50 Hz in most
of Europe and Asia, and 60 Hz in North America and in other places strongly influenced by the U.S. power industry,
such as South Korea. The choice of 50 and 60 Hz systems in different locations is a consequence of historical legacies
rather than the inherent technical superiority of one or the other. However, the range of possible frequencies for power
systems is constrained by practical concerns. For example, a century ago many electric railroads operated at a
frequency of 25 Hz, but 25 Hz was never adopted for general use in power systems because frequencies at that level
cause electric lights to flicker. At the other end of the scale, frequencies well above 60 Hz result in higher impedances,
leading to unacceptably high transmission and distribution losses.

1.3 Voltage

Voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit. A difference in potential causes
electric charges to flow from one place to another, just as a difference in heights causes water to flow from one level to
another. Voltage is measured in volts (V), and sometimes in thousands of volts or kilovolts (kV).

In power systems, two important measures are the maximum voltage and average voltage at any particular point.
Maximum voltage is important because insulation and safety equipment must be designed to protect against the
highest voltage encountered. Average voltage is important because the amount of energy supplied to an end user or
lost in transmission lines is a function of the average voltage and current. For DC systems, maximum and average
voltages are the same, because DC voltage doesn’t oscillate. For example, the output of a 120 V DC power supply is a
continuous 120 V relative to ground, and this is both the maximum and average voltage.

For AC systems, different measures are required. In a 220 V AC system, the voltage actually oscillates in a sine wave
between + 311 V and – 311 V relative to ground. The maximum voltage, also called amplitude or peak voltage, is thus
311 V. The simple arithmetic average of this waveform is actually 0 V, since the positive and negative voltages cancel
each other out. Hence, another type of average is used, called root-mean-square (rms). rms is obtained by squaring
the values of the voltage over one complete sine-wave cycle, determining its average value, and then taking the square
root of that average. The result (true for any sine wave) is that:-

Vpeak
Vrms =
2 eq. 2-3.1
= 0,707.Vpeak

For a household system with a Vpeak = 311 V, Vrms = 0,707.311 V = 220 V.

Thus the common designation of a household electric outlet as “220 V AC” refers to the rms value of the voltage. The
voltages of power system components, such as transformers and transmission lines, are also generally given in RMS
terms.

1.4 Current

Current is the flow rate of electric charge. In an electric circuit, charge flows from a point of higher voltage to a point of
lower voltage through a conductor, just as water flows from a higher spot to a lower one through a pipe. Current is
measured in amperes (A) or kilo-amperes (kA), where one ampere is a certain number of charges (to be precise 6.25 x
1018 charges, called one coulomb) flowing per second. As is the case for voltage, AC currents are generally described
in terms of their RMS values.

1.5 Resistance and Conductance

Conductance describes the ability of an object, such as an electric wire, to allow electric currents to flow. The reciprocal
of conductance is resistance, which describes how much the object resists the flow of current. Resistance is measured
in ohms (Ω). The resistance of wire is a product of its resistivity (an inherent property of the material from which it is
made, such as copper or aluminium, for a given temperature) and the dimensions of the wire. For a given material, the
longer the wire is, the greater the resistance, and the larger in diameter the wire is, the smaller the resistance. In the
analogy of water flowing from a higher to a lower spot through a pipe, resistance is analogous to the friction of the pipe.
A narrow pipe has a higher resistance; a wide pipe has a lower resistance.

1.6 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law describes the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) across any element of a DC
electric circuit:-

V = I.R eq. 2-3.2

Thus, for a fixed value of resistance – say for an HVDC transmission line of a certain length and diameter – if the
voltage is made larger, the current will decrease, and vice versa. For example, if the resistance of a line is 25 Ω, and
the current through the line is 1 kA, then the voltage drop across the line is:-

V = 1 kA * 25 Ω = 25 kV (from eq. 2-3.2)

If the voltage on the sending side was 500 kV, then the voltage on the receiving side must be 25 kV less, or 475 kV.

1.7 Power and Energy

Power is the rate of energy flow, measured in watts (W), and sometimes in thousands of watts or kilowatts (kW), or in
millions of watts or megawatts (MW). For a DC circuit, the power passing through any element of the circuit (e.g. a
transmission line, a generator, an electrical appliance) is the product of the voltage across it and the current passing
through it:-

P = I.V eq. 2-3.3

The energy delivered by a power system is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), and sometimes mega-watt-hours
(MWh). In general, energy is equal to power times time. For example, a light bulb that draws 100 W of power and is in
use for 10 hours consumes a total amount of energy:-

E = 0.1 kW * 10 h = 1 kWh (from eq. 2-3.3)

Note that power and energy are quite different concepts. If an electric oven draws 1 kW of power and is in use for an
hour:-

E = 1 kW * 1 h = 1 kWh (from eq. 2-3.3)

In these two examples, the power levels are different but the energy consumed is the same, the difference being the
length of time that each device is operated.

Note that the basic unit of energy is the joule (J), while the basic unit of power is the watt, where 1 W = 1 J/s. Thus:-

1 kWh = 1 kW * 1 h = 1000 J/s * 3600 s = 3.6 million J.

2.1.8 Resistive Losses

When current flows against a resistance, some of its energy is lost in the form of heating. For a DC circuit, the resistive
losses can be calculated using Ohm’s Law:-

Ploss = V.I

( )
= I .R .I eq. 2-3.4
2
= I .R
To continue with the example under “Ohm’s Law” above, consider a 500 kV HVDC transmission line with 25 Ω of
resistance, with 1 kA of current passing through it, and which has a voltage on the sending end of 500 kV, and a
voltage on the receiving end of 475 kV. The total power being transmitted at the sending end of the transmission line
is:-

P = 500 kV .1 kA = 500 MW

Out of this 500 MW, the amount being lost to heating is:-
2
PLOSS = (1 kA) . 25 Ω = 25 MW

This constitutes 25 MW/500 MW = 5 percent of the power being transmitted.

Very high voltages are used in transmission in order to reduce resistive losses to a tolerable level. In the example
above, if the same amount of power were being transmitted (500 MW) but the sending voltage was 125 kV instead of
500 kV, the current through the line must be:
P
I =
V
500.10 3
=
125
= 4 kA
The current is four times higher to yield the same amount of power, because the voltage is four times less. The power
lost in the transmission line is then:
2
Ploss = I .R

(
= 4kA. )2 .25 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 400 MW
400 MW = 80 percent of the power being transmitted.

In general, line losses are inversely proportional to the square of the sending voltage; this is true for AC lines as well as
DC. For this reason, historically power systems have sought to increase their transmission voltages as distances and
amounts of power transmitted have grown. The highest common AC transmission voltages, sometimes referred to as

extra high voltage (EHV), are 380 kV in Europe and 765 kV in the US and South Africa. Voltages as high as 1200 kV
have been used in Russia for some long-distance lines across Siberia. Above 1000 kV, however, the practical difficulty
and expense of equipment and insulation that can withstand such high voltages becomes prohibitive for many
countries, although China now has two substations and a line at 1100 kV. India is thinking about a 1200 kV system.

1.9 Impedance, Reactance, Inductance, Capacitance

AC circuits involve not only resistance but other physical phenomena that impede the flow of current. These are
inductance and capacitance, referred to collectively as reactance. When AC currents pass through a reactance (e.g. in
transmission and distribution lines, in transformers, or in end-use equipment such as electric motors) some of the
energy is temporarily stored in electro-magnetic fields. This has three important implications.

1.9.1 Even though energy is not “lost” to the environment as in the case of resistive heating, it must still be supplied to
the reactive elements. This is known as reactive power.

1.9.2 Voltage decreases when current flows across a reactance, just as it does across a resistance. For AC circuits,
Ohm’s Law must be modified:

V = I.Z eq. 2-3.4

where:-

Z = sum of resistance and reactance, called impedance, and is measured in ohms (Ω)

1.9.3 V, I, and Z are all complex numbers, meaning that they express not only magnitudes in volts, amps, and ohms,
but also phase angles. Voltage and current waveforms both oscillate at the same frequency - either 50 Hz or 60
Hz depending on the system – but they can differ in terms of the angular location within a cycle at which the
maximum voltage or current occurs. This difference in angular location is referred to as phase difference, often
symbolized by φ (phi) or θ (theta) and measured in degrees (or radians). Passing through an inductance causes
an AC current waveform to fall behind, or lag, the voltage waveform. Passing through a capacitance causes AC
current to move ahead of, or lead, the voltage. Equivalent amounts of capacitance and reactance cancel each
other out.

2.1.10 Complex Power: Real, Reactive, Apparent

For AC systems, there are three kinds of power: real, reactive, and apparent. Real power (sometimes called active
power) is what is consumed by resistances, and is measured in W (or kW, or MW). Reactive power is consumed by
reactances, and is measured in volt-amperes reactive, or VAR (sometimes kVAR, or MVAR). Apparent power is the
complex sum of real and reactive power, and is measured in volt-amperes, or VA (or kVA or MVA):-

S= (P 2
+Q
2
) eq. 2-3.5

where:-

S = apparent power and is mega volt-ampere (MVA)

P = apparent power and is megawatt (MW)
Q = apparent power and is mega volt-ampere reactive (MVAr)

Apparent power is what must be supplied by the generators in a power system to meet the system’s electrical load,
whereas end-use is generally measured in terms of real power only. Utilities always seek to minimize reactive power
consumption, among other reasons because it is difficult to measure and be compensated for reactive power by
customers.

2.1.11 Loads and Power Factors

An electrical load is the power drawn by an end-use device or customer connected to the power system. (Sometimes,
load is used to refer to the end-use devices or customers themselves, but among engineers it usually refers to the
power demand.) Loads can be resistive or reactive, and are often a combination of both. The extent to which a load is
resistive is measured by its power factor, (p.f.), which is equal to the cosine of the phase difference between the
current and voltage through the load:-

p.f. = cos φ eq. 2-3.6

When the power factor is at its maximum value of one, the load is purely resistive. On the other hand, the smaller the
power factor, the greater the phase difference and the greater the reactive power component of the load. Inductive
loads, such as electric motors, have a lagging power factor (see 1.9), and are said to consume reactive power.
Capacitive loads have a leading power factor and are said to be sources of reactive power.

Given the voltages and currents through a circuit element, single phase apparent, real, and reactive power can be
calculated respectively as follows:-

S = Irms .Vrms eq. 2-3.7

P = Irms .Vrms .cos φ = S. p.f. eq. 2-3.8

Q = Irms .Vrms .sin φ eq. 2-3.9

Reactive loads can have a large effect on line losses, because the current flowing through a line, and the associated
heating, is a function of the apparent power S rather than the real power P. For example, consider a load of 150 kW
with a lagging power factor of 0.75, which is supplied by a 10 kV distribution line with a resistance of 10 Ω. The
apparent power drawn by the load is:-

P
S=
p.f.
150
= (from eq. 2-3.8)
0,75
= 200 kVA

The current to the load is then:-

S
Irms =
Vrms
200.10 - 3
= (from eq. 2-3.7)
10
= 20 A

The line power loss is:-

2
Ploss = = I .R
2
= 20 10 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 4 kW

If there were no reactive power consumption by the load, the power factor would be equal to one. In that case:

S = P = 150 kW (from eq. 2-3.8)

Then:-

P
Irms =
Vrms
150.10 - 3
= (from eq. 2-3.8)
10
= 15 A

2
Ploss = = I .R
2
= 15 10 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 2,25 kW

Thus the reactive load in this example increased the line losses from 2.25 kW to 4 kW, an increase of 78 percent.

1.12 Three-Phase Systems

House current is generally single-phase AC power, but the rest of the power system from generation to secondary
distribution employs 3-phase AC. This means that transmission lines have three separate conductors, each carrying
one-third of the power. The waveforms of the voltage in each phase are separated by 120°. There are two major
reasons that 3-phase power became dominant.

1.12.1 As long as the electrical loads on each phase are kept roughly balanced, only three wires are required to
transmit power. Normally, any electric circuit requires both an “outbound” and “return” wire to make a complete
circuit. Balanced 3-phase circuits provide their own return, and thus only three, rather than six, wires are
required to transmit the same amount of power as three comparable single-phase systems.

1.12.2 Since the invention of poly-phase induction motors by Nikola Tesla in the 1890s, 3-phase motors have been the
workhorse of industry. More than one phase is required to balance torque, which increases the effectiveness
and lifetime of both motors and generators.

1.13 Voltage and Power in Three-Phase Systems

The voltage in 3-phase systems can be specified in two different ways. One is phase to earth (Vpe), which as it sounds
is the voltage between any one of the three phases and earth. The other is phase-to-phase (Vpp), which is the voltage
between any two of the three phases. Power lines are conventionally described by their phase-to-phase voltage, also
called the line voltage (VL). Phase-to-phase voltage is greater than phase-to-earth voltage by a factor of the square
root of three:

VL = = 3 .Vpe eq. 2-3.10

Thus, a 500 kV line has a phase-to-phase voltage of 500 kV, and a phase-to-earth voltage of:

VL
Vpe = =
3
500
= (from eq. 2-3.10)
3
= 289 kV

In both cases, the voltage referred to is the rms value.

The amount of power transmitted in a three-phase system is three times the power in each line.

Thus:


S = 3.  IL .
VL 

 3 (from eq. 2-3.7)

= 3 .IL . VL

P = 3 .IL .VL .cos φ = S. p.f. (from eq. 2-3.8)

Q = 3 .Irms .Vrms .sin φ (from eq. 2-3.9)

where:-

VL = line or phase-to-phase voltage and is measured in kilovolts (kV)

For example, the apparent power transmitted by a 500 kV circuit with a current of 1 kA is:-

S= 3 .Irms . Vrms

= 3 .1.500 (from eq. 2-3.7)

= 866 MVA

The real and reactive components can be calculated easily if the load power factor or phase difference is known (see
1.10). In this example, if φ = 25°, the real power:-

P = S.cos φ
o
= 866 .cos 25
(from eq. 2-3.8)
= 866 .0,906

= 785 MW

and the reactive power:-

Q = S.sin φ
o
= 866 .sin 25
(from eq. 2-3.9)
= 866 .0,422

= 366 MVAr

2. RESOURCES FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS

2.1 J. Glover and M. Sarma (2002), Power System Analysis and Design, 3rd edition. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.

2.2 W. Stevenson (1982), Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th edition.

2.1 A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans (2003), Electric Machinery, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

2.3 R. Rudervall, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Systems
Technology Review Paper”. Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf.

2.5 E. Ewald and D. Angland (2004), “Regional Integration of Electric Power Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, April 1964.

2.6 H. Happ (1973), “Power Pools and Superpools”. IEEE Spectrum, March 1973

S.L.D.G. 2-4

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

Symmetrical Components, first developed by C.L.Fortescue in 1918, is a powerful technique for analysing unbalanced
3Ø systems. Fortescue defined a linear transformation from 3Ø components to a new set of components called
symmetrical components. The advantage of this transformation is that for balance three-phase networks the
equivalent circuit obtained for the symmetrical components, called sequence networks, are separated into three
uncoupled networks. Furthermore, for unbalanced three-phase systems, the three sequence networks are connected
only at the points of unbalance. As a result, sequence networks for many cases of unbalanced three-phase systems are
relatively easy to analyse.

The symmetrical component method is basically a modelling technique that permits systematic analysis and design of
three-phase systems. Decoupling a detailed three-phase network into three simpler sequence networks reveals
complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms. Sequence network results can then be superimposed to obtain three-
phase results. The application of symmetrical components to unsymmetrical fault studies is indispensable.

2. DEFINITION OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

In accordance with Fortescue, the three-phase voltages, VR, VY, and VB are resolved into three sets of sequence
components:

2.1 Zero-sequence

Zero-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes and with zero phase displacement.

2.2 Positive-sequence

o
Positive-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, ±120 phase displacement and positive
sequence.

2.3 Negative-sequence

o
Negative-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, ±120 phase displacement and negative
sequence.

Phase-a

e.g. Va = V0R + V1R + V2R

NOTES:

1. The sequence components do not exist as physical quantities in the network.

2. A balanced system has no negative or zero sequence components therefore: actual balanced system = positive
sequence system

3. The generated emf is balanced and therefore positive phase sequence only.

4. In a 3phase, 3wire system, there are no zero sequence components, because there is no neutral connection.

3. ANALYSIS

NOTE: The three sets of sequence phasors when superimposed, give the actual unbalanced conditions in the circuit.

Notation:

Actual system subscripts : R, Y, B

Positive Phase sequence : 1R, 1Y, 1B

Negative Phase sequence : 2R, 2Y, 2B

Zero Phase sequence : 0R, 0Y, 0B

NB CAPITALS denote phasors

o
To express these quantities algebraically, the complex operator “a” is used. This denotes a phase shift by + 120 and
multiplication by unit magnitude.

Compare with operator j = - 1 jI

o o
j = 1 ∠ 9 0 = 1 ∠ - 2 70 = 0 + j1
2 o o
j = 1 ∠ 1 80 = 1 ∠ - 1 80 = - 1 + j 0 2
j I = -I I
3 o o
j = 1∠ 2 70 = 1∠ - 90 = 0 - j1 3
j I = -jI
4 o o
j = 1 ∠ 3 60 = 1 ∠ 0 = 1 + j 0

o
i.e. Multiplication by j = phase shift of + 90

Operator “a” (
: I∠φ . " a" = I∠ φ + 120ο )
aI +j0,866
2π
j
o 3
a = 1 ∠ 120 = 1e = - 0,5 + j0,866 o
120
2 o
a = 1 ∠ 240 = −0,5 − j0,866
3 o
a = 1∠ 360 = + 1,0 − j0,0
-0,5 I
4 o
a = 1 ∠ 120 = -0,5 + j0,866 = a

2 -j0,866
aI

POSITIVE PHASE SEQUENCE ω

I1B
For Positive Phase Sequence phasors taking RED as reference:

j0
I 1R = I 1R .e = Reference Phasor I1R
2
I 1W = a .I 1R

I 1B = a.I 1R I1W

NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE

ω
I2W
For NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE phasors taking RED as reference

I 2R = Reference Phasor
I2R
I 2W = a.I 2R
2
I 2B = a .I 2R
I2B
The UNBALANCED CURRENTS IR, IY, IB may be expressed as:-

I R = I 1R + I 2R + I 0R
2
I W = I 1W + I 2W + I 0W = a .I 1R + a.I 2R + I 0R
2
I B = I 1B + I 2B + I 0B = a.I 1R + a .I 2R + I 0R

NB: all zero sequence components are equal and in phase with IR

In matrix form:-

 IR  1 1  I 0R 
1
I  = 1 a
2  
a . I 1R eq. 2-4.1
 W  2  
 IB  1 a a  I 2R 

Or inverting the matrix:-

I 0R  1 1 1 I R 
I  = 1 .1 a
2  
a . I Y eq. 2-4.2
 1R  3   
a
2
I 2R  1 a  I B 

Similarly for voltage:-

 VR  1 1 1   V0R 
V  = 1
.1 a
2  
a . V1R eq. 2-4.3
 W 3 1 2  
 VB   a a   V2R 

And

 V0R  1 1 1   VR 
 V  = 1 .1 a
2 
a . VW eq. 2-4.4
 1R  3   
a
2
 V2R  1 a   VB 

In abbreviated notation:-

[IRWB ] = [A][. I120 ]

[I120 ] = [A]-1.[IRWB ]
and similarly for voltages.

Writing eq. 2-4.4 as three separate equations:-

V0R =
1
3
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a 2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

Equation (i) shows that there is no zero-sequence voltage in a balanced three-phase system because the sum of the
balanced voltage phasors is zero.

In an unbalanced three-phase system, line-to-neutral voltages may have a zero-sequence component. But line-to-line
voltages never have a zero-sequence component since their sum is always zero.

Likewise from eq. 2-4.2 we have that:-

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

Now, in a three-phase Y-connected system, the neutral current In is the sum of the line currents:-

In = IR + I W + IB

Thus,

I n = 3.I 0

i.e. neutral current equals three times the zero-sequence current.

Thus in a balanced Y-connection, line currents have no zero-sequence component, since the neutral current is zero.
Also on a three-wire system (D-connection or unearthed Y-connection), line currents have no zero-sequence
component.

Example 1: Balanced Line-to-Neutral Voltages

Calculate the sequence components of the following balanced Line-to-Neutral voltages with R Y B sequence.

 VRN   277 ∠0 
O

 V  = 277∠ − 120O 
 WN   
 VBN  277∠ + 120 O 

V0R =
1
3
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a 2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

Inserting the respective values and solving:-

V0 =
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ − 120 o + 277 ∠ + 120 o )
=
1
3
( () ( ) (
. 277 1 + 277 − 0,5 - j0,866 + 277. − 0,5 + j0,866 ))
=
1
3
(
.277 1 − 0,5 − 0,5 - j0,866 + j0,866 )
=0

V1 =
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 1∠ + 120 o.277 ∠ − 120 o + 1∠ + 240 o.277 ∠ + 120 o )
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ + 360 o )
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o )
o
= 277 ∠0

= VRN

V2 =
1
3
( . 277 ∠0 o + 1∠ + 240 o.277 ∠ − 120 o + 1∠ + 120 o.277 ∠ + 120 o
o
)
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ + 120 o + 277 ∠ + 240 o )
=
1
3
(
.277. 1 − 0,5 + j0,866 − 0,5 − j0,866 )
=0

Thus, a balanced three-phase system with R Y B sequence (or positive sequence) has no zero-sequence or negative-
sequence components.

Example 2: Balanced currents but R B Y (reversed) sequence

 IR   10∠0 
o

I  = 10∠ + 120 o 
 W  
 IB  10∠ − 120o 

Calculate the sequence currents:-

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

I 1R =
1
3
(
. IR + a.I W + a2 .IB ) v)

I 2R =
1
3
(
. IR + a 2 .I W + a.IB ) vi )

I0 =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 120o + 10 ∠ − 120o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 − 0,5 + j0,866 + −0,5 − j0,866 )
=0

I1 =
1
3
(
. IR + a .I W + a 2 .IB )
=
1
3
( ( )
. 10 ∠0o + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ + 120o + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ − 120o ( ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 240o + 10 ∠ + 120o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 − 0,5 − j0,866 − 0,5 + j0,866 )
=0

I2 =
1
3
(
. I R + a 2 .I W + a . I B )
=
1
3
( ( )
. 10 ∠0o + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ + 120o + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ − 120o ( ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 360o + 10 ∠0o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 1 + 1 )
o
= 10 ∠0

= IR

This example illustrates the fact that balanced three-phase systems with R B Y (or negative sequence) have no zero-
sequence or positive-sequence components.

Example 3: Unbalanced currents - phase Y open.

 I R   10∠0 
o

I  =  
 W  0 
 I B  10∠ + 120 o 

Calculate the sequence currents.

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

I 1R =
1
3
(
. IR + a.I W + a2 .IB ) v)

I 2R =
1
3
(
. IR + a 2 .I W + a.IB ) vi )

I0 =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 120o )
=
1
3
( )
.10. 1 + 0 − 0,5 + j0,866

= 3,333.(+ 0,5 + j0,866 )

o
= 3,333 ∠ + 60

I1 =
1
3
(
. I R + a . I W + a 2 .I B )
=
1
3
( (
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ + 120o ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 360o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 0 + 1 )
o
= 6,667 ∠0

I2 =
1
3
(
. IR + a2 .I W + a .IB )
=
1
3
( (
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ + 120o ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 240o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 0 − 0,5 - j0,866 )
=
1
3
(
.10. + 0,5 - j0,866 )
o
= 3,333 ∠ - 60

Also, the neutral current is:-

In = IR + I W + IB
o o
= 10 ∠0 + 0 + 10 ∠ + 120
(
= 10.(1) + 0 + 10 - 0,5 + j0,866 )
o
= 10 ∠ + 60
= 3.I 0

This example illustrates the fact that unbalanced three-phase systems may have values for all sequence components.
Also, the neutral current equals three times the zero-sequence currents.

Example: In an unbalanced three-phase system

o o o
VR = 4 ∠0 , VW = 3 ∠ − 90 , VB = 8 ∠ + 143,1

Find all the voltage components of the corresponding positive, negative and zero-sequence components, and draw the
phasors.

Solution:-

Taking VR as reference

Zero sequence:-

V0R =
1
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)
3 V1R = V0W = V0B

=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ − 90o + 8 ∠ + 143,1o ) 1,0 +j0,6 o
143,1
=
1
3
( (
. 4 − j3 + 8 − 0,8 + j0,6 ))
-0,8
= −0,8 + j0,6
o
= 1∠143,1

= V0W = V0B

Positive sequence:-

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

=
1
3
( ( )(
. 4 ∠0 + 1∠ + 120o.3 ∠ − 90o + 1∠ + 240o.8 ∠ + 143,1o ))
=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ + 30o + 8 ∠ + 23,1o )
=
1
3
(
. 13,96 + j34,64 )
= 4,64 + j1,55
o
= 4,9 ∠18,4

Negative Sequence:-

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

=
1
3
( ( )(
. 4 ∠0 + 1∠ + 240o.3 ∠ − 90o + 1∠ + 120o.8 ∠ + 143,1o ))
=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ + 150o + 8 ∠ + 263,1o )
=
1
3
(
. 0,43 − j6,43 )
= 0,143 − j2,15
o
= 2,15 ∠ − 86,2
o
V2R = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2 ,

(
V2W = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2o + 120o = 2,15 ∠ + 33,8
o
)
(
V2B = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2o − 120o = 2,15 ∠ − 206,2 )
o

CHECK:
VR = V0R + V1R + V2R

( ) (
= − 0,8 + j0,6 + 4,64 + j1,55 + 0,143 − j2,15 ) ( )
= 3,982 + j0
o
≈ 4 ∠0 (Correct)

VB
o
V1B
8 143,1
o
120
o 4,9 V1R
36,9 o
4 18,4

V1W

ACTUAL SYSTEM POSITIVE SEQUENCE

V1R = V0W = V0B

o V2Y o
120 2,15 143,1
V2B
o
33,8

o
-86,2

V2R

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE

S.L.D.G. 3-1

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

1. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

An Electric Power System is a complex assemblage of equipment and circuits for generating, transmitting,
transforming, and distributing electrical energy.

Electricity in the large quantities required to supply electric power systems is produced in generating stations,
commonly called power plants. Such generating stations, however, should be considered as conversion facilities in
which the heat energy of fuel (coal, oil, gas, or uranium) or the hydraulic energy of laterally moving or falling water is
converted to electricity.

The transmission system carries electric power efficiently and in large amounts from generating stations to
consumption areas. Such transmission is also used to interconnect adjacent power systems for mutual assistance in
case of emergency and to gain for the interconnected power systems the economies possible in regional operation.

Another approach to high-voltage long-distance transmission is high-voltage direct current (HVDC), which offers the
advantages of less costly lines, lower transmission losses, and insensitivity to many system problems that restrict
alternating-current systems. Its greatest disadvantage is the need for costly equipment for converting the sending-end
power to direct current, and for converting the receiving-end direct-current power to alternating current for further a.c.
transmission or distribution to consumers.

As systems grow and the number and size of generating units increase, and as transmission networks expand, higher
levels of bulk-power-system reliability are attained through properly coordinated interconnections among separate
systems. Many regional electric utilities now operate as members of power pools (United States and a large part of
Canada, Europe, West Africa, Southern African Power Pool). In the future, these pools may in turn be interconnected
into one gigantic power grid via HVDC schemes. The operation of these interconnections will in turn require
coordination from a central point. Each individual utility in such pools operates independently, but has contractual
arrangements with other members in respect to generation additions and scheduling of operation. Their participation in
a power pool affords a higher level of service reliability and important economic advantages.

Power delivered by transmission circuits must be stepped down in facilities called substations to voltages more suitable
for use in industrial and residential areas.

That part of the electric power system that takes power from a bulk-power substation to customers' switches,
commonly about 35% of the total plant investment, is called distribution.

The operation and control of the generation-transmission-distribution grid is quite complex because this large system
has to operate in synchronism and because many different organizations may be responsible for different portions of
the grid. In Southern Africa, North America and Europe, many public and private electric power companies are
interconnected, often across national boundaries. Thus, many organizations have to coordinate to operate the grid, and
this coordination can take many forms, from a loose agreement of operational principles to a strong pooling
arrangement of operating together.

Power-system operations can be divided into three stages: operations planning, real-time control, and after-the-fact
accounting. The main goal is to minimize operations cost while maintaining the reliability (security) of power delivery to
customers. Operations planning is the optimal scheduling of generation resources to meet anticipated demand in the
next few hours, weeks, or months. This includes the scheduling of water, fossil fuels, and equipment maintenance over
many weeks, and the commitment (start-up and shutdown) of generating units over many hours. Real-time control of
the system is required to respond to the actual demand of electricity and any unforeseen contingencies (equipment

outages). Maintaining security of the system so that a possible contingency cannot disrupt power supply is an integral
part of real-time control. After-the-fact accounting is the tracking of purchases and sales of energy between
organizations so that billing can be generated.

For loosely coordinated operation of the grid, each utility takes responsibility for the operation of its own portion while
exchanging all relevant information. For pool-type operations, a hierarchy is set up where the operational decisions
may be made centrally and then implemented by each utility. For a large utility such as Eskom, there may be another
level in the hierarchy where the decisions are further distributed to different geographical areas of the same utility. All of
this requires significant data communication as well as engineering computation within a utility as well as between
utilities. The use of modern computers and communications makes this possible, and the heart of system operations in
a utility is the energy control centre, such as the National Control Centre (NCC).

The monitoring and control of a power system from a centralized control centre became desirable quite early in the
development of electric power systems, when generating stations were connected together to supply the same loads.
As electrical utilities interconnected and evolved into complex networks of generators, transmission lines, distribution
feeders, and loads, the control centre became the operations headquarters for each utility. Since the generation and
delivery of electrical energy are controlled from this centre, it is referred to as the energy control centre or energy
management system.

Summarising therefore, a transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations.
Energy is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems require relatively costly conversion
equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects. Figure 1 illustrates a typical electrical network
from the generation of power, the transmission and distribution of this power, and the consumption of the power by the
end user. It can be thought of as Grid Input and Transmission Grid Exit.

1.1 Transmission Grid Input

At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV,
depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer
(generator transformer) to a higher voltage (132 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by country) for transmission over long
distances

1.2 Transmission Grid Exit

At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and residential
users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 kV to 132 kV, varying by country
and customer requirements) and distribution (3,3 to 33 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low
voltage (100 to 600 V, varying by country and customer requirements).

TX Lines
(220kV → 400kV → 765kV)

TX Switching Substation
Power Station High Voltage (765kV, 400kV) TX Substation
Yard (11/22kV→400kV)
(765kV→400kV→132kV)

DX Lines
DX Subs (11kV→132kV)
(132kV→22kV)

DX Subs
DX Subs Mining (132kV→88kV)
(88kV→33kV)
( →11kV)

DX Lines
(11kV→132kV)

Heavy Industrial Municipal Subs

(88kV→11kV)
DX Subs ( →400V)
TX – Transmission (88kV→22kV)
DX – Distribution ( →11kV)

Light Industrial Residential

Figure 1: A Typical Electrical Network from Power Generation to End Consumer

2. GENERATION OF POWER – THE POWER STATION

The origin of power in an electrical gid system is the power station. At the center of nearly all power stations is a
generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor, and a modular synth from which all power comes. The energy source
harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on which fuels are easily available and on the types of
technology that the power company has access to. Power is generated at several voltages which are amongst others
11 kV, 15 kV, 20 kV, 22 kV and 33 kV.

2.1 Thermal Power Station

In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often from
combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes
called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the
second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as
useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant
or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat
plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product heat
for the desalination of water.

Thermal power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover installed.

2.1.1 Classification by Fuel

• Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine generator. About 4,5% of
electric generation in South Africa is produced by nuclear power plants.

• Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas fired plants
may use a combustion turbine. A coal-fired power station produces electricity by burning coal to generate
steam, and has the side-effect of producing a large amount of carbon dioxide, which is released from burning
coal and contributes to global warming. About 90% of electric generation in South Africa is produced by coal
fired power plants

• Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.

• Renewable energy plants or * Biomass Fuelled Power Plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane,
municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.

• In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas (carbon monoxide – CO) is a low-cost, although low-energy-
density, fuel.

• Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power generation, usually
in a steam boiler and turbine.

• Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water, which turns the generator.

2.1.2 Classification by Prime Mover

• Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine.
Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system. About 80% of all electric power produced in the world is by use
of steam turbines.

• Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to directly
operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start rapidly and so are
used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.

These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This
type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown being the world's first, commissioned in 1959.

• Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine which
use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of
the plant, and many new baseload power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.

• Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are
frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical
facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel
oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.

• Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low-cost solutions for using
opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

2.2 Other Sources of Energy

Some power stations use the energy from the energy of falling water, hydroelectricity.

2.1.3 Hydroelectric Plant

Hydroelectric dams impound a reservoir of water and release it through one or more water turbines to generate
electricity.

Figure 2: A Hydro-electric Plant

2.1.4 Pumped storage

A pumped storage hydroelectric power plant is a net consumer of energy but decreases the price of electricity. Water
is pumped to a high reservoir when the demand, and price, for electricity is low. During hours of peak demand, when
the price of electricity is high, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power.

Figure 3: A Pump Storage Hydro-electric Plant

A common analogy for operation of a pump storage system is the charging of a battery and then the discharging of the
battery when the energy is required.

Figure 4: A Pump Storage Hydro-electric Plant

2.1.5 Solar

2.1.5.1 Photovoltaic Power Plant

A solar photovoltaic power plant uses photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into direct current electricity using the
photoelectric effect. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.

Figure 5: Photo-voltaic Installation - 15 MW Plant

2.1.5.2 Parabolic Trough Power Plant

Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use either parabolic troughs or heliostats to
direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into
steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator.

Figure 6: Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plant

2.1.5.3 Concentrated Solar Power Plant

There is yet another type of solar thermal electric plant. The sunlight strikes the bottom of a water pond, warming the
lowest layer of water which is prevented from rising by a salt gradient. A Rankine cycle engine exploits the
temperature difference in the water layers to produce electricity.

Figure 7: Solar Thermal Electric with Thermal Storage also Called CSP (Concentrating Solar Power) with
Storage

The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct
sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower as shown in Figure. Again, the heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines
that drive electrical generators.

Figure 8: 20-Megawatt Solar-Power Tower in Sevilla

Not many solar thermal electric plants have been built. Most of them can be found in the Mojave Desert of the United
States although Sandia National Laboratory (again in the United States), Israel and Spain have also built a few plants.

2.1.6 Solar/Wind: Upward Draft Solar Power Plant

One of the ways to harness the sun’s light for energy production is called solar chimney technology. The idea behind
solar chimneys, also called solar towers to avoid confusion with polluting industrial chimneys, is very simple.

A flat, massive greenhouse is placed in a wide open space where it can receive sunlight. In the center of the
greenhouse is a very tall, hollow tower. As the sun shines down on the greenhouse glass, the air inside the
greenhouse will heat up dramatically and want to rise. The only place for it to escape will be through the narrow tower
in the center. Because the rising air is forced to move through a smaller area it will speed up, creating a wind. As the
wind blows upward it turns turbines located at intervals within the tower.

Additionally, the efficiency of the tower is determined by the difference between the temperature in the collector and the
temperature of the environment at the top of the tower. A 1°C drop in temperature over every 100m facilitates the
necessary updraft effect from the tower. The concept ensures effective operation even on cooler days, as it is primarily
dependent upon the temperature differential between the air under the collector and air at the top of the tower.

Even though this technology is simple, for it to be efficient it requires a large area of greenhouse and a very tall tower.
There are currently no solar towers in use commercially. A 650-foot prototype tower generating 50 MW was built in
Manzanares, Spain in 1982 and ran for approximately 15,000 hours until 1989. After the initial trial and error period
was over, the tower had a 32-month period of daily operation during which it ran for an average of 8.9 hours per day.
During this time it had a 0.53% solar to electricity efficiency, which could be increased to 1.3% in a 100 MW unit.

Figure 9: 200-Megawatt Upward Draft Solar-Power Tower

2.1.7 Wind

Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady winds, sometimes offshore. Many
different designs have been used in the past, but almost all modern turbines being produced today use a three-bladed,
upwind design. Grid-connected wind turbines now being built are much larger than the units installed during the 1970s,
and so produce power more cheaply and reliably than earlier models. With larger turbines (of the order of one
megawatt), the blades move more slowly than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually distracting and
safer for airborne animals. Old turbines are still used at some wind farms, for example at Altamont Pass and Tehachapi
Pass.

Figure 10: Wind Turbines

2.1.8 Other sources of energy

Other power stations use the energy from wave or tidal motion, wind, and sunlight. These types of energy sources
are called renewable energy.

2.1.8.1 Wave

Figure 11: Wave Turbines

Figure 12: Wave Energy Converter 3 machines totalling 2.25 megawatts

2.1.8.2 Tidal

Figure 13: Ocean Current Turbine

Figure 14: Marine Current Turbine

Figure 15: La Rance Barrage in Normandy (Been able to produce up to 240 megawatts of power since 1966)

Figure 16: La Rance Barrage

2.1.8.3 Renewable-Biogas

This generally refers to power plants where the major fuel is biomass. This can vary from virgin forest material, or
reclaimed biomass such as demolition timbers, scrap furniture, and contaminated paper and card recovered from
municipal waste.

The dominant technology is essentially combustion with the heat being used to raise steam in a boiler and the steam to
then operate a steam turbine.

There are numerous variants on this, including gasification–pyrolysis.

Many biomass power plants are purpose built for the fuel they will consume, but many coal-fired power plants have
been adapted to burn a large proportion of biomass.

Sizes range from a few MW to hundreds of MW.

Size tends to be restricted by the distance the fuel needs to be hauled, since biomass is not a very dense fuel.

Figure 17: Biogas Power Generation - 200 million kilowatt-hours, meeting 400 thousand residents’ needs for
daily electricity

Figure16: Hamilton Renewable Power - Biogas Digester 1.6 MW Cogeneration Hamilton, Ontario

2.2 The Power Plant

2.2.1 Single-phase Power

The power plant produces a single phase signal, with two wires out of the plant, the single phase plus a neutral or
ground.
o
90
1

½
o
180
o φ 0
0 o
360
-½

-1
o
270

a) b)

Figure17: Three-Phase Power Generation

If the vector rotates at 3000 revolutions per second, this translates to:

3000
= 50 r.p.s
60
= 50 Hz

2.2.2 Three-phase Power

The power plant produces three different phases of AC power simultaneously, and the three phases are offset 120
degrees from each other. There are four wires coming out of every power plant: the three phases plus a neutral or
ground common to all three. If you were to look at the three phases on a graph, they would look like this relative to
ground:

ω
1
1
½

0
1 1
½ ½
-½

-1

a) b)

Figure17: Three-Phase Power Generation

There is nothing magical about three-phase power. It is simply three single phases synchronized and offset by 120
degrees.

Why three phases? Why not one or two or four? In 1-phase and 2-phase power, there are 120 moments per second
when a sine wave is crossing zero volts. In 3-phase power, at any given moment one of the three phases is nearing a
peak. High-power 3-phase motors (used in industrial applications) and things like 3-phase welding equipment therefore
have even power output. Four phases would not significantly improve things but would add a fourth wire, so 3-phase is
the natural settling point.

And what about this "ground," as mentioned above? The power company essentially uses the earth as one of the wires
in the power system. The earth is a pretty good conductor and it is huge, so it makes a good return path for electrons.
(Car manufacturers do something similar; they use the metal body of the car as one of the wires in the car's electrical
system and attach the negative pole of the battery to the car's body.) "Ground" in the power distribution grid is literally
"the ground" that's all around you when you are walking outside. It is the dirt, rocks, groundwater, etc., of the earth

3. ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission and distribution system where
voltage is transformed from low to high or from high to low using transformers. Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps.

A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down
transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word
substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to
only one power station where the generator was housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

A step-up transmission substation receives electric power from a nearby generating facility and uses a large power
transformer to increase the voltage for transmission to distant locations. A transmission bus is used to distribute electric
power to one or more transmission lines. There can also be a tap on the incoming power feed from the generation plant
to provide electric power to operate equipment in the generation plant. This is, however, generally not done at voltages
above 132 kV as the higher voltages usually imply more important circuits.

Step-down transmission substations are located at switching points in an electrical grid. They connect different parts
of a grid and are a source for sub-transmission lines or distribution lines. The step-down substation can change the
transmission voltage to a sub-transmission voltage, usually 145 kV and below. The sub-transmission voltage lines can
then serve as a source to distribution substations. Sometimes, power is tapped from the sub-transmission line for use
in an industrial facility along the way. Otherwise, the power goes to a distribution substation.

A substation can have circuit breakers that are used to switch generation and transmission circuits in and out of service
as needed or for emergencies requiring shut-down of power to a circuit or redirection of power.

The specific voltages leaving a step-up transmission substation are determined by the customer needs of the utility
supplying power and to the requirements of any connections to regional grids.

Table 1: Classification of Voltages

Medium Voltage (MV) ac: 3,6 kV; 7,2 kV; 12 kV; 24 kV, 36 kV; 48 kV
High voltage (HV) ac: 72 kV, 88 kV, 132 kV, 170 kV, 245 kV, 300 kV
Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV
Ultra-high voltage (UHV) ac: 1100 kV, 1200 kV, 1500 kV
Direct-current high voltage (dc HV): ±250 kV, ±400 kV, ±500 kV, ±600 kV, ±800 kV

Direct current voltage is either positive or negative polarity. A DC line has two conductors, so one would be positive
and the other negative.

3.1 Elements of a Substation at a Glance

Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment and one or more transformers. In a large
substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overloaded currents that may occur on the
network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits.
Substations do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices
such as power factor correction capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation.

Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose buildings. High-
rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the
noise from the transformers, for reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution
conditions.

Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded or earthed to protect people from high voltages
that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise (GPR)
leading to a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a
hazard of electrocution.

3.2 Switching function

An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and disconnecting of
transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned".

A transmission line or other component may need to be deenergized for maintenance or for new construction; for
example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer.

To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be
performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole system
running.

Perhaps more importantly, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component. Some examples of this:
a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc, or a tower is blown down by a high wind. The function of the substation is
to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time.

There are two main reasons:

3.2.1 a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and

3.2.2 it tends to destabilize the whole system.

For example, a transmission line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down, and similarly, a transformer left in
a faulted condition will eventually blow up. While these are happening, the power drain makes the system more
unstable. Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to minimize both of these problems.

3.3 Power Station High Voltage Yard

2
The transmission of large blocks of power at generation voltages is totally impractical due to I R losses, particularly
over large distances. For this reason, the power at generation voltages are stepped up to power at transmission
voltages, viz. 220 kV to as high as 800 kV. The increase in voltage for the same power level implies a reduction in
2
current, and so I R losses are reduced. As an example, one can consider a 600 MW generator at 22 kV, the power
then being transformed to 400 kV.

S (kVA)
I= eq. 3-1.1
3 .VL (kV)

6
600.10
I 20 =
3
3 .22.10
= 15746 A
2 2
I R = (15746) .R
6
600.10
I 400 = 3
3 .400.10
= 866 A
2 2
I R = (866) .R
2
Ratio of I R losses

2
 600.106 
 
(I 20 )2 .R = 3 .400.103 
(I 400 )2 .R  600.106 
2

 
 3 .20.103 
2
 600.10
6
3 .400.10
3

=  3
. 6

 3 .22.10 600.10 
2
 400 
= 
 22 
= 330,6
The example above illustrates how the power loss is greatly reduced with the increase in voltage and corresponding
reduction in current for the same power transmission. In this case, by increasing the voltage from 22 kV to 400 kV, the
loss is reduced almost 331 times for the same value of resistance R. The longer the line, the higher the resistance.
Then there is also the reactive component of power that needs to be considered, viz. due to inductance and
capacitance. Transmission lines have high values of series inductance (L) which lead to large vaues of inductive
reactance (XL)

XL = 2.π.f.L eq. 3-1.2

= 2.π.50.L

= 100.π.L

Correspondingly, transmission lines have high values of shunt capacitance (C) which lead to smaller vaues of
capacitive reactance (XC) due to the inverse relationship of XC and C.

1
XC =
2.π.f.C
1
= eq. 3-1.3
2.π.50.C
1
=
100.π.C

The total impedance of the line is therefore:

Z = R + j(XL – XC) eq. 3-1.4

2
One can therefore deduce that the longer the line, the larger Z will become, hence increasing I Z losses.

High voltage yards are therefore a necessary component of the power station installation for the evacuation of the
power generated. The power station is therefore integrated into the electrical network via the HV yard in such a manner
so as to ensure power system stability.

3.4 Transmission Losses

The power that is transferred is proportional to the voltage drop across the line.

Ptransfer ∝ volt drop across line

Depending on the line voltage, there is a maximum and a minimum voltage within which the system voltage can
fluctuate. These are as follows:

Voltages up to and including 275 kV: Umin = 0,90.Un, Umax = 1,10.Un

Voltages up to and exceeding 275 kV: Umin = 0,95.Un, Umax = 1, 50.Un

1,05pu 1,10pu 1,10pu

0,95pu 0,90pu
1pu

Un = 20 kV Un = 400 kV Un = 132 kV Un = 66 kV

Figure 18: Sending and receiving End Voltages in an Electrical System

The transformer tap range is usually -15% to +5%, i.e. (1 – 0,15) to (1 + 0,05) which gives 0,85pu to 1,05pu.

1,10pu
0,95pu

Vin Vout

Figure 19: Transformer Tap Settings

If the tap was set on 0,86pu, The voltage would be:

0,95
Voltage =
0,86
= 1,105

Voltage Rise = 0,105pu or 10,5 %

Vout = 0,95.1,105

= 1,05pu

The maximum power transfer across the system would therefore be realised if the sending end voltage was at Umax
and the receiving end voltage was at Umin.

Ptransfer = Pmax if VS = 1,05pu

VR = 0,95pu
2
V
Ptransfer = eq. 3-1.5
Z
2
Ptransfer ∝ V

P1 V 12
= eq. 3-1.6
P1 V 22

If a 132 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 400 kV line can transfer:

P400 V 2400
= 2
P132 V 132

V 2400
P400 = 2 .P132
V 132

400 2
= .1
132 2

≈ 9 units

If a 132 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 765 kV line can transfer:
2
P765 V 765
= 2
P132 V 132
2
V 765
P765 = 2 .P132
V 132

765 2
= .1
132 2

≈ 33 units

If a 400 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 765 kV line can transfer:
2
P765 V 765
=
P400 V 2400
2
V 765
P765 = .P400
V 2400

765 2
= .1
400 2

≈ 3,65 units

Other transmission losses are made up from the following:

2
• I .XL MVAr Magnetic field
2
• I .XC MVAr Electric field (capacitive charge)
• Corona Light energy
• Noise Audible energy
• RIV

Related to the power transfer capability, one must remember that the line has a given apparent power (S – MVA)
rating. This apparent power has a real component (P – MW) and a reactive component (Q – MVAr). The reactive
component is the vector sum of the inductive and capacitive reactance as given in eq. 3-1.4. This could be illustrated in
terms of a glass of beer.

Froth
MVAr

MVA
Beer
MW

XL R XC
Ι

MVA

+MVAr
MW

-
MVAr
MVA

CONSUMER PAYS FOR MVA

Figure 20: Components of Apparent Power

3.5 Economic Voltage of Transmission of Power

In a power system, the cost of conductor material is a large item of expense and is greatly affected by the choice of
voltage at different levels. However, higher system voltages will entail more cost of insulation in equipments like
transformers, circuit-breakers and switches as also in transmission and distribution channels.

The cost of insulation increases rapidly with increasing voltages. There is therefore, a voltage level beyond which it is
uneconomical to go. It will be profitable to give consideration to other means like compensation by means of capacitors
to increase the power limit of lines. However, the question remains as to how to select the transmission and distribution
voltage levels. Attempts have been made to determine these levels by mathematical expressions based upon
economic considerations.

The underlying principle is to express the total annual cost CT, as a function of conductor cross section A, and
voltage V and then to equate the incremental cost to zero resulting in the system voltage and conductor area for most
economic operation.

The total annual cost, CT comprises of a fixed cost and an operational cost.

The fixed cost is the interest and depreciation on capital cost on towers, conductors, insulation and line equipments
and the operational cost is the cost of energy loss.

3.5.1 Choice of Voltage

CT = (annual interest and depreciation on capital cost) + (annual cost on energy losses)

1. The capital cost increases rapidly with voltage level.

2. The annual cost of energy lost is dependent on conductor cross section, voltage, power factor and a loss load factor
to take care of variation of losses due to change in load from time to time.

This operational cost decreases with voltage being inversely proportional to the square of voltage level. The cost CT
per unit length of line and unit power transfer can then be expressed as:

(
C T = ƒ A, V ) eq. 3-1.7

For minimum cost:

∂ƒ
=0 eq. 3-1.8
∂A

∂ƒ
=0 eq. 3-1.9
∂V

If the function ƒ can be defined accurately, above equation will give the most economic voltage level conductor
cross sectional area.

However, the function ƒ is dependent on many factors and is complicated enough to be described mathematically.
Hence, determination of voltage following this economic basis is unsatisfactory.

Figure 21 below gives a graphical representation of transmission cost as a function of voltage level.
Transmission Cost Per Unit Energy Transmitted

Total Cost

Fixed Cost

Operational Cost

Optimal Voltage (kV)

Line Voltage (kV)

Figure 21: Economic Voltage Level

A preliminary estimate of the economical line voltage can be obtained from any of the two empirical relations:

l S
VL = 5,5. + eq. 3-1.10
1,6 150.10 - 3

l 3.P
VL = 5,5. + eq. 3-1.11
1,6 100.10 - 3

where:

VL = Transmission line voltage in kilovolts (kV)

ℓ = The line distance over which the power must be transmitted in kilometres (km)
S = The power that is to be transmitted over this line length in mega-volt-amperes
(MVA)
P = The estimated maximum power per phase to be delivered in mega-watts
(MW)

Using any of the empirical relations, a preliminary estimate is made. A suitable voltage level, then, should be chosen
after making a complete economic study of two or three voltage levels existing in the interconnected system, which are
close to the estimated value. In South Africa, the common voltage levels are:

Transmission level: 765 kV, 400 kV, 275 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV, 88 kV, 66 kV

Primary distribution level: 42 kV, 33 kV, 22 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV

Secondary distribution level: 400 V (line to line) 230 V (phase)

Example: Required to transmit 3500 MVA over a distance of 500 km.

l S
VL = 5,5. +
1,6 150.10 3

500 3500
= 5,5. +
1,6 150.10 3
= 5,5.153,77
= 845,74 kV

The current closest operating transmission line voltage is 765 kV. Lines with higher voltages are presently only in the
experimental phase such as in China where two 1100 kV substations and a line interconnecting them is being tested.
India is looking at 1200 kV and Japan at 1600 kV. A 1100 kV line would have been a better selection if it were
commercially available.

Table 2: Examples of Economic Voltage to Transfer a given Amount of Power verses Distance of Transmission

Required Power Transfer Transmission Distance Economic Voltage Level

(MVA) (km) (kV)
3500 500 765
500 400 400
120 150 220
80 50 132

3.6 Transmission Lines

A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for
directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power
transmission.

½.C ½.G ½.G ½.C

Figure 22: Long Transmission Line Model

The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components,
each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:

• The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit
length).

• The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the conductors, self-inductance, etc.) is
represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length).

• The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length).

• The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a shunt resistor
between the signal conductor and the return wire (siemens per unit length).

The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and that the values of the components
are specified per unit length so the picture of the component can be misleading. R, L, C, and G may also be functions
of frequency. An alternative notation is to use R', L', C' and G' to emphasize that the values are derivatives with
respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary
line constants derived from them, these being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.

The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the frequency domain as:

∂V(x)
= −(R + jω.L).I (x) eq. 3-1.12
∂x

∂I (x)
= −(G + jω.C).V(x) eq. 3-1.13
∂x

When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless structure (no
damping). In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the L and C elements which greatly simplifies the
analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state Telegrapher's equations are:
2
∂ V(x) 2
2
+ ω .L.C.V(x) = 0 eq. 3-1.14
∂x
2
∂ I (x) 2
2
+ ω .L.C.I (x) = 0 eq. 3-1.15
∂x

These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and reverse
directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission
lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are
fundamental to transmission line theory.

If R and G are not neglected, the Telegrapher's equations become:

2
∂ V(x) 2
2
= Γ .V(x) eq. 3-1.16
∂x
2
∂ I (x) 2
2
= Γ .I (x) eq. 3-1.17
∂x

where

Γ= (R + jω.L )(. G + jω.C ) eq. 3-1.18

and the characteristic impedance is:

Z0 =
(R + jω.L ) eq. 3-1.19
(G + jω.C )
The solutions for V(x) and I(x) are:
− Γx Γx
V(x) = V + .e + V − .e eq. 3-1.20

I (x) =
Z
1
( V + .e − Γx + V − .e Γx ) eq. 3-1.20
0

The constants V±(x) and I± (x) and must be determined from boundary conditions.

3.7 Switching Substation

A switching substation (sometimes knowns as a switching station) is a substation which does not contain transformers
and operates only at a single voltage level. They are employed to “break-up” very long lines into shorter switchable
lengths at regular intervals, and where line compensation can be implemented, viz. shunt reactors to control the line
voltage under light load conditions, and series capacitors to compensate for line series inductance to improve the
power transfer capability of of the lines.

Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution station. Sometimes they are used for switching
the current to back-up lines or for paralelling circuits in case of failure.

3.8 Transmission Substation

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines
have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or
isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two
transmission voltages, voltage control devices such as capacitors, reactors or Static VAr Compensators and
equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a
busbar plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several
acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and control
equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented
using International Standards such as IEC61850.

3.9 Distribution Substation

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is
uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use
large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution.

Figure 23: Distribution Type Substation

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or subtransmission lines. Input voltage may
be, for example, 132 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages
are typically medium voltage, between 3,3 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of
the local utility.

The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets as cable feeds, in a city) and eventually power the
distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.

Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in either the transmission or
distribution systems. Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long
distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.

Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities, with high-voltage switching,
and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a switch, one
transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.

3.10 Distribution Lines

Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery (before retail) of electricity to end users. A distribution
system's network carries electricity from the transmission system and delivers it to consumers. Typically, the
network would include medium-voltage (less than 132 kV) power lines, electrical substations and pole-mounted
transformers, low-voltage (less than 1 kV) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters.

Distribution networks are typically of two types, radial or interconnected. A radial network leaves the station and
passes through the network area with no normal connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with
isolated load areas. An interconnected network is generally found in more urban areas and will have multiple
connections to other points of supply. These points of connection are normally open but allow various configurations by
the operating utility by closing and opening switches. Operation of these switches (circuit breakers and isolators) may
be by remote control from a control centre or by an operator on site. The benefit of the interconnected model is that in
the event of a fault or required maintenance a small area of network can be isolated and the remainder kept on supply.

Within these networks there may be a mix of overhead line construction utilizing traditional utility poles and
conductors and, increasingly, underground construction with cables and indoor or cabinet substations. However,
underground distribution is significantly more expensive than overhead construction. In part to reduce this cost,
underground power lines are sometimes co-located with other utility lines in what are called Common utility ducts.
Distribution feeders emanating from a substation are generally controlled by a circuit breaker which will open when a
fault is detected. Automatic Circuit Reclosers may be installed to further segregate the feeder thus minimizing the
impact of faults.

Long feeders experience voltage drop requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be installed.

Characteristics of the supply given to customers are generally mandated by contract between the supplier and
customer. Variables of the supply include:

• AC or DC - Virtually all public electricity supplies are AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power such as
some electric railways, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such as aluminium smelting usually
either operate their own or have adjacent dedicated generating equipment, or use rectifiers to derive DC from the
public AC supply

• Voltage, including tolerance (usually ±10% for voltages up to and including 275 kV or ±5% for voltages in excess
of 275kV)

• Frequency, commonly 50 & 60 Hz, 16.6 Hz for some railways and, in a few older industrial and mining locations,
25 Hz.

• Phase configuration (single phase, polyphase including two phase and three phase)

• Maximum demand (usually measured as the largest amount of power delivered within a 15 or 30 minute period
during a billing period)

• Load Factor, expressed as a ratio of average load to peak load over a period of time. Load factor indicates the
degree of effective utilization of equipment (and capital investment) of distribution line or system.

• Power factor of connected load

• Earthing arrangements - TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C

• Prospective short circuit current

• Maximum level and frequency of occurrence of transients

3.11 Collector Substation

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required. It somewhat
resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into
the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the
collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation also provides
power factor correction, metering and control of the wind farm.

Collector substations also exist, when there are in a certain area multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of
comparable output power are in close proximity. In these cases the collector substation uses as these plants have a
higher output than wind or solar power plants higher voltages, often even the highest voltage of the grid. Examples for
such substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in Czech, where power of lignite fired power plants nearby is
collected.

It is also possible that a collector substation has only one voltage level and no transformers. In this cases the only
function of the substation are switching actions for distributing the power. Such substations are called Switching
Stations.

In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC static inverter plant.

3.12 Stations with Change of Current Type

Other types of substations can be facilities where not only the voltage, but also the type of current is changed. The
following types, which require all special equipment, exist:

• Static inverter plant for long-distance DC transmission, conversion from AC to DC and vice versa

• Back-to-back HVDC static inverter plant, conversion of AC into DC and then again into AC on the same plant.
This type of station is used to interconnect AC grids, which are not synchronized or for coupling AC grids of
different frequencies and phase numbers

• Rotary converter plants, plants, in which a motor-generator-combination is used for an interconnection of AC

grids not operated synchronously or of different frequency and phase number.

3.13 Substations for Railway Supplies-Traction Substations

Substations for railway supplies are most often distribution substations. In some cases a conversion of the current type
takes place, most common with rectifiers for DC trains and by rotary machines for trains using AC other than that of the
public grid. Sometimes they are also transmission substations or collector substations. This is the case, when the
railway operates an own grid and the generated power is collected at a substation, at which also the overhead wire is
fed. Another case is, when the railway substation contains a converter facility, which does not only feed the overhead
conductor, but also the grid of the railway.

3.14 Railways

Electrified railways also use substations which may also include rectifier equipment to change alternating current
from the utility power distribution network to direct current for use by traction motors.

3.15 Other types

Strictly spoken not substations, but sometimes looking similarly are termination towers at which the transition from the
overhead line to the underground cable is not on the pylon, but on the ground. Such stations have often an additional
switch. A further type are PLC Repeater Stations, at which PLC signals are received and then retransmitted on the line
on an other frequency in order to avoid backfeeds.

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Electrical Power Systems: Concepts Theory and Practice by Ray (pages 33, 34, 35)

SLDG 3-2
BASIC SUBSTATION REQUIREMENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission network has two main constituent elements:-

a) Circuits that enable power transmission.
b) Substations that enable the interconnection of these circuits and the transformation between networks of different
voltages.

1.1 Functions of the Network

The transmission network performs three different functions:-

1.1.1 The transmission of electric power from generating stations (or other networks) to load centres.
1.1.2 The interconnection function that improves security of supply and allows a reduction in generation costs.
1.1.3 The supply function which consists of supplying the electric power to sub-transmission or distribution transformers
and in some cases to customers directly connected to the transmission network.

1.2 Functions of the Substation

These three functions of the transmission network are fulfilled through different types of substations listed below:-
1.2.1 Substations attached to Power Stations (Power Station High Voltage Yards)
1.2.2 Interconnection substations
1.2.3 Step-down (EHV / HV, EHV / MV, HV / MV) substations
A single substation may perform more than one of these functions.

1.3 Structure of a Substation.

Substations generally comprise the following:-

1.3.1 Switchgear.
1.3.2 Power Transformers.
1.3.3 Control Gear

Substations usually include busbars and are divided into bays. In special cases other plant such as reactive power
compensators, harmonic filters, fault current limiting and load-management equipment are included.

1.4 System Requirements

The design of a substation depends on the functions it has to fulfil. The system planning requirements define these
functions and enable the parameters that have to be complied with, to be determined. Some of these parameters are
common for all the substations that perform the same functions whereas others are specific to each substation.
Standardised parameters are established jointly by system planners and transmission departments by means of
system studies, and economic considerations. Particular economic benefits are derived from specifying the technical
stages to allow the use of standardised HV equipment with identical characteristics (such as short-circuit current level,
maximum current carrying capacity of HV equipment, characteristics of transformers, insulation level and compensating
devices).
The location of a substation at a particular site will give rise to system requirements peculiar to this station:-
1.4.1 General location requirements
1.4.2 Extent of the substation
1.4.3 Required availability of circuits
1.4.4 Main connections scheme
1.4.5 Current rating

1.4.6 Fault current level

1.4.7 Neutral point earthing
1.4.8 Fault elimination rapidity with respect to system stability
1.4.9 Future extensions
1.4.10 Control and needs of personnel
1.4.11 Equipment characteristics

2. PARAMETERS DETERMINED BY THE NETWORK

System planners seek to optimise the parameters that apply to the complete transmission system. They proceed to
network studies that involve mainly, insulation co-ordination and transient stability, short-circuit level and load flow.

2.1 Main Equipment Parameters

When a utility determines a standardisation policy and the development of a technical stage, the main characteristics of
the primary equipment have to be specified in close link with system planners. The following parameters may be
defined:-
2.1.1 The maximum short circuit current rating of the substations’ equipment (Busbars, Isolators, Circuit Breakers,
Current Transformers), including its supporting structures
2.1.2 The maximum load current passing through the components of a substation (which is related to the maximum
current carrying capacity of the lines and underground cables)
2.1.3 The transformer numbers, sizes and impedances as well as the mode of voltage control required, i.e. operating
mode of tap changing, regulation range, its phase shifting characteristics and number of taps

2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System Stability

Transient stability characterises the dynamic behaviour of a generator in the case of large oscillations following a major
disturbance
In order to comply with the requirements of the Network (system stability), or the specifications of particular utilities,
specified fault clearance times must not be exceeded.
Fault clearing time limits and the re-closing conditions, may influence the choice of circuit breaker and other
switchgear, and also the dimensioning of the earthing grid and the mechanical strength of the equipment.

3. PLANNING OF A SUBSTATION (SEE ALSO SLDG 7-1)

This section will give information helpful for dimensioning the main substation primary parameters and for defining the
general scope of the substation equipment, depending on the system requirements. The options of extending or up-
rating existing substations and / or lines should have already been evaluated.
The starting point for a substation design procedure is as follows:-
a) The need for a new substation is approved
b) The range of its duties, loadings and general location are known

3.1 General Location (See Also SLDG 12-1)

For the location of a new substation in the network several alternatives usually exist, the total costs of which should be
calculated. The following should be included:-
3.1.1 The losses in power transmission and transformation
3.1.2 The costs of telecontrol and communications
3.1.3 Preliminary study of reliability and busbar schemes
3.1.4 Fault current and load flow calculations
The building cost of new transmission lines and the reinforcement of old ones are often of the same order as that of the
substation. Thus, it is worth examining various alternatives with system planners.

Nowadays it is not easy to get new line corridors, and their availability alone may determine the location of the
substation. Along with the automation of substations the costs of telecontrol and telecommunications grow, but they do
not have a decisive effect from the point of view of location.

3.2 Extent of the Substation

The available area of the substation, the number of the outgoing feeders of different voltage levels, the number of the
main transformers, the busbar schemes and the possibility of extensions as well as compensating equipment options
should be selected for the needs of the future. It should be noted that the lifetime of the substations may be between
30 and 50 years.
It is very important to reserve sufficient space for the future and sophisticated network planning is needed to estimate
the necessary reserve space. If no better prognosis exists, 100 % reserve of outgoing feeders may be used as an
estimate. The space required depends essentially on the function of the substation.
It is important to define the number and the size of the main transformers at the final stage. The initial peak load of a
power transformer is dependent upon a number of factors such as the network configuration, standby-philosophy and
rate of load growth. An initial estimate would be in the range of 30 - 70 %. (See SLDG 34-1 for a detailed discussion
on power transformers).
In the case of GIS switchgear it is usual to reserve space for a number of spare bays and also to make allowance for
the future extension of the control building. (See SLDG 46-2 for a detailed discussion on GIS switchgear).
The outgoing line corridors should be planned so that there are a minimum number of crossings between different
overhead lines.

3.3 Busbar Scheme (See also S.L.D.G. 6-4)

The selection of a busbar scheme and its possible extensions for a particular substation is an important initial step of
the design. Among the matters that affect this decision are operational flexibility, system safety, reliability and
availability, capacity to facilitate system control, and costs

3.3.1 Operational Flexibility

In order to take into account both production and consumer risks and contingent faults in system components the
circuits between two substations are often doubled, so that power transfer is shared, for instance between two separate
overhead line circuits. In some instances this is also necessary to limit the power due to a fault. These requirements
lead to the installation of a proportionally greater number of busbars and sections in the substation when the number of
outgoing feeders is large.

3.3.2 System Security

Faults occurring on feeders or within the substation itself must be cleared rapidly by as small a number of circuit-
breakers as possible in order to avoid splitting the network and maintain non-faulted circuits in service.
Careful selection of the electrical schematic arrangement - primary connections and protection scheme - and the
detailed construction layout should enable these criteria to be optimized.

3.3.3 Reliability and Availability (See also S.L.D.G. 8-1 and 8-2)

The evaluation of how the availability performance of the substation elements influences the over-all performance of
the substation is a complicated task in a meshed transmission network. The failure rates of the equipment and the
choice of the substation scheme have a considerable effect on reliability and availability i.e. forced outages and
planned ‘shut-downs’. Calculations can give only approximate results, because failure statistics available are always
based on an older generation of apparatus and the likelihood of a severe outage occurring during the life-time of the
substation is quite small.

However, for a comparison of different ‘schemes’ reliability calculations are valuable instruments for the substation
design engineer to receive additional information for choice of scheme and layout aspects. For discussion on this, see
SLDG 8-3.
Not only the primary equipment but also the secondary equipment, e.g. the location and number of instrument
transformers and the arrangement of the secondary circuits can have a great influence on the over-all reliability
performance. For the looped substation schemes in particular, special attention has to be paid to the secondary wiring
and cabling.

3.3.4 Substation Control

The proposed scheme and layout must allow simple and efficient performance of the usual operational steps, changes
of section and planned outage for maintenance or extension.

3.4 Fault Current Levels

Fault current dimensioning depends on the neighbouring network and the size and short-circuit impedance of the main
transformers. System planning usually defined the following fault current ratings for a new substation:-
3.4.1 Maximum three-phase effective short-circuit current for the lines and the substation for the foreseeable future

3.4.2 Duration of the effective short-circuit current

3.4.3 Peak short-circuit current
3.4.4 Maximum earth fault current and corresponding time
3.4.5 Maximum current through the neutral point of the main transformer
3.4.6 Minimum short-circuit current (for protection)
3.4.7 Minimum earth fault current (for protection)

3.5 Neutral Point Earthing (SLDG 19-1 and 34-4)

The transmission networks may be:

3.5.1 Effectively earthed (earthing factor 1,4)
3.5.2 Non-effectively earthed (earthing factor e.g. 1,7). e.g. resistance earthed or resonant earthed
3.5.3 Isolated
In the first case earth current may be 60% to 120 % of the short-circuit current. If the conductivity of the soil is poor (for
example on the average 2 000 ohm-m), special attention has to be paid to the magnitude of station potential during an
earth fault. In this case it is possible to limit the earth-fault current and dimension the insulation level of the three-phase
transformer neutral point correspondingly. Alternatively the potential rise of the earthing grid (see SLDG 19) may be
limited by ensuring that the earth wires of outgoing overhead lines have cross sectional areas equivalent to those of the
phase cables.

3.6 Future Extensions

For small substations performing distribution and transformation functions it is sometimes not necessary to consider
future extension possibilities, on the high voltage side at all. However, it is important that the main transformers can be
replaced by larger ones. For large junction point substations system planning usually gives the forecast of extensions.
Extension work such as building of new bays, dismantling and reconstruction of bays, extension of the set of busbars
may rather difficult and expensive, if there has been no previous planning for them.

3.7 Control In General

Control includes actions to be taken under normal conditions such as energising and de-energising a feeder, earthing
of a section of a set of busbars etc. The way of carrying out this control depends for instance on the following matters:-
3.7.1 Manually operated isolators
3.7.2 Motor operated isolators
3.7.3 Presence of earthing switches

3.7.4 Control via local control board

3.7.5 Control via local computer terminal
3.7.6 Degree of substation automation, sequence control
3.7.7 Remote control from the National or Regional control centre
3.7.8 Regulations
3.7.9 Station manned / unmanned
The need for telecontrol and telecommunication links depends on the needs of the automation, remote control, data
transmission and operation of the network. A substation is often also a nodal point of a data transmission network.
Probable future development: Remote control substations automation is increasing; substations are designed as
unmanned; maintenance is managed by the resources concentrated in control centres. Whether the substation is
manned or unmanned may depend on the importance of the station in the grid.
In accordance with system planning requirements, load shedding, network sectioning, voltage regulation and load
distribution regulation devices may be placed on the substation.

3.8 Protection in General

The substation has to be constructed so that all possible faults can be eliminated:-
3.8.1 Selectively
3.8.2 So that the fault current rating of the lines and equipment is not exceeded
3.8.3 So that no danger is caused to personnel and the requirements of safety codes are fulfilled
3.8.4 Within such a time that stability of the network is maintained
3.8.5 In such a way that load and production are held in balance
For every protection item back-up protection is usually provided and important main protection is duplicated.
Protection systems can be divided into the following groups according to the protected item:-
3.8.6 Line protection.
3.8.7 Transformer protection.
3.8.8 Busbar protection (bus zone protection)
3.8.9 Breaker failure protection.
3.8.10 Compensating equipment protection

or according to the type of the protection:-

3.8.11 Short-circuit protection.
3.8.12 Earth-fault protection
3.8.13 Sub-harmonic protection
3.8.14 Overload protection
3.8.15 Over-voltage protection.
3.8.16 Anti-failure automation (load shedding, auto-re-closing, network sectionalisation and splitting of the network.

SLDG 4-1

INSULATION COORDINATION AND ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES

1. INTRODUCTION

For the purpose of this Chapter, the term clearance means the shortest distance between any two surfaces.

By definition, insulation coordination is “the art of correlating equipment electrical insulation strengths with expected
over-voltage stresses so as to result in an acceptable risk of failure while considering economics and operating criteria.

The term Insulation Co-ordination was originally introduced to arrange the insulation levels of the components in a
transmission system in such a manner that if an insulation failure did occur, it would be confined to the place on the
system where it would result in the least damage, be the least expensive to repair, and cause the least disturbance to the
continuity of the supply. The present usage of the term is broader.

Insulation co-ordination now comprises the selection of the electric strength of equipment in relation to the voltages
which can appear on the system for which the equipment is intended. The overall aim is to reduce to an economically
and operationally acceptable level the cost and disturbance caused by insulation failure and resulting system outages.

To keep interruptions to a minimum, the insulation of the various parts of the system must be so graded that flashovers
only occur at intended points. With increasing system voltage, the need to reduce the amount of insulation in the system
by proper co-ordination of the insulating levels, becomes more critical.

The problem of the design of the insulation characteristics of an electric power system was solved, up to very recently,
and is still solved in a large majority of cases, in a deterministic way, i.e. in choosing the highest expected dielectric
stress from one side and the lowest expected dielectric strength of the equipment from the other side, and provide a
suitable gap between the two (safety margin), in order to cover errors, unknown factors and aging of the equipment.

Insulation properties can be characterised as self-restoring and non-restoring. Self-restoring insulation has the
ability to “heal” itself following a flashover, and such insulation media is usually associated with a gas; air, SF6, SF6-N2
mixtures, etc. Examples include overhead line insulators, substation bus-work, external bushing surfaces, SF6 bus-work,
and even switchgear insulation. An EHV transmission line, for example, is allowed to experience occasional line insulator
flashovers during switching operations such as energising or reclosing, or as a result of a lightning flash striking the
tower, shield wires, or phase conductors.

Non-restoring insulation is assumed to have permanently failed following a flashover, and repairs must be performed
before the equipment can be put back into service. Insulation such as oil, oil-paper and solid dielectrics such as
pressboard, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), butyl rubbers, etc are included in this insulation class. Any flashover of
non-restoring insulation, for example within a transformer or a cable, is unacceptable as such events usually result in
lengthy outages and costly repairs.

The performance level of self restoring insulation is usually addressed and defined in terms of insulation, the probability
of a flashover. This for a specific voltage stress, a piece of insulation has an expected probability of flashover (PFO =
P(U)). For example, 1m conductor-to-conductor gap exposed to a 490kV switching surge would be expected to have a
50% chance of flashover, while with a 453kV surge, the would be expected to have a 10% chance of flashover, etc.
Consequently, when self-restoring insulation is applied, the procedure is to select a gap length that will give desired
performance (PFO) as a function of stress (over-voltages) being applied.

In this chapter, the principles of an optimal insulation design are recalled and the cost of failure risk is introduced into the
economical optimum design of transmission systems. A mathematical expression is given for simple cases of optimum
design to which the insulation coordination of a transmission system can be reduced in general. The importance of
knowing the breakdown probability of an insulating component, as a function of the crest value of a given over-voltage, in

these optimum designs is also pointed out and the methods to calculate such probability are provided. A description of
the experimental method is also given, which can be applied to any component samples, and of the calculation methods
which enable one to derive the breakdown probability of a complex component from knowledge of the breakdown
probability of its elements. An examination of how the withstand test selections modify the breakdown probability
distribution of a component will be made. Finally, it will be shown how, on the basis of the above mentioned methods,
one can have only estimations of breakdown probability distributions and how the uncertainties of such determinations
can be taken into account in intelligent designing of insulation.

1.1 Insulation Coordination Procedures

As briefly mentioned above, the determination of the co-ordination withstand voltages consists of determining the lowest
values of the withstand voltages of the insulation meeting performance criterion when subjected to the representative
over-voltages under service conditions.

Two methods for co-ordination to transient over-voltages are in use: a deterministic method and a statistical method.
Many of the applied procedures, however, are a mixture of both methods. For example, some factors used in the
deterministic method have been derived from statistical considerations or some statistical variations have been neglected
in statistical methods.

2. DETERMINISTIC METHOD

The deterministic method is normally applied when no statistical information, obtained by testing, is available on possible
failure rates of the equipment to be expected in service.

With the deterministic method:

• when the insulation is characterised by its conventionally assumed withstand voltage, i.e. the probability of
withstand of self-restoring insulation Pw = 100%, the withstand value is selected equal to the co-ordination
withstand voltage obtained by multiplying the representative over-voltage (an assumed maximum) by a co-
ordination factor Kc, accounting for the effect of the uncertainties in the assumptions for the two values (the
assumed withstand voltage and the representative over-voltage);

• when, as for external insulation, the insulation is characterised by the statistical withstand voltage (Pw= 90%), Kc
should account almost for all differences between this voltage and the assumed withstand voltage

With this method, no reference is made to possible failure rates of the equipment in service.

2.1 Standard Insulation Levels

The current standard insulation clearances in air used by Eskom uses the Old Electrical Engineering Department
Directive EED 14/1/5-1 as a reference document, which in turn was based on the British Standards. All the standard
electrical clearances, from 1kV up to and including 400kV are based on BIL levels that are dependent on lightning
impulse levels. This we know now is not strictly true since the behaviour of the air-gap at voltages in excess 132kV is
somewhat different and is dominated by switching impulse levels rather than lightning impulse levels. In addition to this,
the clearances shown in Table 1 below were largely determined having the old silicon-carbide gapped type surge
arrester as the standard at the time these values were calculated, using impulse levels of as high as 2,6 pu. The
performance of metal oxide arresters currently in use, provide better characteristics that hold over-voltages down to 1,8
pu. Gaps in this case could be made somewhat smaller.

Table 4-1.1: Standard Insulation Levels Based on Gapped Arresters

Nominal System Highest System Impulse Voltage Withstand Sixty-second Power

Voltage Voltage Test At Sea Level Frequency Withstand Test At
(kV peak) Sea Level
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV rms)
3,3 3,6 45 16
6,6 7,2 75 22
11 12 95 28
16 17,5 110 38
22 24 150 50
33 36 200 70
44 48 250 95
66 72 350 140
88 100 380 150
(450) (185)
132 145 550 230
220 245 825 360
275 300 1050 460
330 362 1300 570
400 420 1425 630

Notes: Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and are to be used only if the system is not effectively earthed.
The figures given for systems of 66 kV and below assume non-effective earthing. This table is based on
gapped arresters using over-voltage factors as indicated in equations 4-1.5, to 4-1.7.

Table 1 schedules the standard insulation levels. These standards are at present under review and modifications in
respect of the following points will probably be introduced:

2.1.1 differentiation between internal and external insulation levels

2.1.2 introduction of switching-surge test levels

2.1.3 significant changes to the power-frequency withstand levels

2.1.4 modified creepage distances in line with I.E.C. recommendations

2.2 Basis of the Standard Insulation Levels Based on Deterministic Methods

2.2.1 Highest System Voltage

2.2.1.1 For system voltages up to 330 kV

U m = 1,1.Un eq. 4-1.1

where:-

Un = Nominal system voltage

Um = Maximum system voltage

2.2.1.2 For system voltages of 400 kV and above

U m = 1,05.Un kV eq. 4-1.2

2.2.2 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.I.L)

The B.I.L for a given system voltage is derived as follows:-

2.2.2.1 For non-effectively-earthed systems

U a = Um kV (rms) eq. 4-1.3

2.2.2.2 For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m kV (rms) eq. 4-1.4

where:-

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

For an effectively earthed system the maximum phase-to-earth voltage on the two healthy phases with an earth fault on
the third phase does not exceed 80 % of the arrester rating. On non-effectively-earthed systems the healthy-phase
voltages can rise to the full phase-to-phase voltage under earth-fault conditions.

In general, systems up to 66 kV are non-effectively earthed and the BIL for these systems is consequently based on 100
% arrester ratings. The earthing of 132 kV systems and above is invariably in the effective category and here the
standard BIL's are based on 80 % arrester ratings. 88 kV systems are generally effectively earthed but as Petersen Coil
earthing is sometimes applied, the Standard provides for two levels of insulation.

2.2.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 3,3.U a kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.5

= 2,8.U a kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.6

= 2,6.U a kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.7

Note: Ua in kV rms.

2.2.4 Volt Drop in Lead Between he Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 15 kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.8

= 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.9

= 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.10

The impedance of the arrester earth connection is almost entirely reactive and this connection should therefore be made
as straight as possible. Reducing the resistance of the earth connection by doubling the number of earth straps serves
no purpose.

2.2.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 3,3.U a + 15 kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.11

= 2,8.U a + 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.12

= 2,6.U a + 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.13

2.2.6 Basic Insulation Level (BIL)

The B.I.L. should be greater than UP by at least 20 %. In addition an allowance must be made for altitude which affects
the impulse strength according to the relative air density (RAD). Thus:

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level eq. 4-1.14
(RAD)

RAD = 0,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level eq. 4-1.15

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51.U R kV (peak) eq. 4-1.16

The actual values chosen are the nearest I.E.C. levels. The same B.I.L. is specified for internal and external insulation;
at altitudes above sea level the internal insulation will thus be stronger than the external insulation.

2.2.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

The power frequency test levels selected are generally in accordance with I.E.C. and can be approximated
by the formula:-

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15 kV (rms) eq. 4-1.17

2.3 Sample Calculations

2.3.1 132 kV System

2.3.1.1 Highest System Voltage

U m = 1,1.Un

= 1,1.132 (from eq. 4-1.1)

= 145 kV

2.3.1.2 Rated Arrester Voltage For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m

= 0,8.145 (from eq. 4-1.4)

= 116 kV

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

2.3.1.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 2,8.U a

= 2,8.116 for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.6)

= 325 kV (peak)

2.3.1.4 Volt Drop in Lead between the Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.9)

2.3.1.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 2,8.U a + 25
for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.12)
= 2,8.116 + 25

= 350 kV (peak)

2.3.1.6 BIL at 1800m

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level (from eq. 4-1.14)
(RAD)

RAD = U,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level (from eq. 4-1.15)

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51.UP

=1,51.350 (from eq. 4-1.16)

= 529 kV (peak)

Standardised on 550 kV

2.3.1.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15

= 0,45.529 - 15 (from eq. 4-1.17)

= 222 kV(rms)

Standardised on 230 kV

2.3.2 400 kV System

2.3.2.1 Highest System Voltage

U m = 1,05.Un

= 1,05.400 (from eq. 4-1.2)

= 420 kV

2.3.2.2 Rated Arrester Voltage For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m

= 0,8.420 (from eq. 4-1.4)

= 336 kV

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

2.3.2.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 2,6.U a

= 2,6.336 for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.7)

= 874 kV (peak)

2.3.2.4 Volt Drop in Lead between the Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.10)

2.3.2.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 2,6.U a + 35
for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.13)
= 2,6.336 + 35

= 909 kV (peak)

2.3.2.6 BIL at 1800m

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level (from eq. 4-1.14)
(RAD)

RAD = U,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level (from eq. 4-1.15)

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51 .UP
= 1,51.909 (from eq. 4-1.16)

= 1372 kV (peak)
Standardised on 1425 kV

2.3.2.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15

= 0,45.1372 - 15 (from eq. 4-1.17)

= 602 kV(rms)

Standardised on 630 kV

2.4 Electrical and Working Clearances

Standard clearances are given in Table 2.

2.4.1 Basis of Standard Electrical Clearances

2.4.1.1 Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

Ce = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off) (from eq. 4-1.18)

2.4.1.2 Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,35.C e (up to 650 kV BIL)

(from eq. 4-1.17)
= 1,25.C e ( BIL > 650 kV)

2.4.2 Basis of Standard Working Clearances

While working clearance to live metal is desirable for the safety of personnel engaged on operations or maintenance, it is
not practical to ensure that such clearance exists from every position in an H.V. yard which a person might conceivably
be able to occupy. For example, a man stepping up onto the first lacing member of an equipment support structure to
read a nameplate almost immediately finds himself less than working clearance below live connections

Since personnel cannot be prevented from getting off the ground it is concluded that:-

WORKING CLEARANCES SHALL APPLY AT GROUND LEVEL ONLY. A PERSON STEPPING OFF THE GROUND
CANNOT RELY ON HAVING WORKING CLEARANCE AND MUST TAKE WHATEVER OTHER MEASURES MAY
BE NECESSARY TO ENSURE HIS OWN SAFETY.

The basis of these values which are given in Table 4-1.2, is the assumptions made on the size of the average man. This
is a bit subjective as the average physiological dimensions of a man in the east, is somewhat smaller than in the west.
Figure 4-1.1 illustrates.

Live Component
Cwh

Live Ce
1100 Component

Cwv
2438

a) Horizontal Working Clearance b) Vertical Working Clearance

Figure 4-1.1: Standard Vertical and Horizontal Working Clearances

2.4.2.1 Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

From Figure 4-1.1 a):-

C wv = C e + 2438 mm eq. 4-1.20

2.4.2.2 Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

From Figure 4-1.1 b):-

C wh = C e + 1100 mm eq. 4-1.21

2.4.3 Sample Calculations

a) 132 kV System

i) Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

C e = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off)

=2,26.(550)−20 (from eq. 4-1.18)

= 1234 mm

ii) Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,35.C e (up to 650 kV BIL)

= 1,35.1234 (from eq. 4-1.19)

= 1666 mm

iii) Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

C wv = C e + 2438 mm

= 1234 + 2438 (from eq. 4-1.20)

= 3672 mm

iv) Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

C wh = C e + 1100 mm

= 1234 + 1100 (from eq. 4-1.21)

= 2334 mm

b) 400 kV System

i) Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

C e = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off)

= 2,26.(1425) − 20 (from eq. 4-1.18)

= 3200 mm

ii) Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,25.C ( > 650 kV BIL)

= 1,25.3200 (from eq. 4-1.19)

= 4000 mm

iii) Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

Cwv = Ce + 2450 mm

= 3200 + 2438 (from eq. 4-1.20)

= 5638 mm

iv) Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

C wh = C e + 1100 mm

= 3200 + 1100 (from eq. 4-1.21)

= 4300 mm

Table 4-1.2: Standard Electrical and Working Clearances (Based on Silicon-Carbide Gapped Arresters)

System Nominal System Highest Minimum Electrical Clearance Working Clearance

Voltage Voltage (mm) (m)
(kV) (kV) Phase-To-Earth Phase-To-Phase Vertical Horizontal*
(Ce) (Cp) (Cwv) (Cwh)
3,3 3,6 80 110 2,5 1,2
6,6 7,2 150 200 2,6 1,2
11 12 200 270 2,7 1,3
15 17,5 230 310 2,7 1,3
22 24 320 430 2,8 1,4
33 36 430 580 2,9 1,5
44 48 540 730 3,0 1,6
66 72 770 1050 3,2 1,8
88 100 840 1150 3,3 1,9
(1000) (1350) (3,5) (2,1)
132 145 1200 1650 3,7 2,3
220 245 1850 2300 4,3 2,9
275 300 2350 2950 4,8 3,4
330 362 2900 3600 5,4 4,0
400 420 3200 4000 5,7 4,3

3. STATISTICAL METHOD
For the probability of disruptive discharge of insulation in self-restoring insulation (e.g. air), the ability to withstand
dielectric stresses caused by the application of an impulse of given shape can be described in statistical terms. For a
given insulation and for impulses of given shape and different peak value U, a discharge probability P can be associated
with every possible value U, thus establishing the following relationship:-

P = P(U) eq. 4-1.22

For example, U50 corresponds to the voltage under which the insulation has a 50% probability to flashover or to
withstand.

The statistical method is therefore based on the frequency of occurrence of a specific origin, the over-voltage probability
distribution belonging to this origin and the discharge probability of the insulation. Alternatively, the risk of failure may be
determined by combining over-voltage and discharge probability calculations simultaneously, shot by shot, taking into
account the statistical nature of over-voltages and discharge by suitable procedures.

By repeating the calculations for different types of insulations and for different states of the network, the total outage rate
of the system due to the insulation failures can be obtained.

Hence the application of statistical insulation co-ordination gives the possibility to estimate the failure frequency directly
as a function of the selected system design factors. In principle, even the optimisation of the insulation could be possible,
if outage costs could be related to the different types of faults. In practice, this is very difficult due to the difficulty to
evaluate the consequences of even insulation faults in different operation states of the network, and due to the
uncertainty of the cost of undelivered energy. Therefore it is better to slightly over-dimension the insulation rather than
optimise it. The design of the insulation system is then based on the comparison of the risks corresponding to the
different alternative designs.

Once the frequency distribution of the over-voltages and the corresponding breakdown probability distribution are given,
the risk of failure of the insulation between phase and earth can be calculated as follows:
∞
R f = ∫0 fo (U).P(U)dU eq. 4-1.23

z = U50 – U16 eq. 4-1.24

where:-

Rf = The risk of failure

fo(U) = Probability density of over-voltages (occurrence described by a Gaussian function)

P(U) = Probability of flash-over of the insulation under an impulse value U (described by modified Weibull
function)

Ut = truncation value of the over-voltage probability distribution

U50-4z = truncation value of the discharge probability distribution

U0 = the truncation voltage, the maximum voltage below which a disruptive discharge is no longer
possible

z = the conventional deviation which represents the scatter of flashover voltages. It is defined as the
difference between the voltages corresponding to flashover probabilities 50% and 16%

P(U)

Probability Value
ƒ(U)

U50-4z Ut Over-voltage
Ut Value (U)
Rf = ∫fo(U).P(U) dU
U50-4z

Figure 4-1.2: Evaluation of the Risk of Failure

3.1 Statistical Impulse Withstand Voltage

This is the peak value of a switching or lightning impulse test voltage at which insulation exhibits, under the specified
conditions, a 90% probability of withstand. In practice, there is no 100% probability of withstand voltage. Thus the value
chosen is that which has a 10% probability of breakdown.

100

90
Probability of Flashover P(U) (%)

U50 = Critical
Flashover Voltage
(CFO)
50

Statistical
Withstand
Voltages
10

Applied Voltage (kV)

Figure 4-1.3: Statistical Impulse Withstand Voltage

3.2 Statistical Impulse Voltage

This is the switching or lightning impulse over-voltage applied to equipment as a result of an event of one specific type on
the system (line energising, reclosing, fault occurrence, lightning discharge, etc.), the peak value of which has a 2%
probability of being exceeded.

Probability Density fo(U)

Statistical Over- 2% Over-

Voltage Voltage
Probability

Occurrence of Over- Voltage (kV)

Figure 4-1.4: Statistical Impulse Voltage

3.3 Evaluation of Risk Factor

The aim of statistical methods is to quantify the risk of failure of insulation through numerical analysis of the statistical
nature of the over-voltage magnitudes and of electrical withstand strength of insulation.

The risk of failure of the insulation is dependant on the integral of the product of the over-voltage density function fo(V)
and the probability of insulation failure P(V). Thus the risk of flashover per switching operation is equal to the area under
the curve I fo(V)*P(V)*dV.

100
Insulation
Withstand
Distribution
P(U)
Probability

U50 = Critical Flashover Voltage

90%

(CFO)
50 fo(U).P(U)
Over-voltage
Distribution
fo(U) Risk of
Failure (Rf)

Voltage (kV) 2% Over-voltage

Probability

Figure 4-1.5: Evaluation of Risk Factor

Since we cannot find suitable insulation such that the withstand distribution does not overlap with the over-voltage
distribution, in the statistical method of analysis, the insulation is selected such that the 2% over-voltage probability
coincides with the 90% withstand probability as shown.

3.4 Critical Flash-over Voltage (CFO)

As discussed above, the curve indicates the probability that the insulation gap will fail and result in a flashover as the gap
voltage is increased. The higher the voltage across the gap, the higher is the probability that a flashover will result,
conversely this means the lower the probability that the insulation will hold. A 10% change of a flashover implies a 90%
chance that the insulation will hold.

10% probability of Flashover → 90% Probability of Withstand → Switching Impulse Withstand Level (SIWL)

For a normal distribution:

SIWL = CFO 50 .(1 − t.σ ) eq. 4-1.25

where:-

CFO50 = 50% Critical Flash-over value

t = The function value of the normal distribution curve (or value of the independent variable
associated with a given area under a normal distribution curve)
σ = Standard Deviation of Voltages in %

The value of t is obtained as shown in Table 4-1.3 which is the function value of the normal distribution curve (complete
table shown in Table 4-1.26). For example, to find the t value associated with probability values of 90% (0,9) and 98%
(0,98):

t = 1,28 for 90% probability of withstand (closest value is 0,89973)

= 2,05 for 98% probability of withstand (closest value is 0,9798)

Table 4-1.3: Area Under Normal Distribution Curve vs t (Extract from Table 4-1.26

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

t  1 −1
. x2
Probability (Area under a Normal Distibution Curve  t
∫0 e ( 2 )dx  )
 2.π 

1.1 0.86433 0.86650 0.86864 0.87076 0.87286 0.87493 0.87698 0.87900 0.88100 0.88298
1.2 0.88493 0.88686 0.88877 0.89065 0.89251 0.89435 0.89617 0.89796 0.89973 0.90147
1.3 0.90320 0.90490 0.90658 0.90824 0.90988 0.91149 0.91308 0.91466 0.91621 0.91774
1.4 0.91924 0.92073 0.92220 0.92364 0.92507 0.92647 0.92785 0.92922 0.93056 0.93189
1.5 0.93319 0.93448 0.93574 0.93699 0.93822 0.93943 0.94062 0.94179 0.94295 0.94408
1.6 0,9452 0,9463 0,9474 0,9484 0,9495 0,9505 0,9515 0,9525 0,9535 0,9545
1.7 0,9554 0,9564 0,9573 0,9582 0,9591 0,9599 0,9608 0,9616 0,9625 0,9633
1.8 0,9641 0,9649 0,9656 0,9664 0,9671 0,9678 0,9686 0,9693 0,9699 0,9706
1.9 0,9713 0,9719 0,9726 0,9732 0,9738 0,9744 0,9750 0,9756 0,9761 0,9767
2.0 0,9772 0,9778 0,9783 0,9788 0,9793 0,9798 0,9803 0,9808 0,9812 0,9817
2.1 0,9821 0,9826 0,9830 0,9834 0,9838 0,9842 0,9846 0,9850 0,9854 0,9857

σ). From extensive tests it has been found that this

Since the value of CFO is statistical in nature, it has a variance (σ
variance ranges from 0,06 to 0,07. Generally, the value of 0,06 is used.

σ = 0,06

SIWL
CFO = eq. 4-1.26
(1 − t.σ )

Example

The phase-to-earth value of switching impulse withstand level (SIWLe) is selected once insulation co-ordination studies
have been completed. Supposing then that studies indicate a value of 1550 kV, then from the above equation and
information presented:-

SIWL e
CFO e =
(1 − t.σ )
1550
=
(1 − 1,28.0,06) (from eq. 4-1.26)
1550
=
.0,9232
= 1679kV

The phase-to-phase switching impulse withstand level (SIWLp) can be found from the phase-to-earth value by multiplying
the latter by 1,6:-

SIWL p = 1,6.SIWL e

= 1,6.1550 eq. 4-1.27

= 2480kV

SIWL p
CFO p =
(1 − t.σ )
2480
=
(1 − 1,28.0,06) (from eq. 4-1.26)
2480
=
0,9232
= 2686kV

3.5 Gap Factor (Kg)

The values of CFO above would be based on particular conductor-rod-structure geometries. The formula below allows
one to estimate the strength of gaps of other geometries (U50g), requiring data on the gaps that provide this link. Gap
Factors (Kg) connect electric strength of these gaps with the strength of a gap of a positive rod to a plane (rod-plane gap)
through the expression:

U 50g = K g .U 50 eq. 4-1.28

where:-

U50 = 50% Flashover Voltage (kV)

U50g = 50% Flashover Voltage of another gap geometry (kV)

Values of Kg for some typical gaps are given below, with that for a positive rod-plane as the standard and equal to unity.

CFO = Critical Flashover Voltage – flashover voltage of a gap with low probability of breakdown (less than several
percent)

Table 4-1.4: Typical Gap Factors

Configuration Kg
Rod – Plane 1,00
Conductor – Plane 1,15
Rod – Structure 1,20
Rod – Rod (6m gap) 1,40
Conductor – Rod (6m gap) 1,90
Other gap factors are provided below and relate to phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase.

Table 4-1.5: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Earth Geometries

Gap Type Parameters Typical Range Reference Values
Kg 1,36 – 1,58 1,45
D2/D1 1–2 1,5
D1 Ht/D1 3,34 – 10 6

S S/D1 0,67 – 0,2 0,2

D2
Ht

Conductor - Structure

S Kg 1,22 – 1,32 1,25

Ht/D 8 – 6,7 6
S/D 0,4 – 0,1 0,2
D
D

Conductor - Window

φ=3cm Kg 1,18 – 1,35 1,15 1,47

Plane- Rod-
D S
Cond Cond
Ht H’t/ Ht 0,75 – 0,75 0 0,909
H't
H’t/D 3–3 0 10
S/D 1,4 – 0,05 - 0
Conductor – Lower Structure

Kg 1,28 – 1,63 1,45

S Ht/ D 2 – 10 6
S/D 1 – 0,1 0,2
D
φ=3cm

Conductor – Lateral Structure

Table 4-1.5: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Earth Geometries (Continued)

Gap Type Parameters Typical Reference Values
Range

D1 φ=3cm Kg 1,03 – 1,66 1,35

H’t/ Ht 0,2 – 0,9 0
D2 D / Ht 0,1 – 0,8 0,5
Ht
H't

D1 > D2
Longitudinal
Rod – Rod structure

Table 4-1.6: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Phase Geometries

Configuration Kg
αn = 0,5 αn = 0,33
Ring – ring or large smooth electrodes 1,80 1,70
Crossed conductors 1,65 1,53
Rod – rod or conductor – conductor (along the span) 1,62 1,52
Supported busbars (fittings) 1,50 1,40
Asymmetrical geometries 1,45 1,36
NOTE – According to [1] and [4]

It is possible to associate a gap distance with a given gap factor and a critical flashover voltage. This is through the
general LeRoy-Gallet equation is:-

3400
CFO = K g . eq. 4-1.29
1 + 8 
 
 s
where:-

s = Metal-to-metal (i.e. surface-to-surface) clearance

Kg = Gap Factor

Starting with the LeRoy-Gallet equation, it is possible to associate a clearance with a given critical flashover voltage
(CFO) and gap geometry by employing the gap factor (Kg).

8 K g .3400
(1 + )=
s CFO

8 K g .3400
= −1
s CFO

8 K g .3400 − CFO
=
s CFO

CFO s
=
K g .3400 - CFO 8

8.CFO
=s eq. 4-1.30
K g .3400 − CFO

8.CFO
s=
K g .3400 − CFO

The Gap Factor (Kg) is dependent on the geometry of the gap (see Tables 4-1.4, 4-1.5 and 4-1.6)

Example:

It is now possible to calculate the required metal surface-to-metal surface gap clearance for any given geometry by
applying the gap factor associated with that geometry as follows:-
Assuming a rod-to-conductor gap factor (Kg) = 1,46 (a phase-to-phase gap)

 8.CFO p 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO p 
 8.2686 
=   (from eq. 4-1.30)
 3400.1,46 - 2686 
= 9,435m

Assuming a conductor-to-structure gap factor (Kg) = 1,3 (a phase-to-earth gap)

 8.CFO e 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO e 
 8.1679 
=   (from eq. 4-1.30)
 3400.1,3 - 1679 
= 4,900m

Assuming a rod-to-structure gap factor (Kg) = 1,11 (a phase-to-earth gap)

 8.CFO e 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO e 
 8.1679 
=  
 3400.1,11 - 1679 
= 6,411m

6 Lightning over-voltages (FFO)

p.u. Voltage
4 Switching over-voltages (SFO)
3
V Temporary over-voltages (TOV)
2 F
F System voltages
1
O
µs ms s Duration

Figure 4-1.6: Types of Over-voltages (except Very-fast-front Over-voltages)

Extracted from IEC 60071-1, and Figure 5.5, detail of the Characteristics of all types of Over-voltages

3.6 Minimum Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to-Phase Clearances

3.6.1 Based on Electrode Configuration

In complete installations such as substations which cannot be tested as a whole, it is necessary to ensure that the
dielectric strength is adequate.

The switching and lightning impulse withstand voltages in air at standard atmospheric conditions must be equal to, or
greater than the standard switching and lightning impulse withstand voltages. Minimum clearances have been
determined for different electrode configurations following a conservative approach which takes into account practical
experience, economy and size of practical equipment.

The minimum phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances are dependant upon the breakdown characteristics of air.
The breakdown characteristics of air depend on:-

• Configuration of the live and earth electrodes

• Point-to-plane (worst case used in the deterministic approach throughout the substation making overall dimensions
large)

• Conductor-to-structure

• Conductor-to-conductor

Applying these selectively, dimensions can be vastly reduced.

• RAD – altitude

• Pollution levels: marine, industrial

• Over-voltages that the live parts experience (lightning [lightning impulse withstand level or LIWL], switching
[switching impulse withstand level], load rejection [power frequency level or SIWL], etc.). How to minimise these –
station class and line surge arresters surge arresters – do not use arcing horns on transformer bushings due to high
frequency harmonics generated back into the transformer – puncture insulation

These clearances may be lower if it has been proven by tests on actual or similar configurations that the standard
impulse-withstand voltages are met taking into account all relevant environmental conditions which can create
irregularities on the surface of the electrodes, for example rain, pollution. The distances are therefore not applicable to
equipment which has an impulse type test included in the specification, since mandatory clearance might hamper the
design of equipment, increase its cost, and impede progress.

The clearances may also be lower, where it has been confirmed by operating experience that the over-voltages are
lower than those expected in the selection of the standard withstand voltages or that the gap configuration is
more favourable than that assumes for the recommended clearances.

The clearances of live parts of a system from one another and from earthed parts must at least comply with Table 7.

Table 4-1.7: Correlation between Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Air Clearances

Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Minimum clearance (mm)

Voltage Rod-Structure Conductor-Structure
UrB (kV) CBRS (mm) CSCS (mm)
20 60 -
40 60 -
60 90 -
75 120 -
95 160 -
125 220 -
145 270 -
170 320 -
250 480 -
325 630 -
450 900 -
550 1100 -
650 1300 -
750 1500 -
850 1700 1600
950 1700 1900
1050 1900 2100
1175 2200 2350
1300 2400 2600
1425 2600 2850
1550 2900 3100
1675 3100 3350
1800 3300 3600
1950 3600 3900
2100 3900 4200
NOTE: The standard lightning impulse is applicable to phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
For phase-to-earth, the minimum clearance for conductor-structure and rod-structure is applicable.
For phase-to-phase, the minimum clearance for rod-structure is applicable.

Table 7 lists the minimum air clearances from the Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltages from 20kV ≤ UrB ≤
2100kV. Further on in the text, these withstand voltages are correlated with nominal (Un) and maximum (Um) standard
equipment voltages. These are in turn correlated with the minimum phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances.

Table 4-1.8: Correlation between Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Phase-To-Earth
Air Clearances (Referred to Standard Atmospheric Conditions as Defined By IEC 60-1)

Standard Switching Impulse Minimum Phase-to-Earth Clearance (mm)

Withstand Voltage Conductor-Structure Rod-Structure
UrS (kV) CpeCS (mm) CpeRS (mm)
750 1600 1900
850 1800 2400
950 2200 2900
1050 2600 3400
1175 3100 4100
1300 3600 4800
1425 4200 5600
1550 4900 6400

These minimum clearances have been determined in a laboratory under standard atmospheric conditions as
defined by IEC 60-1. These standard conditions are:

•
o
temperature : 20 C

• pressure : 101,3kPa (1013mbar)

•
3
absolute humidity : 11g/m

3.6.1.1 Range I - Extract from IEC 71-2

The air clearance phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase is determined from Table 7 for the rated lightning impulse-
withstand voltage. The standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage can be disregarded when the ratio of
the standard lightning impulse to the standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage is higher than 1,7.

a) Example:

UrB = 1425kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CBRS) = 2850mm (Table 7)

UrS = 950kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CpeRS) = 2900mm (Table 8)

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) = 2900mm

3.6.1.2 Range II - Extract from IEC 71-2

The phase-to-earth clearances are the higher values of the clearances determined for the rod-structure configuration
from Table 8 for the standard lightning impulse and from Table 9 for the switching impulse withstand voltages
respectively

b) Example:

UrB = 1425kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CBRS) = 2850mm (Table 7)

UrS = 950kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CppRS) = 3600mm (Table 9)

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) = 3600mm

The values are valid for altitudes which have been taken into account in the determination of the required
withstand voltages (see paragraph 3.6.2)

The clearances necessary to withstand lightning impulse withstand voltage for the longitudinal insulation in Range II can
be obtained by adding 0,7 times the maximum operating voltage phase-to-earth peak to the value of the standard
lightning impulse voltage and by dividing the sum by 500kV/m.

The clearances necessary for the longitudinal standard switching impulse withstand voltage in range II are smaller than
the corresponding phase-to-phase value. Such clearances usually exist only in type tested apparatus and minimum
values are therefore given in this guide.

3.6.2 Ranges for Highest Voltage for Equipment

As discussed earlier, a listing of minimum clearances for the maximum system and apparatus voltages have been
correlated with insulation levels for convenience of the designer. The various insulation levels can be selected in
accordance with the insulation co-ordination as per this standard.

The standard highest voltages for equipment are divided in to two ranges:

Range I: Above 1kV to 245kV included. This range covers both transmission and distribution systems. The
different operational aspects, therefore, shall be taken into account in the selection of the rated
insulation level of the equipment. For convenience, Range I is also divided into two tables, for 1kV <
Um < 52kV and 52kV ≤ Um < 300kV

Range II: Above 245kV or Um ≥ 300kV. This range covers mainly transmission systems.

Table 7 correlates the minimum air clearances with the standard lightning impulse withstand voltage for electrode
configurations of the rod-structure type and, in addition for range II, of the conductor-structure type. They are applicable
for phase-to-phase clearances as well as for phase-to-earth (see note under Table 7)

Lower Voltages up to Un = 220kV (Um=245kV) co-ordinated for LIWL

Higher Voltages from Un = 275kV (Um=300kV) co-ordinated for SIWL

Table 4-1.9: Correlation between Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Phase-To-Phase Air
Clearances (Referred to Standard Atmospheric Conditions as Defined By IEC 60-1)
Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage Minimum Phase-to-Phase Clearance
(kV) (mm)
Phase-to-Earth Phase-to-Phase Phase-to-Phase Conductor-Conductor Rod-Conductor
value Parallel
Phase-to-Earth (UrB . p-p/p-e Factor)
UrB (kV) value UrS (kV) CpeCC (mm) CpeRC (mm)
750 1,5 1125 2300 2600
850 1,5 1275 2600 3100
850 1,6 1360 2900 3400
950 1,5 1425 3100 3600
950 1,7 1615 3700 4300
1050 1,5 1575 3600 4200
1050 1,6 1680 3900 4600
1175 1,5 1763 4200 5000
1300 1,7 2210 6100 7400
1425 1,7 2423 7200 9000
1550 1,6 2480 7600 9400

Table 4-1.10: In the area of 1kV <Um <52kV (at Sea Level)
Nominal Maximum Short Duration Power Rated Lightning Impulse Minimum Clearance (N)
Voltage Voltage for Frequency Withstand Withstand Voltage Outdoor Installation
Apparatus Voltage 1,2/50 µs Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to- Phase
[Un ] (kV) [Um] (kV) [Upf] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce](mm) [Cp] (mm)
3 3,6 10 20 60 120
40 60 120
6 7,2 20 40 60 120
60 90 120
10 12 28 60 90 150
75 120 150
15 17,5 38 75 120 160
95 150 160
20 24 50 95 160
125 220
30 36 70 145 270
170 320
36 41,5 80 170 320
200 360

Table 4-1.11: In the area of 52kV < Um < 300kV (at Sea Level)
Nominal Voltage Maximum Voltage for Short Duration Power Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Minimum Clearance (N)
Apparatus Frequency Withstand Voltage Outdoor Installation
[Un] (kV) Voltage 1,2/50 µs Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to- Phase
[Um] (kV) [Upf] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce],[Cp] (mm)
45 52 95 250 480
66 72,5 140 325 630
70 82,5 150 380 750
110 123 185 450 900
230 550 1100
132 145 185 450 900
230 550 1100
275 650 1300
150 170 230 550 1100
275 650 1300
325 750 1500
220 245 325 750 1500
360 850 1700
395 950 1900
460 1050 2100

Table 4-1.12: In the area of Um > 300kV (at Sea Level)

Nominal Voltage Maximum Voltage Rated Switching Minimum Clearance (N) Rated Switching Minimum Clearance (N)
for Apparatus Impulse Withstand Impulse Withstand
Voltage 250/2500µs Voltage 250/2500µs
[UrS] (kV)
[Um] (kV)
[Un] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce] (mm) [Cp] (mm)
Phase-to-Earth Conductor/ Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase Conductor Bus/
design Earth Conductor*
275 300 750 1600 1900 1125 2300 2600
850 1800 2400 1275 2600 3100
380 420 950 2200 2900 1425 3100 3600
1050 2600 3400 1575 3600 4200
480 525 1050 2600 3400 1680 3900 4600
1175 3100 4100 1763 4200 5000
700 765 1425 4200 5600 2423 7200 9000
1550 4900 6400 2480 7600 9400
* Consequences more serious, hence larger clearance to reduce probability of a flash-over

3.7 Correction of Clearances for Altitude and Atmospheric Conditions

As discussed above, the breakdown in air is strongly dependent on the gap configuration and on the polarity and wave
shape of the applied voltage stress. In addition, relative atmospheric conditions affect the breakdown strength
regardless of shape and polarity of applied stress. Relationships for the breakdown strength of air derived from
laboratory measurements are referred to standard atmospheric conditions as defined by IEC 60-1, i.e.:-
o
- temperature : 20 C

- pressure : 101,3kPa (1013mbar)

3
- Absolute humidity : 11g/m

For outdoor insulation, the effects of humidity, rain, and surface contamination become very important.

Wind has an influence on insulation design, especially in the case of selecting gap lengths on the basis of power-
frequency and switching impulse strengths.

Flashover voltages for air gaps depend on the moisture content and density of the air. Insulation strength increases
with absolute humidity up to a point where condensation forms on the insulator surface. Insulation strength decreases
with decreasing air density (IEC 60-1).

3.7.1 Altitude Correction

The correction factor Ka is based on the dependence of the atmospheric pressure on the altitude as given in IEC 721-
2-3. The correction factor can be calculated from
 H 
m. a 
 8150 
 
Ka = e (dimensionless) eq. 4-1.31

where:-

Ha = Altitude above sea level in m

m = 1,0 for co-ordination lightning impulse withstand voltages
= m according to Figure 4-1.7 for co-ordination switching impulse withstand voltages
= 1,0 for short-duration power-frequency withstand voltages of air-clearances and clean
insulators
= 0,5 for normal insulators (polluted)
= 0,8 for anti-fog design (polluted)

1,0

≈ 0,91 c

≈ 0,73 a

0,5
m

950kV

0,0
1000 2000
Ucw (kV)

Figure 4-1.7: Dependence of Exponent ‘m’ on the Co-ordination Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage
where:-

a = Phase-to-earth insulation

b = Longitudinal insulation

c = Phase-to-phase insulation

d = Rod-plane gap (reference gap)

Consider the values that were determined above at sea level, requiring a corrected value for 1800m above sea level,
i.e.:-

a) Example:

UrS = 950kV Phase-to-earth Rod-Structure Clearance (CpeRS) = 2900mm (Table 4-1.7)

m = 0,73

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) is 2900mm, hence for phase-to-earth insulation is being considered. The
corresponding m value corresponding to a 950 kV switching impulse:-

 Ha 
m 
 8150 
Ka = e
 1800 
0,73  
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-1.31)

= 1,1750 m

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) at 1800m = 2900.1.175 = 3408mm

b) Example:

UrS = 950kV Phase-to-phase Rod-Structure Clearance (CppRS) = 4403mm (Table 8)

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) is 3600mm, hence for phase-to-earth insulation is being considered. The
corresponding m value corresponding to a 950 kV switching impulse:

m = 0,91
 H 
m. a 
 8150 
Ka = e
 1800 
0,91 
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-1.31)

= 1,223 m

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) at 1800m = 3600.1.223 = 4403mm

4. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES

4.1 Maximum Spans for Strung Busbars and Stringers

In determining the maximum conductor spans within a substation, it was previously assumed that the protection failed to
o
operate within the designed time (a few cycles), causing the conductors to swing through 90 towards each other, and
the closest point of approach is at the point of maximum sag. Figure 4-1.8 illustrates the case in question where
conductors at the point of maximum sag must still maintain phase-to-phase clearance. When considering the phase-to-
earth clearance, only single conductor sag is relevant.

Phase-to-phase (Sp) spacing are determined from:-

S p ≥ C p + (2.fmax ) eq. 4-1.32

Phase-to-earth (Se) spacing are determined from:-

S e ≥ C e + fmax eq. 4-1.33

where:-

Se = Outer conductor spacing in m

Sp = Parallel phase conductor spacing in m

fmax = Maximum sag due to the conductor and strain insulator string in m

Either of the equations 4-1.32 or 4-1.33 could provide the limiting values. 2-1.50 only really becomes the issue if there
are earthed structures close to the mid-point of the span. In cases where there are no such structures, then the limiting
value is produced by 4-1.32.

Since the maximum conductor spans are dependent upon the phase separation, which in turn are dependent on sag,
there is somewhat of an iterative calculation that needs to be done. Equations 4-1.32 and 4-1.33 can be rearranged to
find expressions for fmax.

Sp - Cp
≥ fmax
2
or eq. 4-1.34
Sp - Cp
fmax ≤
2

S e − C e ≥ fmax

or eq. 4-1.35

fmax ≤ S e − C e

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

As a point of departure, Figure 4-1.8 is considered as a general case. In this diagram, the symbols have the following
meaning:-

Lbcc = Centre-centre span length in m

Lspan = Beam-beam attachment span length in m
Lins = Length of strain insulator string in m
ℓc = Conductor span in metres (m)
ℓeff = Effective length of the strain insulator in metres (m)
wbeam = Beam width in m
φ = Angle made by the insulator string with the horizontal in degrees
fins = Sag due to the strain insulator string in m
fc = Sag due to conductor in m

The section below provides a detailed explanation of the calculation of the sag of a conductor under a given tension,
taking into account the mass of the strain insulator strings at the ends of the conductor runs, and the resulting
equations are just stated here. A detailed discussion of the movement of conductors under short-circuit conditions is
provided in SLDG 41-1. The sag of the conductor alone is given by:-
2
9,81.m c .l c
fc = eq. 4-1.36
8.Tc

where:-

mc = Mass per unit length of the conductor in kilograms (kg)

σc = Tension in one of the conductor bundle members in Newtons (N)

l c = L bcc - 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) eq. 4-1.37

ℓeff = Lins.cos φ eq. 4-1.38

Sag due to Insulator

Angle of inclination:-

 wins + 2.(w c + wD + wH ) 
φ = tan
−1
 
 2.Ttot 
 
−1  wins + 2.(w c ) 
= tan  2.T 
 tot 
eq. 2-1.39
−1  wins + 2.w c 
= tan  2.T 
 tot 
−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
= tan  
 Ttot 
where:-

wins = Weight of the strain string insulator and assembly (per phase) in Newtons (N)

wc = Weight of the complete length of the conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)
wD = Weight of the complete length of the dropper conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)
wH = Weight of all of the hardware hanging on the conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)

Ttot = Tc .n c eq. 4-1.40

where:-

Ttot = The total conductor tension that the insulator experiences

nc = Number of conductors per phase bundle

fins = L ins .sinφ

 w + 2.(w c + w D + w H )   eq. 4-1.41

= L ins .sin tan− 1 ins
  2.Ttot 


fmax = fc + fins
2
9,81.m c .l c   1 .w + 2.(w c + w D + w H )   eq. 4-1.42
= + L ins .sin tan−1 2 ins
8.Tc   2.Ttot 


fmax ≤ S e − C e

≤ 3,757 − 1,85 (from eq. 4-1.35)

≤ 1,907m

It is clear from the above that the limiting value in this case is fmax derived from the phase-to-phase conductor spacing
fmax = 1,138m (1138mm). Total sag made up from the two components fins and fc must be less than or equal to fmax to
meet the phase-to-phase clearance value of 2,3m.

fmax = fc + fins ≤ 1,138m

2
9,81.m c .l c
fc = (from eq. 4-1.36)
8.Tc

2
9,81.m c .l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.Tc

The length and mass of a 220 kV strain insulator assembly can be calculated using the component data provided in
SLDG 43-1. Only the pertinent data is reproduced below for convenience.

Lins = ℓes + ℓbc + n.ℓdisc + ℓsc + ℓyp + ℓtc + ℓpsc eq. 4-1.43
From Table 4-1.13:-
Lins = 0,45 + 0,082 + 17.0,146 + 0,06 + 0,1 + 0,078 + 0,508
= 3,76m

mins = mes + mbc + ni.mdisc + msc + myp + mtc + mpsc eq. 4-1.44
From Table 4-1.13:-
mins = 3,14 + 0,5 + 17.3,7+ 1,0 + 3,5 + 1,0 + 0,7 + 10,0
= 82,74 kg
wins = 82,74.9,81

= 811,68 N

Table 4-1:13: Physical Dimensions of Insulator String Components

Description Length (m) Mass (kg)

Strain insulator string Lins To find mins To find
Extension strap ℓes 0,45 mes 3,14
Ball clevis ℓbc 0,082 mbc 0,5
Insulator disc ℓdisc 0,146 mdisc 3,7
Socket clevis ℓsc 0,06 msc 1,0
Yoke plate ℓyp 0,1 myp 3,5
Twisted clevis ℓtc 0,078 mtc 0,7
pistol type strain clamp ℓpsc 0,508 mpsc 10,0
Number of insulator discs ni 17 - -
1
Bull conductor 1,00 m c 2,391

For the purpose of illustration only, we neglect the mass of any droppers and hardware connected to the conductor
span. The approximate conductor length is given by:-

ℓc = Lbcc – 2.( ½.wbeam + ℓeff) (from eq. 4-1.37)

= Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + ℓeff)

1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc eq. 4-1.45

= 9,81.[Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + 3,76)]

The length and weight of the conductor can only be calculated once the conductor length is known. If the weight of the
dropper conductor and other hardware is initially assumed to be zero, then:-

Angle of inclination:-

−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 Τ tot 
The maximum tension allowable on the beam is 9 kN (or 9000 N) per phase:-

−1  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan  
 9000 
Sag due to Insulator

fins = Lins .sinφ

  1 .811,68 + 9,81.l c   (from eq. 4-1.41)

= 3,76.sintan −1  
2

  9000 
The value of ℓc becomes the unknown which must be found. So far the total sag equation is given as:-
2
9,81.mc .l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.Tc

2
9,81.2,391.l c
∴ + fins ≤ 1,138m
8.9000

9,81.2,391.lc 2   1 .811,68 + 9,81.l c  

+ 3,76.sintan −1 2   ≤ 1,138m
8.9000 9000
   

Equation 2-1.55 has to be solved numerically using Newton-Raphson or other.

A series of iterations provides a value of ℓc = 48,5m that is associated with fc48,5 = 1,1308m. This then also allows for
diameter of the conductor which is 38,5mm.
fc33,5 = 0,740213 + 0,0385
= 0,7787
Since ℓc is now known, it is possible to calculate wc:-
1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)
= 9,81.2,391.48,5
= 1137,6 N

Considering only the insulator and conductors, and for the moment, neglecting the weight of droppers and other
hardware, it is then possible to determine the angle that the strain insulator would make with reference to the
horizontal.

 12 .wins + w c 
φ = tan
−1
 
 T 
 tot 
−1  12 .811,68 + 1137,6 
= tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 9000 
−1
= tan (0,1715)

o
= 9,73

Once the angle of inclination is known, the effective horizontal length of the insulator can be calculated.
o
Use of the full sag implies swinging of the conductors to 90 , a condition which is unlikely due to wind but which might
result from short-circuit forces.

With the spacing fixed on the present standard steelwork, the maximum permissible spans for various conductor sizes,
conductor tensions and system voltages are as given in Table 4-1.14. These spans basically give the maximum
permissible distances between conductor attachment points and thus represent directly the distances between
suspension points. For the distance between strain beams add twice the effective length of the insulator string given in
the table. For maximum distance between strain beam and suspension beam add the length of the insulator string once
only, providing the insulator string is of a “Vee” suspension type (see Figure 4-1.9 a), b) and c).

It should be appreciated that the conditions imposed on the maximum span allow for the full impulse clearance
o
between phases at a time when the conductors have swung to 90 in anti-phase. Whilst it is desirable that these
conditions be fulfilled at all times, it is permissible to accept marginally smaller clearances, and have slightly longer
spans, in special circumstances e.g. where terracing results in a span which is, say, 1 metre longer than the ideal
maximum and where the introduction of an additional portal structure would be difficult.

The spans given in Table 4-1.14 are based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances since, in general, the present
phase-to-earth spacing for busbars and stringers impose less severe restrictions. The exception to this generality
occurs on bays with extended steelwork (e.g. bus couplers) where the stringers may pass fairly close to the steelwork
of an adjacent bay. The problem is illustrated by the diagram in Table 4-1.14 which list the maximum permissible spans
based on this criteria

Ce
Se

Se
Lbcc
Lspan
Ce
Sp Wbeamx ℓc
fmax ℓeff ℓeff
fins

Lins
Cp
fmaxt φ fc

fmax

o
Figure 4-1.8: Determination of the Maximum Span for a Given Phase Conductor Spacing (Phase Conductor Swing through 90 )

Sample Calculation

Lbcc

ℓeff ℓc ℓeff
4572
9144
4572
18288

4572
9144

1630 4572

Figure 4-1.10: 220 kV Main Yard Steelwork Layout

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

½.wbeam = 0,35m
Se = (4,572-½.1,63) = 3,757m
Sp = 4,572m
Ce = 1,85m
Cp = 2,30m

Sp -Cp
fmax ≤
2
4,572 - 2,30
≤ (from eq. 4-1.34)
2
≤ 1,138m

l eff = L ins .cosφ

= 3,76.cos 9,73( ) (from eq. 4-1.38)

= 3,706m

Finally, by rearranging eq. 2-1.37, the maximum separation of the steelwork portals (Lbcc) can be derived from all the
calculated quantities as follows:-

l c = L bcc - 2.(l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) (from eq. 4-1.37)

l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w
2 beam ) = L bcc eq. 4-1.46

L bcc = l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam )

= 48,5 + 2.(3,706 + 0,35) (from eq. 4-1.46)

≈ 56m

The maximum separation of strain portal structures is therefore 56m to maintain conductor phase to phase clearance. If
it is recommended that a 10% safety margin be applied to the clearance in order to provide for uncertainties, the whole
series of calculations would be done with Cp = 2,53m instead of 2,30m. The corresponding value of Lbcc = 53m

The above example considered a single conductor. This is still valid for phase conductor bundles strained with I-type
insulator strings at either end of the bundle providing the bundle is of a flat configuration so that when the bundle
o
swings through 90 , a single conductor is projected. Figure 4-1.11 illustrates this.

fmax Cp fmax

sc Conductor + Insulator Sag sc

(fmax)

I-type Insulators Strings

Allowable Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cp)

o
Figure 4-1.11: Bundled Conductor Swing through 90 with I-Type Strain Insulator

The above is not necessarily true for the case where conductors are strained with Vee-strain insulator strings as these
restrict lateral movement. Two components need to be taken into account, the conductor sag and the insulator sag.
When the conductors move toward each other, the upward movement will tend to raise the insulator string, allowing the
conductors to approach closer together than if the insulators remained in their rest position (see Figure 4-1.12).

Insulator fmax Cp fmax

Elevated
Position
Sag due to
Insulator Insulator
Rest
Position

sc Conductor Sag (fmax) sc

(Maximum Temperature)

Vee-type Insulators

Allowable Phase-to-
Phase Clearance
(Cp)

Gain in Clearance due to

Elevation of Vee-type Strain
Insulator

o
Figure 4-1.12: Bundled Conductor Swing through 90 with Vee-Type Strain Insulator

The foregoing analysis is a very conservative approach in determining the maximum conductor spans within a
substation. Due to the very fast acting protection schemes that are currently being employed on power systems,
o
conductor swing through 90 is unrealistic. Even if the main 1 and main 2 protection system fails to operate, the speed at
o
which backup protection is activated would not result in a 90 swing. If the conductor swings through and angle θ before
the breaker trips, then the horizontal displacement of the conductors towards each other can be calculated. What this
means is that longer spans can be realised. The closest point of approach of a conductor bundle is still at the point of
maximum sag, but now the dimension of the conductor bundle also has to be taken into account. Figure 4-1.13 illustrates
this case where conductors at the point of maximum sag must still maintain phase-to-phase clearance. As before, when
considering the phase-to-earth clearance, only a single conductor sag is relevant.

ds sch″ Cp sch″ ds

θ θ

sc sch′ sc
Horizontal
Conductor Sag
Displacement
(fmax)
( d s)
(Maximum
Temperature)
sch″ Allowable
Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cp)

sch′

Figure 4-1.13: Bundled Conductor Swing through θ with I-Type Strain Insulator

The displacement of the centre line of the conductor bundle:-

d s = fmax .sin θ() eq. 4-1.47

The value of sch′ can likewise be calculated using the conductor bundle spacing sc:-

'
s ch = 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) eq. 4-1.48

The value of sch″ is found by adding the conductor radius (half the conductor diameter - ½.dc) to sch′:

" '
s ch = s ch + 1 .d
2 c

= 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) + 12 .d c eq. 4-1.49

= 12 .(s c .cos (θ ) + d c )

where:-

dc = conductor diameter

In order to satisfy the phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth clearance requirements, equations eq. 4-1.34 and 4-1.35 are
applied, modified as follows:

Sp -Cp "
≥ d s + s ch
2

Sp -Cp
2
≥ fmax .sin θ + () 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) + 12 .d c

Sp -Cp
2
− 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) − 12 .d c ()
≥ fmax .sin θ

(Sp - Cp - sc .cos(θ ) − dc )
≥ fmax
()
2.sin θ
eq. 4-1.50
(Sp - Cp - sc .cos(θ ) − dc )
fmax ≤
2.sin θ ()
This is a modified version of eq. 4-1.34.

"
S e - C e ≥ d s + s ch

S e - C e ≥ fmax .sin θ + () 1 .s .cos

2 c (θ ) + 12 .dc

S e - Ce − 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) − 12 .dc ≥ fmax .sin(θ )
eq. 4-1.51
( )
S e −C e − 12.sc .cos (θ ) − 12.dc
≥ fmax
sin(θ )

2.(S e −C e ) − (s c .cos (θ )+ dc )
≥ fmax
2.sin(θ )

2.(S e − C e ) − (s c .cos (θ )+ dc )
fmax ≤
2.sin(θ )
This is a modified version of eq. 4-1.35. The rest of the calculations follow in precisely the same way.

There are, however, always those exceptions to remember when considering the insulator configuration that is
employed at the ends of the conductor. In the above examples it was assumed that the strain insulators move in unison
with the conductor, and this is true for the so called I-type of insulator. As discussed previously and illustrated in Figure
11, this is not so with the Vee-type of insulators which restricts movement in the lateral direction. When calculating the
displacement in the lateral direction, only the sag due to the conductor and the little addition due to the upward
movement of the insulator string need be considered as the conductor fixings onto the insulators do not contribute to
the lateral displacement. The insulator itself can only move up and down. This may be one way to gain a few metres in
span length if it is found that the desired span length is slightly short of the desired mark. The technique effectively
shortens the conductor span length that can swing laterally.

Table 4-1.14: Maximum Spans: Busbars and Stringers (Based on Gapped Arresters) - (Based on current Eskom
phase-to-phase spacing and clearances)

System Phase-To- Average Conductor Max. Span In Metres Between Suspension

Nominal Phase Effective Tension Points
Voltage Spacing Length

1 x 160

1 x 400

1 x 800

2 x 400

2 x 800
(mm )

(mm )

(mm )
Of Strain (kN/phase)

2
(kV) (metres) String *
(metres)
11 0,914 0,9 9,0 68 43 30 27 18
4,5 48 31 21 19 13
22 0,914 1,2 9,0 58 37 26 22 15
4,5 41 26 18 16 11
33 0,914 1,4 9,0 49 31 21 16 11
4,5 34 22 15 11 8
44
66 1,83 1,6 4,5 52 34 23 21 15
4,5 52 34 23 21 15
88 2,44 2,0 4,5 73 44 30 29 20
9,0 103 62 42 41 28
4,5 73 47 32 29 20
132 3,048 2,5 9,0 100 64 44 39 27
18,0 - 91 61 56 38
4,5 71 45 31 28 19
220+ 4,57 3,0 18,0 - 115 79 75 52
9,0 - 76 52 49 34
275+ 4,57 3,5 18,0 - - - 61 42
9,0 - - - 38 26
330+ 7,01 Straight 4,3 18,0 - - - 94 64
Vee 4,7 9,0 - - - 67 46
400+ 7,01 Straight 4,7 18,0 - - - - 61
Vee 5,25 9,0 - - - - 43

+ See Note

+ Determined by phase-to-phase clearance considerations.

Z
Z-Y Y
ℓ ℓ

Beam O

θ
X
ce
Jumper P
b
Jumper Weight W
d

(a) Side View (b) End

Figure 4-1.14: Jumper Clearances

Notes:
2
9,8.w c.L
1. Sag = (from eq. 4-1.34)
8.T c

where:-

wc = Conductor mass in kg/m

L = Actual span length between the supports in metres
Tc = Conductor tension in Newtons

Phase spacing (Phase clearance + Conductor Spacing)

Sag = eq. 4-1.52
2

2. Conductor spacing for - twin conductors : 150 mm

- triple conductors : 165 mm

3. To calculate the spans, the tensions used were 90 % of the values given in the table.

4. The Stringer spans for voltages from 220 kV to 400 kV may be determined by phase to earth clearances and for
these voltages reference should also be made to Table 4-1.15.

Table 4-1.15: Maximum Spans: Stringers on Extended Bays (Based on Gapped Arresters)

System Bay Size Distance To Conductor Max Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
Nominal Steelwork Tension
Voltage

2
1 x 160 mm

1 x 400 mm

1 x 800 mm

2 x 400 mm

2 x 800 mm
‘x’

(m)
(kV)
(kN/Phase)
(m)

66 7,620 1,67 + 1 4,5 55 37 26 24 18 *

+ 2 3,0 48 32 23 22 16
88 8,53 1,48 4,5 68 48 34 33 24 *
10,36 3,25 4,5 77 48 34 33 24
132 12,192 2,62 4,5 76 50 36 33 24 *
220 15,240 2,90 9,0 - 80 57 54 38
18,288 5,85 9,0 - 82 58 55 40 *
275 15,240 2,94 9,0 - - - 42 31
18,288 5,85 9,0 - - - 45 33 *
330 23,774 4,40 9,0 - - - 72 52
400 23,774 4,40 9,0 - - - - 46

• Determined by phase-to-phase clearance considerations.

Maximum Spans for Stringers between Yards of Different Voltages - Two successive Attachment Points at
Different Levels

It often occurs that the spans in a section of an overhead conductor are on sloping ground and in many instances the
supports are at considerably different levels. This makes the calculation of sags and tensions a little more difficult,
while the checking of the actual sag in practice is more complicated than that on level ground. In other cases, when
crossing a road with transformer connections, it is frequently necessary to string between beams designed for different
voltages (see Figure 4-1.14). It is not only necessary to check the sag of the conductor, but also to calculate the
position of the lowest point on the conductor and the actual height above ground for clearance purposes.

If beams designed for different voltage levels are employed, the conductors will generally be attached to beams with
different conductor phase spacing at either end, so that the calculations need to be based on the effective phase
spacing at the centre of the span. This is the point where the conductor sag is the greatest and when swung through
o
90 , is the point of closest approach between two phases.

s eff = 1 .
2 (s HV + s LV ) eq. 4-1.51
where:-

seff = Effective phase spacing

sHV = Phase spacing on HV steelwork in (m)
sLV = Phase spacing on LV steelwork in (m)
Calculating the effective conductor phase spacing is a fairly simple task. It is the mid-point of the span regardless of the
separation of the two portal structures. What is more complex is calculating the conductor sag at the mid-point where
the conductor attachment heights are at different levels. The detail behind the calculation procedure is provided here
and only the result is applied here to calculate the maximum span length.

The sag calculations are similar to those used for supports at the same level with the modification that the calculations
are done on the equivalent complete span length. Span lengths are always measured horizontally on the survey. If,
however, the slope of the ground is known, it is a fairly simple matter to determine the actual span length on the slope
from the horizontal span length and the ground slope.
The calculations are based on the parabolic formulae, which is sufficiently accurate so long as the tension ratio is
greater than 2. If the tension ratio is less than 2, a correction should be applied.

Tension Ratio = w( )
Τc
eq. 4-1.52

( )
c
Τc
w c < 2 ⇒ Apply correction factor

≥ 2 ⇒ Need not apply correction factor

where:-

Tc = Initial horizontal tension in the span before wind and ice loading, and before conductor creep at the
average temperature of the coldest month in Newtons (N)
wc = The weight of the conductor per unit length (N/m)
2 2 2
Tables 4-1.16,4-1.17 and 4-1.18 respectively applying to 800 mm "Bull", 400 mm "Centipede" and 160 mm "Hornet"
conductors give the maximum span lengths that are permissible for those stringers.

20000

fmax Stringer
Strain

10668
a)
L Col

L Phase
C

4000

3048
10000

6096
6000

L Phase

seff

3048
20000

12192
C

3048

seff
6096
6000
10000

L Phase

3048
C
4000
L Col

b)
C

Figure 4-1.13: Maximum Spans of Stringers between Yards

Now, due to the different heights in the strain points as illustrated in Figures 4-1.13 a) and 4-1.1414, the sag fmax, has
L L
to corrected by the ratio 2 i.e. the maximum sag from the straight line is 2 times lower than the sag when the
L L
straight points are at the same height.

L2
fmax = fs1. eq. 4-1.53
L

Once the sag at a particular temperature has been determined, it is possible from eq. 4-1.36to then calculate the
tension in the conductor at a given temperature.

The sag from the straight line between A and B, fc (see Figure 4-1.14a)), can be calculated for every point on the
catenary using the formula.

4.fmax .c.(L − c)
fc = 2
eq. 4-1.54
L

Attachment Points A and B at Different Levels

L
A

h
2
h = (H2-H1)

L2
h

H2 fmax fa fc B

Y
H1
c

X a

a).

Y
L L
2 2
b).

Figure 4-1.14: Determination of the Maximum Spans of Stringers between Yards

(i) It can be shown that the equivalent complete span can be determined from:-

(
2.Tc. H 2 − H1 )
L1 = L + 1
eq. 4-1.55
m .L

where:-

L1 = Equivalent complete span in metres

L = Actual span length between the supports in metres
Tc = Conductor tension in Newtons
1 -1
m = Mass of conductor per unit length in kg.m
H1 = Height above ground to the lowest attachment point in metres
H2 = Height above the same ground reference level as H1 to the highest attachment point in metres

(ii) The distance of the lowest support to the lowest point sag “a” can be calculated from the following formula:-

2
(
w.L − 2.Tc. H 2 − H1 )
a= 1
eq. 4-1.56
2.m .L

If the value of a is negative then this means that the lowest point of the sag on the parabola is outside the actual span
length.

(iii) The direct shortest distance between the two attachment points L2 can be determined from the following formula:-

2 2
L 2 = L + (H2 − H1 ) eq. 4-1.57

where:-

L2 = The direct shortest distance between the two attachment points

Example 2: L = 10 m

L2 = 14 m
2
A = 120 mm Al ⇒ d = 14 cm
o
T = 80 C

Tc = 1000 N
1 -1
m = 0,322 kg m

(i) Check for critical length (Lkr):-

 
 360.ε t 
L kr = T . (cm) eq. 4-1.58
 2 
0
Y −Y
 1 

Lkr = Critical length

εt = Coefficient of temperature
-6 o -1
εtA1 = 23 . 10 C
-6 o -1
εtcu = 17 . 10 C

Y = Specific gravity of conductor

-2 -3 -2 -1
YA1 = 2,7 . 10 N.cm (= N.mm .m )
-2 -3
Ycu = 8,9 . 10 N.cm

3 -2 -1
Y = Specific gravity of the conductor including the weight of a layer of ice, in N.cm- (or Nmm .m )

-2
T0 = Tension at the lowest temperature in N.cm

d = Diameter of conductor in mm

2
A = Cross-sectional area of conductor in cm

−4
180. d .10
Y1 = Y + eq. 4-1.59
A

−4
−2 180 . 14 . 10
Y1 = 2,7 . 10 +
1,2
−2 −2
= 8,3125 . 10 N.mm .m

(ii) From eq. 4-1.58 above:-

−6
1000 360 . 23 . 10
L kr = 2 2 −4
1,2 (8,3125 − 2,7 ).10
= 964,5 cm (or 9,645 m)

Since L2 = 14> 9,645 = Lkr, then

o
Y0 = Y1 at T0 = - 5 C eq. 4-1.60

(iii) Calculate sag with L = 10 m,

2 −7 −2 2
8.fs1 1,79 . 10 . 2,7 . 10 . 1000
−6 2
− −6
− 80
3 . 23 . 10 . 1000 8 . 23 . 10 . fs1

−2 2 2 2 −7
(8,3125 . 10 ) . 1000 . 1,2 1,79 . 10 . 1000
= −6 2
− −6
− ( −5)
24 . 23 . 10 . 1000 23 . 10 . 1,2

Rearrange as a cubic function

2 26,266304
⇒ 0,115942.fs1 − − 80 = 16,539969
fs1

3
⇒ fs1 − 832,657741 .fs1 − 226,546929 = 0

Solving the cubic function yields:

fs1 = 28,991
f ≈ 29 cm

s1
 →
(iv) Due to the difference in the conductor attachment heights, fs1 has to be corrected (see eq. 4-1.53):
14
fmax = 28,991.
10
fmax ≈ 40,6 cm
   →
(v) The distance of the lowest point on the catenary from the lowest attachment point is found using eq. 4-1.36:

1 2 1
m .L m .L2
fmax = ⇒ Tc =
8.Tc 8.fmax

1 2
1 2 m .L
m .L − (H 2 − H1 )
4.fmax
⇒a= 1
2.L.m

The above reduces to:

a = L.
[4.fmax − (H2 − H1 )] eq. 4-1.61
8.fmax

Now:-

(H2 − H1 ) = 2
14 − 10
2

≈ 9,8 m

From the above:-

a=
[
10 . 4 . 40,6 − 980 ]
8 . 40,6
= −25,2 m

The negative sign implies that the lowest point on the parabola is outside the section being considered, so that the
lowest point on the catenary is at H1.

The sag due to the conductor is therefore 406mm.

In order to calculate the maximum span length for a particular set of HV and MV portals, the same approach as before
is followed. The phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearance criteria need to be satisfied. It is usually the case that
transformers are located in the HV yard due to the larger bay spacing, so that the voltage at which the conductors
crossing the road are energised at the LV voltage. This off course makes obvious sense as the conductor spacing on
the LV side would be for the lower voltage. There are, however, cases where the transformer is located in the LV yard
for a particular reason. In this case it would be obvious that the portals on both sides of the road would be he same,
therefore the method initially described would be applicable.

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

½.wbeam = 0,35m
Se = (4,572-½.1,63) = 3,757m
Sp = 4,572m
Ce = 1,85m
Cp = 2,30m

Sp - Cp
fmax ≤
2
4,572 - 2,30
≤ (from eq. 4-1.34)
2
≤ 1,138m

fmax ≤ Se − Ce
≤ 3,757 − 1,85 (from eq. 4-1.35)

≤ 1,907m

fmax = fc + fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 2-1.42)

2
9,81.mc.lc
fc = (from eq. 2-1.36)
8.Tc

2
9,81.mc.lc
+ fins ≤ 1,138m
8.Tc

The length and mass of a 220 kV strain insulator assembly can be calculated using the component data provided in
SLDG 43. Only the pertinent data is reproduced below for convenience.

Description Length (m) Mass (kg)

Lins = ℓes + ℓbc + n.ℓdisc + ℓsc + ℓyp + ℓtc + ℓpsc (from eq. 4-1.43)
Lins = 0,45 + 0,082 + 17.0,146 + 0,06 + 0,1 + 0,078 + 0,508
= 3,76m
mins = mes + mbc + ni.mdisc + msc + myp + mtc + mpsc (from eq. 4-1.44)
mins = 3,14 + 0,5 + 17.3,7+ 1,0 + 3,5 + 1,0 + 0,7 + 10,0
= 82,74 kg
wins = 9,81.mins eq. 4-1.62
wins = 82,74.9,81

= 811,68 N

For the purpose of illustration only, we neglect the mass of any droppers and hardware connected to the conductor
span. The approximate conductor length is given by:

ℓc = Lbcc – 2.( ½.wbeam + ℓeff) (from eq. 4-1.37)

= Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + ℓeff)

1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)

= 9,81.[Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + 3,76)]

The length and weight of the conductor can only be calculated once the conductor length is known. If the weight of the
dropper conductor and other hardware is initially assumed to be zero, then:

Angle of inclination:

−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 Ttot 
The maximum tension allowable on the beam is 9 kN (or 9000 N) per phase

−1  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan  
 9000 
Sag due to Insulator

fins = Lins .sinφ

  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c   (from eq. 4-1.41)

= 3,76.sintan −1  
  9000 
The value of ℓc becomes the unknown which must be found. So far the total sag equation is given as:
2
9,81.mc.l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m
8.Tc
2
9,81.2,391.l c
∴ + fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.9000
2
9,81.2,391.l c   12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c  
+ 3,76.sintan −1    ≤ 1,138m
8.9000   9000  ??? eq. 4-1.63
-3 2
0,3258.10 l c [ (
+ 3,76.sin tan -1 45,09.10 - 3 + 1,09.10 - 3.l c )] ≤ 1,138

Equation 4-1.55 has to be solved numerically using Newton-Raphson or other.

A series of iterations provides a value of ℓc = 48,5m that is associated with fc48,5 = 1,1308. This then also allows for
diameter of the conductor which is 38,5mm
fc33,5 = 0,740213 + 0,0385
= 0,7787
Since ℓc is now known, it is possible to calculate wc:
1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)
= 9,81.2,391.48,5
= 1137,6 N

−1
 12 .wins + w c 
φ = tan  
 Ttot 
 
−1  12 .811,68 + 1137,6 
= tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 9000 
−1
= tan (0,1715)

o
= 9,73

Once the angle of inclination is known, the effective horizontal length of the insulator can be calculated.

l eff = Lins .cosφ

= 3,76.cos 9,73 ( ) (from eq. 4-1.38)

= 3,706m

Finally, by rearranging eq. 4-1.52, the maximum separation of the steelwork portals (Lbcc) can be derived from all the
calculated quantities as follows:

l c = Lbcc - 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) (from eq. 4-1.37)

lc + 2.(l eff + 1 .w
2 beam ) = Lbcc (from eq. 4-1.46)

Lbcc = l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam )

= 48,5 + 2.(3,706 + 0,35) (from eq. 4-1.46)

≈ 56m

The above is not necessarily true for the case where conductors are strained with Vee-strain insulator strings as these
restrict lateral movement and prevent the conductors from approaching each other as close as the case with I-string
strain insulators, where the whole insulator moves with the conductor. This is clearly shown by comparing Figure 4-
1.11 with Figure 4-1.12. This means that additional margin is provided by using “Vee” strain insulator strings, and is a
means used in cases where such lateral movement needs to be restricted to gain the required clearance.
2
Table 4-1.16: Maximum Spans: 800 mm (Bull) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 23 28 32 36
33 2 15 20 22 25
22 1 21 28 35
2 13 19 31 24
33 1 18 26 30 34 40
2 11 18 20 24 28
44 44 1 - -
2 - -
66 66 1 - - 26 30 34 40
2 - - 18 21 24 28
88 88 1 - - - 36 37 43 55
2 - - - 24 26 31 38
132 132 1 - - - - 36 42 53
2 - - - - 24 29 37

275 220 1 - - - - - 58 74
2 - - - - - 40 51
275 2 - - - - - 33 47
400 330 2 - - - - - - 55
400 2 - - - - - - 53

Based on current Eskom steelwork phase-to-phase spacing and clearances (see Table 4-1.2)

Conductor Tension: up to and including 132 kV - 4 kN / Phase 275 kV and above kN / Phase.

2
Table 4-1.17: Maximum Spans: 400 mm (Centipede) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 33 40 47 52
2 21 28 32 35
33 22 1 29 39 46 50
2 18 26 30 34
33 1 25 37 42 48 57
2 14 25 28 33 40
44 44 1 -
2 -
66 66 1 - - 37 42 48 57
2 - - 24 29 33 40
88 88 1 - - - 48 52 61 79
2 - - - 34 36 43 55
132 132 1 - - - - 50 62 76
2 - - - - 33 40 52
220 1 - - - - - 82 104
275 2 - - - - - 55 72
275 2 - - - - - 45 65
400 330 2 - - - - - - 75
400 2 - - - - - - -

Based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances

Conductor Tension : Up to and including 132 kV 4 kN / Phase; 275 kV and above - 8 kN / Phase.
2
Table 4-1.18: Maximum Spans: 160 mm (Hornet) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductors H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132
kV kV Maximum Span Between Strain Beams
11 1 50 64 73 80
33 22 1 44 60 69 77
33 1 37 56 65 73
44 44 1 -
66 66 1 - - 56 65 73
88 88 1 - - - 77 79
132 132 1 - - - - 76

Example:

HV yard steelwork : 275 kV

LV yard steelwork : 132 kV

Transmission voltage of span : 132 kV (i.e. the lower voltage)

2
Conductor : 2 x 800 mm .

From Table 4-1.15 the distance between the strain beams should not exceed 29 metres.

4.3 Jumper Connections

Wind force acting on jumper connections may reduce clearances below the minimum permissible. To limit swing,
jumper weights can be added as shown in Figure 1.

Figures 4-1.16, 4-1.17 and 4-1.18 illustrate a further problem with busbar jumper connections where the phase-to-
phase clearance between the jumper and the dropper onto the busbar isolator may be inadequate. The schedule
associated with the recommended end bay sizes to allow for future extensions or bus section breakers. A specimen
calculation for 132 kV is given below of this document, and is illustrated in Figure 4-1.15.

Figure 4-1.15: Stringer Phase-to-Earth Clearance to Free Standing Column

where:-

x = Distance from centre line of phase to edge of steelwork.

Based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances

All conductor tensions 4 kN per phase.

ℓ ℓ Z-Y Y

Beam O

X θ
X
ce
Jumper P
b
Jumper W
Weight d

(a) Side View (b) End View

Figure 4-1.16: Jumper Clearances

In Figure 4-1.16b):-

P = Horizontal wind force on jumper

W = Total weight of jumper (including conductors, spacers, jumper weights)

[For simplicity the forces are assumed to act at lowest point of jumper]

Taking moments about O:

W.(X.sinθ) = P.(X.cosθ) eq. 4-1.64

(X.sinθ) P
=
(X.cosθ ) W
eq. 4-1.65
P
tanθ =
W

P = G.( π.l.d + n.a) eq. 4-1.66

W = 9,81.( π.l.w1 + n.w2 + 2.w3) eq. 4-1.67

Y = X.tanθ eq. 4-1.68

Clearance to Column = Z–Y eq. 4-1.69

where:-

d = Conductor diameter (m)

2
G = wind force = 440 N/m of projected area
n = number of jumper weights
π.ℓ = jumper length (jumper assumed circular)
X ≅ 1,1 × Phase to earth clearance
w1 = Conductor mass (kg/m)
w2 = jumper weight mass = 25 kg
w3 = mass of spacer (kg) (2 assumed)
a = projected area of jumper weight

Table 4-1.19: Jumper Clearances (Based on Gapped Arresters)

kV ℓ Conductor b X n P W Z Y Z-Y Required Cond/phase
clearance
(m) (m) (m) (N) (N) (m) (m) (m) (m)
2,70 1,62 1
Cent 62,4 60 1,08
2,62 1,54 2
66 1,73 0,23 0,85 0 0,77
2,70 1,80 1
Bull 91,3 128 0,87
2,62 1,75 2
2,70 1,38 1
Cent 76 73 1,32
2,62 1,30 2
88 2,1 0,26 0,93 0 0,84
2,70 1,60 1
Bull 111 155 1,10
2,62 1,55 2
3,84 2,29 1
Cent 93 90 1,55
3,67 2,12 2
132 2,58 0,35 1,32 0 1,20
3,84 2,59 1
Bull 136 190 1,25
3,67 2,42 2
2,59 2,12 1
Cent 153 658 0,47
2,43 1,96 2
220 3,14 0,36 2,04 2 1,85
2,59 2,07 1
Bull 206 780 0,52
2,43 1,91 2
Cent 170 674 2,43 0,63 1,80 1
275 3,6 0,36 2,59 2 2,35
Bull 230 813 2,43 0,70 1,73 2
Cent 199 702 4,26 0,87 3,38 1
330 4,4 0,36 3,19 2 2,90
Bull 272 872 4,26 0,95 3,30 2
400 4,8 Bull 0,36 3,52 2 2,95 905 4,26 1,10 3,16 3,20 2

B B
A

a) Plan

CL CL
4267 3048 3048 4877

Column y Column
Busbar
CL Beam
B W R
914 h
Beam
Width
Y
k
1829
7620

y
0 x
X
Dropper
914 RØ
2438

CL Isolator Foundation Level

2488

b) Plan

D ℓ

Centre
Phase

h
RØ

r
k

c) Plan
Figure 4-1.17: Jumper Clearances to Equipment

4.3.1 Specimen Calculation For 132 kV

Section A-A

Y = 3353 - Busbar beam width, X = 7010 ∴Y - y = 3048 – 974

= 3353 - 305 = 2074 mm
= 3048 mm

2
Assume dropper is parabolic : y = a.x h= Phase-earth clearance
+ 10%

∴For x = X and y = Y, = 1320 mm

Y ∴k= (Y-y) – h
a=
-6 -1
2
= 6,203 . 10 mm
X = 2074 – 1320
754 mm

For x = 3962 (i.e. distance from “0” to centre

phase)
-6 2
y= 6,203 . 10 (3962)

≈ 974 mm

Section B-B

Insulator string length, ℓins = 2579 mm

For D = 4267 (i.e. 15240 bay : 4267 + 3048 + 3048 + 4877 (see Figure 4-1.17)

r1min = 2667 mm

For D = 3048 (i.e. 12192 bay : 3048 + 3048 + 3048 + 3048)

r2min = 1880 mm

Min phase-phase clearance : 1650 mm

See Fig 4-1.17. for 132 kV jumper profile :

r1 = clearance for bay size 1
r2 = clearance for bay size 2

Table 4-1.20: End Bay Dimensions (Based on Gapped Arresters)

Voltage Phase-To- Bay Size 1 Bay Size 2 Recommended Remarks

Phase Dim. r1 Dim. r2 Bay Size
(kV) Clearance Dimension
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
66 1050 9,754 1880 7,620 1220 a) 9,754 a) For bay adjacent to
bus section
b) Adequate for end bay
b) 7,620
88 1150) 10,363 2590 8,534 1700 a) 10,363 a) For bay adjacent to
bus section
b) 8,534 b) Adequate for end bay
132 1650 15,240 2670 12,192 1880 15,240
220 2300 18,283 4750 15,240 2690 18,288
275 2950 18,283 4115 15,240 2110 18,283
330 3600 See Fig B Sheet 3
400 4000 See Fig B Sheet 3

7 7

4,877
7

0,5
7
4,877

2,05
6,5 6,5 5,877
4,877 d

a) Plan (All Dimensions in metres)

Stringer Beam

4,877 7 7 4,877 ℓ

Busbar Beam

BØ
h
20,42

2,05 Z

13,106
B W R
6,5

Isolator C
L

1,0 d
0,5
5,877

b) Elevation: End Bay Dimensions (400 kV) (All Dimensions in metres)

Figure 4-1.17: Busbar Jumpers

Elevation
h = 1,1 . Ø-E clearance
= 3,52 m

z = 2,678 m
For d = 2,25m

Minimum allowable distances between column foundations:-

K = 6,077 m

y (m)
Insulator string length: ℓ
4
BØ

3
I : Special creepage ℓ = 6m I II
II : Normal creepage ℓ = 5m 2
Jumper Profiles
Min Ø-E Clearance = 4m
For d = 2,25m
RI = 4,65m 1
RII = 5m RI
RII
0
x (m) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
(b)

2
Isolator Blade C
L
K 3

Figure 4-1.18: End-Bay Dimensions (Jumper Profiles)

4.4 Connections to Transformers

To ensure, as far as possible, that connections can satisfactorily be made onto transformers, the clearance diagram
of Figure 4-1.19 is issued as part of the transformer specification.

In this diagram:-

L = Phase-to-earth clearance

Y = 2,38 metre structure plus phase-to-earth clearance which is the minimum height above ground that one
would expect for a lightning arrester or current transformer. In practice these devices are generally larger
than just the phase-to-earth clearance and this allows for some sag in the conductors.

X = Distance from edge of transformer to first supporting device. For the lower voltages this will generally be a
current transformer (CT) with the surge arrester (SA) tapped off between the CT and the transformer. At
the higher voltages the first support will generally be a SA mounted at least φ -E clearance away from the
transformer.

o o
30 30

o
15

o
15
L

o o
30 30

o
15
o
L -5

Y
Y

X X

Figure 4-1.19: Transformer Clearances

4.5 Adjacent Equipment

Figure 4-1.20 shows two examples of clearance problems that can arise with adjacent items of equipment.

In the diagram below (Figure 4-1.20) the distance from breaker terminal 'M' to the CT (p) is less than that between the
breaker terminals 'M' and 'N' (q), the gap across the breaker is thus being short-circuited by the CT. The CT tank is also
effectively reducing the phase-to-earth clearance on the breaker. In general, equipment should be so located as to avoid
reducing clearances on adjacent apparatus.

Because of voltage-grading problems, manufacturers generally recommend clearances around lightning arresters as
shown by the lower diagram of Figure 4-1.21.

Figure 4-1.20: Phase-to-Earth Clearances

Figure 4-1.21: Surge Arrester Clearance

4.6 Statutory Minimum Heights of Equipment Supports

Figure 4-1.1b) illustrates an average sized man with his hands raised above his head. The height is given as 2438 mm
which is the dimension taken as the minimum height above foundation level to the top cap of a structure that must be
adhered to at all times, regardless of voltage.

It can however also be taken as the height to the bottom of an equipment insulator that is earthed so that the support
itself can be lower. This is illustrated in Figure 4-1.22 with the use of a SF6 top core type (Figure 4-1.22a) and a hair pin
oil filled type (Figure 4-1.22b) of current transformers. This requirement applies to any primary plant supported on an
insulator.

a): Top Core SF6 CT b): Hair Pin Oil Filled CT

Figure 4-1.22: Minimum Height to the Bottom of the Supporting Insulator

4.7 Minimum Clearances for Vehicular Access in Power Installations

The minimum width for vehicle roadways within the enclosed electrical premises of outdoor installations should be 3m.
Vehicles and similar may pass below live parts (without protective devices) or in their vicinity when:-

4.7.1 the vehicle, even with its doors open, and its load do not come into the danger zone

T = C e + 100 mm with a minimum overall value of 500 mm

4.7.2 height H of the live parts over the road conforms to the minimum vertical working clearance

Figure 23: Limits on Vehicle Access Roads in an Outdoor Electrical Installation

5. CLEARANCES BETWEEN ADJACENT TRANSMISSION LINES AND TERMINAL TOWERS

5.1 Table 4-1.21: Separation Distances between Parallel Power Lines (See Also Figure 4-1.22)

22 kV
and below 12 metres
33 kV 14 metres
44 kV 14 metres
66 kV 14 metres
88 kV (Delta Conductor Spacing) 15 metres
88 kV (Horizontal Conductor Spacing) 21 metres
132 kV 25 metres
132 kV (Double Circuit) 32 metres
275 kV 32 metres
400 kV (For New Longer Span Length) 35 metres
765 kV 60 metres
533 kV Cahora Bassa (From Centre Line Of Conductor) 40 metres

5.2 Table 4-1.22: Maximum Recommended Distances between Terminal Portal and Terminal Tower (See Also
Figure 4-1.22)

Voltage ‘X’ ‘Y’ ‘Z’

(kV) (m) (m) (m)
11 11 12 Single or Twin Triple
22 11 12 Conductor Conductor
33 11
44 11 14
66 11 14
88 11 15
132 15,5 21 8,02
220 25 10,22
275 23,5 32 11,10
330 23,5
400 23,5 35 11,6 12,50
800 400 60 16,0 (Suspension) 23,0
20,0(Strain)

Note: For dimensioning between towers carrying different voltages use largest distance.

Figure 4-1.22: Transmission Line and Terminal Tower Separation and Width Restriction

5.3 Table 4-1.23: Maximum Recommended Distances between Terminal Portal and Terminal Tower

40 m Slack Span up to 132 kV Steelwork to terminal tower

50 m Slack Span 132 kV to 400 kV Steelwork to terminal tower

Figure 4-1.23: Transmission Line and Terminal Tower Separation and Width Restriction

5.4 Table 4-1.24: Building Restriction from Centre Line of Power Line

22 kV
and below 9 metres
33 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
33 kV H-Pole 15,5 metres
44 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
66 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
88 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
88 kV (Horizontal Conductor Spacing) 15,5 metres
132 kV 15,5 metres
275 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV (For New Longer Span Length) 27,5 metres
765 kV 40 metres
533 kV Cahora Bassa (From Centre Line Of Conductor) 15,5 metres

5.5 Table 4-1.25: Recommended Timber Restriction in Forestry Areas

66 kV 33 metres
88 kV 33,5 metres
132 kV 36 metres
275 kV 38,5 metres
400 kV 38,5 metres

Note: Trees in the proximity of transmission lines shall be limited in height to their horizontal distance from the nearest
conductor.

6. TABLE OF AREA UNDER A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Table 4.26: Area under Normal Distribution Curve vs t

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

 1 −1
.x
2

t
Probability (Area under a Normal Distribution Curve  ∫0t e ( 2 )dx  )
 2.π 

0.0 0.50000 0.50399 0.50798 0.51197 0.51595 0.51994 0.52392 0.52790 0.53188 0.53586
0.1 0.53983 0.54380 0.54776 0.55172 0.55567 0.55962 0.56356 0.56749 0.57142 0.57535
0.2 0.57926 0.58317 0.58706 0.59095 0.59483 0.59871 0.60257 0.60642 0.61026 0.61409
0.3 0.61791 0.62172 0.62552 0.62930 0.63307 0.63683 0.64058 0.64431 0.64803 0.65173
0.4 0.65542 0.65910 0.66276 0.66640 0.67003 0.67364 0.67724 0.68082 0.68439 0.68793
0.5 0.69146 0.69497 0.69847 0.70194 0.70540 0.70884 0.71226 0.71566 0.71904 0.72240
0.6 0.72575 0.72907 0.73237 0.73565 0.73891 0.74215 0.74537 0.74857 0.75175 0.75490
0.7 0.75804 0.76115 0.76424 0.76730 0.77035 0.77337 0.77637 0.77935 0.78230 0.78524
0.8 0.78814 0.79103 0.79389 0.79637 0.79955 0.80234 0.80511 0.80785 0.81057 0.81327
0.9 0.81594 0.81859 0.82121 0.82381 0.82639 0.82894 0.83147 0.83398 0.83646 0.83891
1.0 0.84134 0.84375 0.84614 0.84849 0.85083 0.85314 0.85543 0.85769 0.85993 0.86214
1.1 0.86433 0.86650 0.86864 0.87076 0.87286 0.87493 0.87698 0.87900 0.88100 0.88298
1.2 0.88493 0.88686 0.88877 0.89065 0.89251 0.89435 0.89617 0.89796 0.89973 0.90147
1.3 0.90320 0.90490 0.90658 0.90824 0.90988 0.91149 0.91308 0.91466 0.91621 0.91774
1.4 0.91924 0.92073 0.92220 0.92364 0.92507 0.92647 0.92785 0.92922 0.93056 0.93189
1.5 0.93319 0.93448 0.93574 0.93699 0.93822 0.93943 0.94062 0.94179 0.94295 0.94408
1.6 0,9452 0,9463 0,9474 0,9484 0,9495 0,9505 0,9515 0,9525 0,9535 0,9545
1.7 0,9554 0,9564 0,9573 0,9582 0,9591 0,9599 0,9608 0,9616 0,9625 0,9633
1.8 0,9641 0,9649 0,9656 0,9664 0,9671 0,9678 0,9686 0,9693 0,9699 0,9706
1.9 0,9713 0,9719 0,9726 0,9732 0,9738 0,9744 0,9750 0,9756 0,9761 0,9767
2.0 0,9772 0,9778 0,9783 0,9788 0,9793 0,9798 0,9803 0,9808 0,9812 0,9817

Table 4.26: Area under Normal Distribution Curve vs t (Continued)

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

 1 −1
.x
2

t
Probability (Area under a Normal Distribution Curve  )
t 2
∫0 e ( )dx
 2.π
 

2.1 0,9821 0,9826 0,9830 0,9834 0,9838 0,9842 0,9846 0,9850 0,9854 0,9857
2.2 0,9861 0,9864 0,9868 0,9871 0,9875 0,9878 0,9881 0,9884 0,9887 0,9890
2.3 0,98928 0,98956 0,98983 0,99010 0,99036 0,99061 0,99086 0,99111 0,99134 0,99158
2.4 0,99180 0,99202 0,99224 0,99248 0,99266 0,99286 0,99305 0,99324 0,99343 0,99361
2.5 0,99379 0,99396 0,99413 0,99430 0,99446 0,99461 0,99477 0,99492 0,99506 0,9520
2.6 0,99534 0,99547 0,99560 0,99573 0,99585 0,99598 0,99609 0,99621 0,99632 0,9643
2.7 0,99653 0,99664 0,99674 0,99683 0,99693 0,99702 0,99711 0,99720 0,99728 0,99736
2.8 0,99744 0,99752 0,99760 0,99767 0,99774 0,99781 0,99788 0,99795 0,99801 0,99807
2.8 0,99813 0,99819 0,99825 0,99831 0,99836 0,99841 0,99846 0,99851 0,99856 0,99861
3.0 0,99865 0,99869 0,99874 0,99878 0,99882 0,99886 0,99889 0,99893 0,99896 0,99900
3.1 0,99903 0,99906 0,99910 0,99913 0,99916 0,99918 0,99921 0,99924 0,99926 0,99929
3,2 0,99931 0,99934 0,99936 0,99938 0,99940 0,99942 0,99944 0,99946 0,99948 0,99950
3,3 0,99952 0,99953 0,99955 0,99957 0,99958 0,99960 0,99961 0,99962 0,99964 0,99965
3,4 0,99966 0,99968 0,99969 0,99970 0,99971 0,99972 0,99973 0,99974 0,99975 0,99976
3,5 0,99977 - - - - - - - - -
3,6 0,99984 - - - - - - - - -
3,7 0,99989 - - - - - - - - -
3,8 0,99993 - - - - - - - - -
3,9 0,99995 - - - - - - - - -
4,0 0,99997 - - - - - - - - -

CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDS database, this document is uncontrolled, and the responsibility rests with the user to
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Portal SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
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7. REFERENCES

7.1 Eskom Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1

7.2

CHAPTER 4-1.1

FLASHOVER CHARACTERISTICS

4.1.1 Contamination flashover on power systems

Insulator contamination poses a particular threat to transmission lines, because a contamination flashover is generally
flowed by a second flashover within a short time several successive contamination flashovers can occur and make it
necessary to de-energize the line. This is particularly common for transmission lines in heavy contamination areas
during periods of wet weather. After these periods, when the contamination insulator surfaces dry out, the insulation
strength is recovered.

Nowadays, there are increasing signs that insulation contamination will be an important consideration. This trend is
accelerated by factors like the expansion of power systems over coastal areas and the reduction of switching-surge
insulation requirement caused by improved circuit breaker design.

4.1.2 Research In The Filed Of Contamination Flashover

The flashover mechanism of contamination insulators is extremely complicated. Therefore, contamination studies have
been done under some simplified assumptions on the flashover mechanism which are a compromise between tow
objectives:

(1) Duplicate natural phenomena.

(2) Shorten study time.

This can create many different research and testing philosophies.

4.1.3Flashover Characteristics for Various Insulation Configurations in Uncontaminated Conditions

4.1.3.1 Insulators and Air Gaps

Flashover characteristics of a group of basic insulation configurations. These curves are sufficient to set minimum
clearances for power frequency voltage in the initial design stages. Generally, the power-frequency flashover strength
of EHV-UHV insulation lies between the rod-rod and rod-plane curves unless special field grading is employed. For the
curves, a standard deviation, σ, of 2 percent can be used to determine a withstand voltage. At the 3σ level the
withstand voltage would be 94 percent of the critical flashover voltage (CFO).

4.1.3.2 Meteorological Correction Factors

The standard meteorological conditions for the power frequency tests are:
o
Air temperature 25 C

Barometric pressure 760 mm Hg

Humidity (vapor pressure) 15.2 mm Hg

(Absolute humidity)
3
Rainfall resistivity 15.0 g/m

Rate of precipitation 17800 Ω cm

o
Angle of precipitation 45

4.1.3.3 Effect Of Air Density

The relative air density, δ, for any other barometric pressure and temperature can be calculated from the relation:

δ = 0.386.b

273+t

where:

b = barometric pressure (mm Hg)

0
t = temperature ( C)

As the relative air density increase, the breakdown strength of the air increase,

V = δ V0o

where:

V= critical flashover voltage at any relative air density, Vo = critical flashover voltage at standard temperature and
pressure.

Provides a nomogram to calculate average relative air density with altitude above sea level.

4.1.3.4 Effect Of Humidity

In general, strength increases with humidity unless condensation forms on electrode or insulator surfaces. The
breakdown voltage, V, at any vapor pressure is usually described by

V = V0 / H

where:

V0 = breakdown voltage at standard condition (15.2mm Hg vapor pressure)

H = a humidity correction factor which depends on gap geometry

Humidity is usually measured with the wet- and dry- bulb thermometers of a sling psychrometer. A psychrometer chart
reduces the measurements to vapor pressure.

4.1.3.5 Effect of Rain on Clean Insulation

The critical flashover voltage for clean dry condition is defined as 1 p. u. To find the critical flashover voltage at any rain
rate, one multiplies the reference value by the corresponding correction factor. Critical flashover voltage also depends
on water resistivity. The correction factor curves used a project EHV for rain resistivity. The curve corrects the per unit
critical flashover voltage versus water resistivity for the case of a rain rate of 15 mm per minute

4.1.4 Survey of Contamination Performance of Power Transmission Systems

The pollution source extends over only a limited portion of the transmission system. It was concluded that in the region
with “spot contamination “, general atmospheric conditions were quite contamination-free and that the practice in
insulation design of power transmission systems shown in Table 4.1 ha been satisfactory.

Table 4.1:. Insulation level of power transmission systems based on current practice in USA and Canada

System voltage BIL Number of insulator Units for

KV kV transmission line
(146 x 254mm standard)
15.0 110
23.0 150
34.5 200
46.0 250
69.0 350 4-6
115.0 450 7-9
138.0 550 8-10
230.0 825-900 12
287.5 1050 15
245.0 1175-1300 18
500.0 1550 24

4.2 String Flashover Characteristics

The string flashover characteristic of the 132 KV transmission lines is summarized on table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Area Number of Flashover Flashover Impulse flashover Impulse flashover

units kV Dry kV Wet positive Negative
Asir 9 485 320 775 760
Baha 11 635 395 1090 1040
Bisha 16 660 440 836 924
Jizan 18 650 495 905 905
Najran 2 550 380 890 890
Tihama 20 680 540 995 945

The actual string flashover characteristic of the 132 KV overhead transmission lines are those given on table 4.1
divided by the correction factors as given on table 4.2.

An effective way of preventing flashover troubles in transmission lines is to increase the leakage distance over the
entire surface of the insulator string.

The insulators strings are such that:

1. The power frequency wet withstand voltage must be larger than the highest voltage of the switching surge.

2. The critical impulse withstand voltage must be near the maximum electrical potential rise of the tower during a
direct lighting stroke.

A lighting flashover resulting in a sustained power follow will lead to an outage. However, not all lighting flashovers
results to a sustained power follow. The percentage of flashovers that results in power follow depends on the type and
length of the insulation path, magnitude of the power follow current, and the magnitude and duration of the lightning
surge current

4.3 Insulator Flashover Step By Step

SLDG 4-2
CORONA
1. INTRODUCTION

Closely associated with the issue of electrical clearances is the phenomenon called electrical corona. Corona is a
luminous, audible discharge as a result of electrical overstressing in an insulating material, usually air that occurs when
there is an excessive localized electric field gradient upon an object that causes the ionization and possible electrical
breakdown of the air adjacent to this point. Corona is characterized by a colored glow frequently visible in a darkened
environment. The audible discharge, usually a subtle hissing sound, increases in intensity with increasing output
voltage. Ozone, an odorous, unstable form of oxygen is frequently generated during this process. Rubber is destroyed
by ozone, and nitric acid can be created if sufficient moisture is present. These items have detrimental affects on
materials, inclusive of electrical insulators. In short:

• The discharge may be manifested as "Visual Corona", "Audible Corona" or "Glow" discharges

• “Plume" discharges occur on positive half cycles, may range in length from a few centimetres to 15 cm, and are
usually accompanied by audible noise

• “Brush" discharges occur during negative half cycles and are generally smaller than "Plume" discharges.

• "Glow" discharges appear as a faint light around the surface and are often due to humidity.

The discharges are due to electron avalanches which occur when the electric field intensity exceeds a critical value.
Electrons, having a negative charge, accelerate towards the conductor during the positive half cycle and away from the
conductor during the negative half cycle. As a result of collisions a stream of electrons is built up which eventually
terminates on the conductor (positive half cycle) or ceases to grow any further because of insufficient field strength
(negative half cycle). Recombination of the electrons with positive ions moving in the opposite direction causes the
emission of energy in the form of visible light.

Figure 4-2.1: Schematic Outline of the Formation of Power Conductor Corona Ions

This partial discharge is a type of localized emission resulting from transient gaseous ionization in an insulation system
when the voltage stress, i.e., voltage gradient, exceeds a critical value. The ionization is usually localized over only a

portion of the distance between the electrodes of the system. Corona can occur within voids in insulators as well as at
the conductor/insulator interface.

As stated above, corona is caused by the electric field next to an object exceeding the breakdown value for air (or
whatever it is immersed in). Since the magnitude of the field is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature, sharper
edges break down sooner. The corona starting voltage is typically 30 kV/cm radius. Dust or water particles on the
surface of the object reduce the corona starting voltage, probably by providing local areas of tighter curvature, and
hence higher field stress.

a) Electric Field Line Diagram

Figure 4-2.2: Electric Field vs. Curvature

The easiest case to analyze is that of a sphere. The magnitude of the electric field at the surface of a sphere in free
space is simply the voltage/radius. Note that if the sphere is near another conductor, the field is no longer uniform, as
the charge will redistribute itself towards an adjacent conductor, increasing the field.

Since corona is fundamentally a breakdown phenomenon, it follows Paschen's law: the voltage is a function of partial
discharge (pd). Double all the dimensions and halve the gas pressure, and the corona voltage will be pretty much the
same.

A good high voltage design takes corona generation into account and provides design countermeasures to limit the
possibility of problems developing, ensuring that high voltage design does not have excessive field gradients,
preventing partial discharge and corona generation.

Figure 4-2.3: Corona on an Insulator String

Corona is a phenomenon that has the capability for degrading insulators, and causing systems to fail. In this
discussion, formulas are provided to calculate the voltage at which corona occurs, and a mention is made of a useful
application for corona.

1.1 Corona Inception

Corona inception voltage is the lowest voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse amplitude occurs as the
applied voltage is gradually increased. Corona inception voltage decreases as the frequency of the applied voltage
increases. Corona can occur in applications as low as 300V.

1.2 Corona Extinction

Corona extinction voltage is the highest voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse amplitude no longer
occurs as the applied voltage is gradually decreased from above the corona inception value. Thus, once corona starts,
the voltage must be decreased to get it to stop.

1.3 Corona Detection

Corona can be visible in the form of light, typically a purple glow, as corona generally consists of micro arcs. Darkening
the environment can help to visualize the corona. This can be demonstrated by attaching a camera (set to a long
exposure time) to a viewing window in a vacuum chamber to confirm that corona was indeed occurring.

One can often hear corona hissing or cracking. Thus, stethoscopes or ultrasonic detectors (assuming you can place
them in a safe location) can be used to find corona. In addition, one can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that
was produced by the corona.

The corona discharges in insulation systems result in voltage transients. These pulses are superimposed on the
applied voltage and may be detected, which is precisely what corona detection equipment looks for.

1.4 Corona Effects

The presence of corona can reduce the reliability of a system by degrading insulation. While corona is a low energy
process, over long periods of time, it can substantially degrade insulators, causing a system to fail due to dielectric
breakdown. The effects of corona are cumulative and permanent, and failure can occur without warning.

a) Insulator Without Corona Ring Installed

b) Identical Insulator Unit With Corona Ring Installed

Figure 4-2.4: Dead Side Stressing of a 132 kV Insulator

1.5 Corona Calculations

The following corona calculations are from Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering, F.W. Peek, 1929
1.5.1 Concentric Cylinders in Air
Corona will not form when RO/RI < 2.718. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
1.5.2 Parallel Conductors in Air:
Corona will not form when X/r < 5.85. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
1.5.3 Equal Spheres in Air:
Corona will not form when X/R < 2.04. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
Arcing difficult to avoid when X/R < 8

where:-
RO = Radius of outer concentric sphere
RI = Radius of inner concentric sphere
R = Sphere radius
rc = Conductor radius
X = Distance between wires or between spheres

1.6 Corona Prevention

Corona can be avoided by minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient. This is accomplished by using
utilizing good high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage
differentials, using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges. Corona
inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high
voltage putty or corona dope.

Also, use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting
materials work well. If one is limited to using air as your insulator, then one is left with geometry as the critical
parameter.

Finally, it must be ensured that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate unwanted voltage transients, which can cause
corona to start.
2. CORONA SURFACE FACTOR

Table 4-2.1 gives empirically determined correction factors for various surface conditions. These factors are multiplied
by the corona starting voltage (or field) to determine the corrected voltage.

Table 4-2.1: Correction Factor (mr) For Various Surfaces

Condition of Conductor mr
New, unwashed 0.67-0.74
Washed with grease solvent 0.91-0.93
Scratch-brushed 0.88
Buffed 1.00
Dragged and dusty 0.72-0.75
Weathered (5 months) 0.95
Weathered at low humidity 0.92
For general design 0.87-0.90
7 strand concentric lay cable 0.83-0.87
19, 37, and 61 strand concentric lay cable 0.80-0.85

3. ELIMINATING OR REDUCING CORONA

Smoothly radiusing the corners of objects at high voltages relative to nearby objects will reduce the local field strength.

One can place the sharp corner in something with a higher breakdown strength than air. The trick here is to make sure
that one has really got the replacement substance in contact with the conductor. By making the high field occur within a
substance with a higher breakdown than the surrounding air, corona can be reduced.

Covering sharp corners with an insulating film increases the corona starting voltage at the points with high electrical
stress. Generically known as "corona dope", this is an enamel or polystyrene paint or gel that can be applied. Glyptal
is one example, and clear nail polish has also been used. Clear acrylic spray paint is another alternative, although the
coating is quite thin.

Potting the entire assembly in an insulator (traditionally paraffin or sulphur were used, silicone RTV is a more popular
modern alternative) achieves the same result. Immersing the assembly in oil or other insulating fluids will also work. All
of the potting and immersion techniques depend on removing the air or gas bubbles to work. Commercial
manufacturers pull a vacuum on the container while the assembly is being potted to facilitate the removal of the air
bubbles. Experimenters building polyethylene and aluminium foil capacitors for Tesla coils run them at low powers
using the electrostatic forces between the plates to vibrate and pump the air bubbles out.

A popular approach to reducing corona on conductors is to surround the conductor by a semi-conducting film or layer
of greater radius. This effectively increases the radius of the object, and hence lowers the field strength. At times it may
be that a large amount of copper is not needed to carry the required current (often micro or milliamps), but require the
diameter of the conductor large enough to reduce or minimise the corona.

Field grading rings are often used on high voltage equipment to control the electric field distribution. Rather than rely on
the field that would exist in free space between two charged conductors, a series of other conductors are interposed at
intermediate voltages. The intermediate voltages are derived from a capacitive or resistive divider. A capacitive divider
may be as simple as the inter-electrode capacitances of the grading rings themselves.

Running the system in a tank at high pressure, or in an insulating gas, will increase the corona starting voltage

4. SYSTEM VOLTAGE LIMITS

The maximum system voltages that can be used with various conductors (size and number/phase) and conductor
bundle configurations can be calculated from the following formulae:

Table eq. 4-2.2: Corona Formulae

Conductors Per Conductor

Corona Formula
Phase Configuration
 G 
1 . VL = k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .4,19.d.lo g 10 . 
 1,9.d 
eq. 4-2.1

k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .8,39.d  1,27.G 
VL = .log 10
 a.d 
2 ..  d
1 + 
eq. 4-2.2

 a
k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .12,60.d  1,13.G 
VL = .log 10  3 2 
3
∴ 
 1 + 1,73. 
d  a .d  eq. 4-2.3

 a

k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .18,19.d  G 
VL = .log 10  4 3 
4 :: 
 1 + 2,12. 
d  a .d  eq. 4-2.4

 a

G = 3 L 12 . L 23 . L 31 eq. 4-2.5

where:-
VL = Maximum line-to-line voltage, kV rms
G = Geometric mean phase-to-phase spacing in mm
d = Conductor diameter, mm
a = Spacing between adjacent conductors of a phase bundle, mm
L12 = distance between phases 1 and 2
L23 = distance between phases 2 and 3
L31 = distance between phases 3 and 1
k1 = Correction factor for conductor surface
= 0,9 for aged conductor
= 0,8 for new conductor
k2 = Correction factor for weather
= 1,0 for fine weather
= 0,8 for rain, snow or fog
k3 = Correction factor for altitude
= 1,0 at sea level
=
RAD at altitude
= 0,88 at 1800 m for RAD = 0,79
RAD = Relative Air Density

Corona limit voltages calculated from these formulae for an altitude of 1800 m are scheduled in Table4-2.3

Table eq. 4-2.3: Conductor Bundles Required at Different Voltages

Material Maximum Nominal Voltage As Limit By Corona -

Reference Overall kV
Area Diameter 1 2 4
2
(mm ) (mm) Conductors Per Phase
All Aluminium 25 6,36 44 - -
40 7,95 66 - -
63 10,05 88 - -
100 12,75 88
160 16,75 132 220 275
250 22,25 132 275 400
400 26,25 220 330 400
500 29,75 220 330 400
630 33,75 275 400 -
800 38,25 330 400 -
SCA 25 7,08 44 - -
40 9,00 66 - -
50 10,05 88 - -
63 11,25 88 - -
100 14,25 88 - -
160 18,55 132 220 275
250 23,45 132 275 400
400 27,00 220 330 -
500 30,15 220 330 -
630 33,70 275 400 -

Copper 16 5,10 44 - -
25 6,36 44 - -
40 7,95 66 - -
63 10,05 88 - -
80 11,25 88 - -
100 13,25 88 - -
160 16,52 132 220 275
250 21,00 132 275 400
315 23,85 132 275 400
400 27,00 220 330 -

5. GENERAL INFORMATION

Corona discharges cause high frequency (hf) noise which may interfere with radio and/or television reception. The
Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) is measured in microvolts by direct coupling to the test specimen. The Radio Influence
(RI) is measured in microvolts/meter via loose coupling with a rod antenna.

General RIV levels are:

"Plumes" : 10,000 microvolts (µV)

"Brush" : 100-5000 microvolts (µV)

"Glow" : 10 microvolts (µV)

The effect on radio reception depends on the signal strength from the transmitting station and the following may be
taken as a general guide:

Table eq. 4-2.4: Radio Interference Effects at Various Distances form the Source

Signal Strength Distance For Freedom From Interference Moderate Interference

µv/m)
(µ (m) (m)
2000 43 18
1000 68 31
500 100 50
100 250 132
20 - 315

6. DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABILITY THAT CORONA WILL OCCUR FOR TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS

Equations 4-1.1 to 4-2.4 determine a single system voltage limit for given conductor sizes and geometries. This
section, however, deals with the calculation of conductor surface field strength, for single and bundle conductor
arrangements and compares inception levels at various voltages to determine if corona will be present at any given
voltage. In this manner, it is possible to change variable values to reduce the probability of corona.

6.1 Corona threshold limits (Ec)

Empirical expressions that were developed by Peek (UK) and Heymann (University of Pretoria) give corona threshold
field strengths for single conductors as follows:-

 0,03  10 kV
Peek : Ec = 3.mr.δ 1 + eq. 4-2.6
 .
rc.δ  2 cm
(rms)

 0,0937  10 kV
Heymann : Ec = 2,4.m r.δ 1 + . (rms) eq. 4-2.7
 (rc.δ )0,4
 2 cm

where:-

Ec = Corona threshold surface field strength

δ = Relative air density (RAD)
rc = Conductor radius in metres
mr = Factor to allow for surface roughness

Table 4-2.5: Typical values for mr

Type of Surface Factor for Surface Roughness (mr)

Polished Tubes 1,0
Extruded Tubes 0,95
Stranded Conductor 0,8

Two methods of determining the relative air density (RAD) is offered.

RAD can be determined from the reciprocal of equation 4-1.31

 Ha 
- m 
 8150 
δ=e (dimensionless) eq. 4-2.8

where:-
Ha = Altitude above sea level at which the RAD is being determined in metres (m)
m = A factor as determined from Figure 4-1.7

RAD can also be determined in terms of pressure and temperature.

p1 273 + T0
δ = . (dimensionless) eq. 4-2.9
p0 273 + T1

where:-

p0 = Pressure at the standard reference condition, e.g. 101,3 kPa or 760 mm/Hg
p1 = Pressure at another condition
o
T0 = Temperature at the standard reference condition, e.g. 20 C
T1 = Temperature at another condition

6.2 Calculation of Conductor Effective Surface Field Strength (Ec) for a Conductor Bundle using the Image
Method sp sp
b 2.rc
1 A 2 3 B 4 5 C 6
hc

Ground
Plane
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
hc

Figure 4-2.2: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Conductor Bundle Using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a bundle conductor arrangement as shown
Figure 4-2.2 above, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:

Q1  2.h c  Q 2  D 1  Q 3  D 2  Q 4  D 3 
V1 =
2.π.ε
.ln
 b  + 2.π.ε .ln  b  + 2.π.ε .ln  s  + 2.π.ε .ln  sp + b 
 p
eq. 4-2.10

Q5  D4 Q 6  D5 
+ .ln  + .ln   (Volts)
2.π.ε  2.s p  2.π.ε  2.s p + b 
where:-

V1 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 in volts

Q1,
Q2 ..... = instantaneous charges on conductors 1, 2 ...6 respectively in coulomb/m
Q6
2 2
ε = the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
rc = the radius of the conductor in metres
b = The geometric radius of the conductor bundle in metres
hc = height of conductors above ground in metres
sp = phase spacing in metres
D1,
D2 ....D = relative distances between conductors in metres
5

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the
o
conductor, but due to the fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120 and the algebraic sum of the
charges ∑nx =1 Qx = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5.Q cou1omb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q1 ≈ Q2 = Q eq. 4-2.11

Q3 ≈ Q4 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.12

Q5 ≈ Q6 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.13

Substitute in (4-2.11), (4-2.12) and (4-2.13) above into 4-2.10 and we get:-

Q   2.h c   D1  D2   D3   D4   D5 
V1 = Vn = .ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln   + ln   + ln    (Volts)
2. π.ε b   s p   s p + b   2.s p   2.s p + b  
  rc 
Simply written as:-

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 4-2.14a
2.π.ε

Vn
[P1 ].2.π.ε = Q
eq. 4-2.14b

where:-

Vn = Phase-to-neutral voltage in volts

 2.hc  + ln  D 1  − 0,5.ln  D 2  + ln  D 3  + ln  D 4  + ln  D 5 
P1 = ln
 rc  b         eq. 4-2.15
   s p   s p + b   2.s p   2.s p + b 
However, the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius rc and charge + q coulomb/m is given
by:-

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.16
2.π.ε.rc

Eq. 4-2.11 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E 1av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.17
2.π.ε.rc

where:-

Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m

rc = radius of conductor 1 in metres

Substitute for Q from (4-2.14b)

=
[Vn ].2. π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε rc
E
1av

Vn 1
=
[P1 ]
. kV/m (rms)
rc

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.18
2
3 P1r 10

with VL in kV (rms) and rc in metres.

The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.

However, when wires are close together as in a bundle, the charges influence each other and bring about a spatial
variation of the field. The actual variation of field strength round the circumference has been shown by several
investigators to closely follow a cosine relationship given by the equation:-


( ) ( )
dc
E e = E av . 1 + n - 1 . .cos θ eq. 4-2.19
 b 
where:-

n = number of conductors in a bundle

dc = conductor diameter in metres (m)
b = bundle diameter in metres (m)

Figure 4-2.3: Variation of the Electric Field Strength w.r.t Angular Position Relative to a Bundle Conductor

Experimental results, however, confirm that the corona threshold is reached when the field strength reaches halfway
o
between the average value and the maximum value, i.e. when θ = 45 , and where cosθ = 0,71.

This is termed the effective field strength and is given by:-

 
( )
dc
E e = E av . 1 + 0,71. n - 1 . eq. 4-2.20
 b 

The above is true even if each phase was made up of a single conductors where n = 1. The above relationship reduces
to:

E e = E av eq. 4-2.21

6.3 Calculation of Conductor Surface Field Strength (Em) for a Tubular Conductor using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a tubular conductor arrangement as shown in
Figure 4-2.4 below, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:

Q 11  2.h c  Q 12  D 12  Q 13  D 13 
V1 =
2. π.ε
.ln
 r  + 2.π.ε .ln  s  + 2. π.ε .ln  2.s  (Volts ) eq. 4-2.22
 c   p   p
The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.

Q 21  D 21  Q 22  2.h c  Q 23  D 23 
V2 = +
2. π.ε
.ln  .ln
 + .ln   (Volts ) eq. 4-2.23
 s p  2.π.ε  rc  2.π.ε  s p 
Q 31  D 31  Q 32  D 32  Q 33  2.h c 
V3 = .ln  + .ln  + .ln (Volts ) eq. 4-2.24
2. π.ε  
 2.s p  2.π.ε  s p  2.π.ε  rc 
where:-

V 1, V 2, V 3 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductors 1, 2 and 3

respectively in volts
Q11, Q12, Q13, = instantaneous charges on conductors 1, 2, 3 respectively in coulomb/m.
Q21, Q22, Q23,
Q31, Q32, Q33
2 2
ε = the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
dc = the diameter of the conductor in mm
rc = the radius of the conductor in mm
hc = height of conductors above ground in mm
sp = phase spacing in mm
D11, D12, D21, = relative distances between conductors in mm
D22, D31, D32

sp sp
dc

1 A 2 B 3 C

hc
Ground
Plane
D21 D31 D12 D32 D13 D23
hc

Figure 4-2.4: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Bus Tube Using the Image Method

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the
o
conductor, but due to the fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120 and the algebraic sum of the
charges ∑nx =1 Qx = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5Q cou1omb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q11 ≈ Q22 ≈ Q33 = Q eq. 4-2.25

Q12 ≈ Q13 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.26

Q21 ≈ Q23 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.27

Q31 ≈ Q32 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.28

Substitute in (4-2.25), (4-2.26) and (4-2.27) above into 4-2.22 to 4-1.24 and we get:-

Q   2.h c   D12  o
 D13  o

V1 = Vn = .ln   + ln  .cos120 + ln .cos240  (Volts) eq. 4-2.29
2. π.ε  sp   2.s p 
  rc  

Q   D 21  o  2.h c   D 23  o

V2 = Vn = .ln   .cos120 + ln   + ln  .cos240  (Volts) eq. 4-2.30
2. π.ε
  sp   rc   sp  

Q   D 31  o
 D 32  o  2.h c  
V3 = Vn = .ln  .cos120 + ln   .cos240 + ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.31
2. π.ε
  2.s p   sp   rc  

Simplified:-

Q   2.h c   D12   D13  

V1 = Vn = .ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.32
2. π.ε  sp   2.s p  
  rc 

Q   D 21   2.h c   D 23  
V2 = Vn = .− 0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.33
2. π.ε  sp   rc   sp  


Q   D 31   D 32   2.h c  
V3 = Vn = .− 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.34
2. π.ε  2.s p   sp   rc  


Written more simply:-

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 4-2.35
2.π.ε

V2 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P2 (Volts) eq. 4-2.36
2.π.ε

V3 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P3 (Volts) eq. 4-2.37
2.π.ε

where:-
Vn = Phase-to-neutral voltage in volts

 2.hc   D12   D13 

P1 = ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   eq. 4-2.38
 rc   sp   2.s p 
 D 21   2.h c   D 23 
P2 = −0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   eq. 4-2.39
 sp   rc   sp 

 D 31   D 32   2.h c 
P3 = −0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln  eq. 4-2.40
 2.s p   sp   rc 
In terms of the basic parameters:-

 2.h c 
P1 = ln  −


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + [2.s ] )
c
2
p
2

 0,5.ln eq. 4-2.41

 rc   sp   2.s p 
   

= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) + ln 2.h c 
−


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
)
P2   0,5.ln eq. 4-2.42
 sp   rc   sp 
   

P3 = −0,5.ln 
(
 [2.hc ]2 + [2.sp ]2 ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h 
c
2
p
2
c eq. 4-2.43

sp
 
sp
  rc 

However, the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius r and charge + q coulomb/m is given
by:

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.44
2.π.ε.rc

Eq. 4-2.44 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E1av = (Volts/m)
2.π.ε.rc
Q
E1av ≈ E 2av ≈ E 3av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.45
2.π.ε.rc
where:-
Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m
rc = radius of conductors 1, 2 and 3 in metres

Substitute for Q from (17.40)

E 1av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P1 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.46

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1 1
. .
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.47
3 P1r rc 10 2

with VL in kV (rms) and rbo in metres.

Similarly for the centre phase

E 2av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P2 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P2 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.48

E 2av
[V ]
= L .
1
.
1
.
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.49
3 P2r rc 10 2

For the outer phase

E 3av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P3 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P3 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.50

E 3av
[V ]
= L .
1 1
. .
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.51
3 P3r rc 10 2

6.4 A Sample Calculation Using A Tubular Busbar System

The following data is provided:-

System Voltage (VL) = 400 kV

Number of Phases = 3
Phase Spacing (sp) = 7m
Height above Ground (hc) = 5.8 m
No of Conductors per bundle = 1
Conductor Diameter = 200 mm (rbo = 0,1 m)

Assuming Values

Altitude = 1800 m

 Ha 
- m 
 8150 
δ=e
 1800 
-1 
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-2.8)

= 0,8 (dimensionless)

Typical values for mr are given in Table 4-2.5

Table 4-2.5: Typical values for mr

Type of Surface Factor for Surface Roughness (mr)

Polished Tubes 1,0
Extruded Tubes 0,95
Stranded Conductor 0,8
Factor for Surface Roughness (mr) = 1

 0,03  10
Ec = 3.mr.δ 1 +
 .
rbo.δ  2

 0,03  10
= 3.0,95.0,8 1 + .
Peek :
 0,1.0,8  2
(from eq. 4-2.6)
 0,03  10
= 3.0,95.0,8 1 + .
 0,1.0,8  2

kV
= 17,8325 (rms)
cm

 0,0937  10
E c = 2,4.m r .δ 1 + .
 (rc .δ ) 0,4
 2
 0,0937  10
Heymann : = 2,4.0,95.0 ,8 1 + . (from eq. 4-2.7)
 (0,1.0,8 ) 0,4
 2
kV
= 16,2168 (rms)
cm
Normally the average is found between the two of these and the result used to do the comparison to Em.

E c = E cpeek + E chymann

= 17,8325 + 16,2168

kV
= 17,0247 (rms)
cm
Calculate P1, P2 and P3

 2.h c   ([2.h ]2 + s p 2 )  ([2.h ]2 + [2.s p ]2 ) 

 − 0,5.ln  − 0,5.ln  
c c
P = ln 
1
 c 
r  sp   2.s p 
   

= ln
 2.5,8  
− 0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) − 0,5.ln ([2.5,8] 2
[ ]2 ) 
+ 2.7

(from eq. 4-2.41)
 0,1 
 7   2.7 
= 4,7536 − 0,3302 − 0,1307

= 4,2927 kV/cm (rms)


= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) + ln 2.h c 
−


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
)
P2   0,5.ln
 sp   rc   sp 
   

= −0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) + ln 2.5,8  − 0,5.ln ([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) (from eq. 4-2.42)
 
 7  0,1  7 
= −0,3302 + 4,7536 − 0,3302

= 4,0932 kV/cm (rms)

P3 = −0,5.ln 
(
 [2.hc ]2 + [2.sp ]2 
 − 0,5.ln 
)
 ([2.hc ]2 + sp2 )  2.h 
 + ln  r c 
  c 
2.sp sp
  

= −0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
[ ]2 ) 
+ 2.7 
 − 0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) + ln 2.5,8  (from eq. 4-2.43)
 
 7   7  0,1

= −0,1307 − 0,3302 + 4,7536

= 4,2927 kV/cm (rms)

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1 1
. .
1
3 P1r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . 2
. . (from eq. 4-2.47)
3 4,2927 0,1 10
= 5,3798 kV/cm (rms)

E 2av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
3 P2r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . . . 2 (from eq. 4-2.49)
3 4,0932 0,1 10
= 5,6420 kV/cm (rms)

E 3av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
3 P3r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . 2
. . (from eq. 4-2.51)
3 3,9462 0,1 10
= 5,3798 kV/cm (rms)

Comparing each Eiav (E1av, E2av and E3av) to the inception value Ec of 17,0247 kV/cm, one finds that the E1av,E2av and
E3av values, which are the actual voltage gradients on the surface of the conductors, are far less than the inception
value, hence there will be no corona.

A Pascal computer program based on the image method as discussed in the above was developed for calculation of
conductor surface field strengths, as well as corona threshold limits.

The corona calculation program will calculate the maximum electric field strength as well as the corona threshold limit
for single and bundle stranded conductors and tubular conductors.

An example of the input and output of the program is shown below for a 200 mm diameter tubular conductor at 1800 m
above sea level. These are the same values used in the calculations above and comparing results one can see that
they are the same.

6.5 Effective Field Strength for Typical Outdoor Busbar Configurations

For the conductor system to be corona free, the effective field strength (average voltage gradient at the surface of the
bus conductor) Ee must be less than the corona threshold surface field strength Ec.

Ee < Ec ⇒ no corona

Equation 4-2.19 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using single, double and tubular conductors give values for
effective field strengths at line voltages of 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV respectively. Results are shown in Tables 4-2.6
to 4-2.12.

The program BUSBAR was developed to calculate the effective field strength Ee and compare it to the value Ec, the
equation of which was determined experimentally and fitted with the equations 4-2.6 and 4-2.7. A typical BUSBAR
report sheet is shown below.

Table 4-2.13: Corona Threshold Surface Field Strength for Various Conductors

CONDUCTOR DETAILS PEEK HEYMANN

Type Conductor mr Ec Ec
Diameter (mm) kV / cm (rms) kV / cm (rms)
Tubular Conductor 50 0,95 19,54 18,68
Tubular Conductor 75 0,95 18,91 17,81
Tubular Conductor 100 0,95 18,54 17,28
Tubular Conductor 150 0,95 18,10 16,62
Tubular Conductor 200 0,95 17,83 16,22
Tubular Conductor 250 0,95 17,65 15,93

If the equipment conductor height (hc) meets the corona performance criterion Ee < Ec, then as far as corona
performance is concerned, that height is fixed. If, however, Ee is very close to Ec or Ee ≥ Ec, corona will result, requiring
the conductor height (hc) to be increased. Ee is recalculated for a larger value of hc. Ee should be at least 5-6kV/m less
than Ec to allow for slight variations in the conductor height. A suitable conductor height can be determined through
iteration, increasing hc until Ec = (Ee + 5) kV/m

7. SUBSTATION CONDUCTOR HEIGHTS DETERMINED BY CORONA PERFORMANCE

There are several factors that have an influence on the height of conductors above ground level amongst which are
statutory clearances to the base of equipment porcelains, safe vertical working clearance, corona inception levels and
allowable electric and magnetic field strengths within the boundaries of the substation, and on the substation perimeter
edges where the public has access. At low voltage levels, vertical working clearance and possibly magnetic field
strengths (assuming high current levels) would dominate. At high voltage levels (EHV and UHV) corona performance
and electric field strengths would dominate. The Statutory clearance to the base of equipment porcelains applies to all
voltages.

7.1 Ensuring Electrical Clearances are not Infringed Upon

Having met all the horizontal phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase electrical clearances and thus establishing the bay
width, the height of the inter-equipment conductors needs to be determined.

The equipment level conductors need to meet at least the sum of the statutory clearance to the base of the equipment
porcelain (hs), the height from the base of the equipment porcelain to the equipment connection terminal (het), and
particularly in the case where stranded flexible conductors to interconnect items of equipment, the expected sag in the
inter-equipment conductor (sc). This value (hc) needs to equal or exceed the safe vertical working clearance (Cwv).

Cpe Cpe het

hc ≥Cwv

(a) Elevation transverse to an equipment bay (across the phases)

het
EB

Cwv

C C C
L L L

CB CT ES

4-2.1: Determining the Inter- equipment Conductor Height

As a starting point therefore:-

hc = hs + het − sc ≥ Cwv (4-2.52)

Where:-

hc = Height of the lowest point of the equipment inter-connector conductor above the equipment foundation
top of concrete in mm

hs = Statutory clearance to the base of the equipment porcelain in mm

het = Height from the base of the equipment porcelain to the equipment connection terminal in mm

sc = Expected sag in the inter-equipment conductors (applicable when stranded flexible conductors are
used) in mm

sp = Phase spacing in mm

(4-2.52) would suffice for low system voltages with low phase currents, where electric and magnetic field strengths
would probably be below the recommended safe levels. However, as a general guideline, and for illustrating the
complete analysis process, the remaining criteria need to be checked, viz. corona inception levels and allowable
electric and magnetic field strengths within the boundaries of the substation, and on the substation perimeter edges
where the public has access. These would in any event be required at EHV and UHV levels.

7.2 Corona Requirements

7.2.1 Substation Conductor Heights (determine corona performance)

The busbar conductor needs to be corona-free during fair weather conditions. This is generally not too difficult to
achieve with tubular conductors that are normally over-dimensioned for ampacity in order to meet mechanical strength
requirements. In order to ensure corona-free operation, the maximum value of the surface voltage gradient on the bus
conductor (Em) must be less than the surface voltage gradient at the corona inception or threshold limit (Ec)

The surface field strength on a tubular conductor is dependant on various factors such as height above ground, tube
diameter, and to a lesser degree, phase spacing (sp).

The corona inception or threshold limits for various single conductors are listed in Table 4-2.13. Theoretically it should
be possible to reduce these figures by a reasonable safety factor and then select a suitable tube size from tables for
that particular voltage. However, another factor that should be borne in mind is the span length that might necessitate
the use of a much larger tube to meet the mechanical strength requirements as discussed in SLDG 41-2. Under such
conditions, the increased diameter would also contribute to a lower surface field strength as mentioned further on in
this chapter.

To give the substation designer a bit of leeway, the recommendation would be to consider two separate sets of
conditions as follows:-

• Relatively short span lengths without welds and ;

• Long span lengths where welds may be essential (today imported tubes of lengths up to 30m are possible, thus
negating the requirement of welds).

17.2.2.3 Effective field strength for typical outdoor busbar configurations

Equation 4-2.20 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using single, double and bundle conductors give values for
effective field strengths at line voltages of 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV respectively. Results are shown in Tables 42.6
to 4-2.12 in Appendix D of this dissertation.

Ee < Ec ⇒ no corona
18 REFERENCES

Cobine, p278 quoting W.S. Peterson, AIEE Trans, 52, 62, 1933

EFFECTIVE FIELD STRENGTH ON THE SURFACE OF TUBULAR CONDUCTORS IN 765kV, 400kV AND 275kV THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
Table 4-2.6: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 765 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 14m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
12 1 19,69 20,39 19,69 15,51 16,10 15,51 13,36 13,87 13,36 11,14 11,59 11,14 8,83 9,21 8,83
14 1 - - - - - - 13,22 13,78 13,22 - - - - - -

Table 4-2.7: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 765 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 14m, n = 2
Tube 50 mm Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
12 100 2 21,02 21,80 21,02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
12 125 2 - - - 15,61 16,23 15,61 - - - - - - - - -
12 150 2 19,90 20,70 19,90 - - - 12,70 13,20 12,70 - - - - - -
12 175 2 - - - 14,74 15,34 14,74 - - - - - - - - -
12 200 2 - - - - - - 12,00 12,50 12,00 9,41 9,83 9,41 - - -
12 250 2 - - - - - - - - - 8,96 9,37 8,96 7,62 7,98 7,62
12 300 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - 7,31 7,66 7,31

Table 4-2.8: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 7m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,01 8,36 8,01 6,72 7,03 6,72 5,38 5,64 5,38 4,53 4,77 4,53

Table 4-2.9: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 6m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,17 8,58 8,17 6,86 7,22 6,86 5,50 5,81 5,50 4,65 4,92 4,65

Table 4-2.10: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 5m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,39 8,87 8,39 7,05 7,48 7,05 5,66 6,02 5,66 4,79 5,13 4,79

Table 4-2.11: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 275 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 4,5m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc b
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,0 - 1 8,57 9,02 8,57 6,83 7,20 6,83 5,92 6,26 5,92 4,99 5,28 4,99 4,01 4,27 4,01

Table 4-2.12: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 275 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 4m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,0 - 1 8,72 9,21 8,72 6,95 7,37 6,95 6,03 6,41 6,03 5,09 5,42 5,09 4,10 4,39 4,10

hc = Height above ground level

dc = Bus tube diameter
n = Number of conductors per phase bundle

BUSBAR REPORT SHEET

CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM

System Voltage (kV) 400.00000000

Number of Phases 3
Phase Spacing (m) 7.00000000
Height above Ground (m) 5.80000000
No of Conductors per bundle 1
Conductor Diameter (mm) 200.00000000
Centipede = 26.46 Zebra = 28.6 Bull = 38.4
Conductor on Circle Y/N N
Bundle should be centred round phase position
Input Co-ordinates should be relative to phase position
and be given in mm
X Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Y Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Input effective bundle diameter in mm 1.00000000
CORONA THRESHOLD LIMITS
Relative Air Density 0.80000000
Surface Factor: 0.95000000
Polished Tubes = 1.0
Extruded Tubes = 0.95
Stranded Conductor = 0.8
Maximum Electric Field Strength
Corona Threshold limit = 17.024 kV/cm
Phase 1: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 2: 5.6419 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 3: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Another try? Y/N Y
______________________________________________________________________

SLDG 4-3
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION

Environmental conditions affect the performance of high voltage insulators in a number of ways. These are discussed
briefly below.

The direction and speed of the wind, precipitation (rain, dew, fog), relative humidity and the position of pollution sources
all determine the final pollution deposit on an insulator surface. Particles become wind-borne and can be carried over
great distances before fall-out occurs. Salt storms or conductive industrial fogs can also result in the deposition of a
highly conductive electrolytic layer on an insulator surface. Solar radiation can also heat the insulator surface during the
day, helping to prevent wetting, or heat the atmosphere at sunrise, resulting in the formation of dew. Thus, the
environment drives insulator pollution flashovers.

Weather parameters, such as ultraviolet solar radiation, can have detrimental effects (chalking, crazing, and cracking) on
the ageing of non-ceramic materials.

The direction and speed of the wind, temperature, ice and snow loading, and seismic events can influence the
mechanical forces on an insulator.

Lightning activity, soil resistivity, change in air density and bird streamers can affect the insulator flashover performance.

The various environmental considerations are discussed below.

2. POLLUTION

There are two main insulator pollution processes: pre-deposited pollution that accumulates over time and then needs to
be wetted to form a conducting electrolyte, and instantaneous pollution that is already a conducting electrolyte.
2.1 Pre-deposited Pollution

Pre-deposited pollution is classified into two main categories: active pollution that forms a conductive layer, and inert
(non-soluble) pollution that forms a binding layer for the conductive pollution and also contributes to the area available for
leakage current flow.

Pre-deposited active pollution is measured in terms of conductivity, and the inert non-soluble pollution in terms of mass.

Marine: salt and sand

Industrial: chemical emissions and waste products

Agricultural: soil, fertilisers, weed killers and crop burning

Desert: sand and salt

Other: salted roads and bird droppings.

2.2 Instantaneous Pollution

‘Instantaneous pollution’ refers to a contaminant of high conductivity which quickly deposits on insulator surfaces,
resulting in the condition where the insulator changes from an acceptably clean, low conductive state, to flashover in a
short time (< 1 hour) and then returns to a low conductive state when the event has passed. Salt or conductive industrial
fogs are good examples of sources that lead to instantaneous pollution events. Instantaneous events can be detected by
surface conductance or leakage current measurements.

Marine: salt fog

Industrial: acid fog

Agricultural: crop spraying

Desert: coastal fog

Other: bird streamers.

Figure 1: Typical Sources of Insulator Pollutants

a) Agricultural, b) Marine, c) Fires, d) Dust and Salt Roads, E) Trucks and Motorcar Emissions, f) Industrial, g)
Domestic Cooking and Heating, h) Birds

3. WEATHER

Weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, rain, fog, wind, solar radiation, snow and ice, lightning and air density
can affect the ultimate electrical and/or mechanical performance of high voltage insulators.
3.1 Temperature

The ambient temperature plays a role in the wetting of insulators. When an insulator surface temperature falls below the
atmospheric dew point temperature, dew (moisture condensation) will form on the insulator surface. This phenomenon
often occurs in the early morning hours when the insulator is at a lower temperature than that of the ambient air, when
the ambient temperature of the moist air is heated by the first rays of the sun.

Temperature also has a small effect on the breakdown strength of air. This is taken into account in Section 3.9, where
the air density correction for withstand voltage is discussed.

Ambient temperature has some effect on the insulator loading due to its influence on the conductor tension.
3.2 Humidity

Relative humidity is an indicator of the moisture level in the atmosphere. When the relative humidity is high (> 75%) there
is a good chance that the pollution on an insulator surface could be wetted. This could then dissolve, forming a
conductive electrolytic layer, and resulting in the flow of leakage currents. High levels of relative humidity for long periods

of time can also lead to the washing off of pollution from an insulator surface. There is a good correlation between
electrical activity and relative humidity. In areas with constant high humidity, especially when combined with high
temperatures, certain insulator materials can be overstressed, resulting in degradation by hydrolysis.
3
As a rule of thumb, the withstand voltage of air increases by 0.2% for every 1 g/m gain in absolute humidity. It thus must
be appreciated that a high humidity has no direct adverse effect on the withstand voltage of an insulator, but it is the
resultant wetting of the contaminants on the insulator surface which may cause a pollution flashover.
3.3 Rain

Rain, too, wets the surface contaminants to form a conductive layer. Further, acid rain can increase the conductivity.
However, rain can also have the beneficial effect of washing pollution from an insulator surface. Rain in excess of 10
mm/h can remove up to 90% of the pollution from a ceramic or glass insulator surface. In addition, light rain may leach
out active pollution. A combination of rain and wind is a good natural insulator cleaner.
3.4 Fog

Fog forms as moisture condenses on particles when the temperature of a volume of air falls below its dew point, caused
by the cooling of the ground (radiation fog), or when warm air moves over a cooler surface (advection fog). If the particles
are conductive and soluble, for example salt, a conductive fog forms.

Fog has an adverse effect on insulator performance by wetting the surface contaminants, which may lead to flashover
before any significant cleaning can occur. Should the fog be conductive then flashover can take place in a short period,
even if the insulator was initially clean.
3.5 Wind

Wind plays a major role in the transportation and deposition of pollution and moisture on an insulator surface. The
relationship found between salt deposit density (SDD) and wind shows that the pollution deposit increases with the wind
speed to the power three (cubic relationship). Pollution deposition on an insulator surface is not uniform but strongly
dependent on the shed shape. Strong winds carrying sand particles or rain may remove pollution from an insulator
surface.

Wind, owing to the pressure it exerts on conductors, influences the mechanical loading on an insulator.
3.6 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation plays a significant role in the heating of the ambient air mass. This, in turn, has an influence on wind
speeds and direction, and relative humidity levels. Solar radiation also heats the insulator surface. As previously stated in
Section 3.1, if the insulator surface temperature is below the ambient dew point, wetting of the insulator surface occurs.
During the day solar radiation keeps the insulator surface at a temperature higher than ambient, resulting in a lower
probability of surface wetting. The high-energy UV-B photons may age polymeric materials.
3.7 Ice and Snow

Ice and snow can have a detrimental effect on the flashover performance of insulators. Further, the accumulation of ice
and snow on conductors, as shown in Figure 4-3.2, increases the mechanical loading on insulators.

Figure 4-3.2: Ice Formed Around a Conductor. (Courtesy of Arni Jon Eliasson)

The icing up of isolator heads on opening can result in severe mechanical forces being applied to the support insulators.
3.8 Lightning

Lightning can cause insulator flashover by a direct strike to the phase conductor, shield wire or structure causing back
flashover, or induced overvoltage. As explained in SLDG 4-1, the insulator must be able to withstand the naturally
induced lightning impulses without puncture or damage from flashover.

Lightning severity must be considered in the selection of insulators. This can be measured in terms of ground flash
2
density (number of strikes per km per year) or, if such figures are not available, isoceraunic level (number of
thunderstorm days per year).

Detailed data may also be available from lightning location systems which give the position and intensity of the lightning
activity.

It should be noted that, in terms of BIL, the effect of pollution on the lightning impulse flashover voltage is small and not
normally considered in the dimensioning of the insulator.
3.9 Air Density

Air density changes as a function of altitude, which in turn influences the withstand voltage of air. The withstand voltage
(V1) of air at atmospheric pressure (P1) and ambient temperature (T1) is given as:-

 P1   273 + T0 
V1 = V0 .
 P . 273 + T  eq. 4-3.1
 0  1 

where:-

V0 = Withstand voltage at standard atmospheric conditions

P0 = Standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa or 760 mm Hg
T1 = Standard ambient temperature of 20 °C

As an approximation, using equation 4-3.1, the withstand voltage of air decreases by 1% for every 100 m increase in
altitude.

For pollution flashover of insulators, an increase of 1000 m in altitude only decreases the breakdown voltage by about
2% and can thus be ignored.

4. SITE SEVERITY ASSESSMENT

Site severity assessment, based on the measurement of pollution levels and a study of the weather conditions, is
required to define the environment in which an insulator is expected to operate. To establish the pollution level either the
surface deposit on an insulator is measured or directional dust deposit gauges are used. Both these methods are
discussed below.

An insulator pollution-monitoring device (IPMD), which caters for both pre-deposited and instantaneous pollution events,
is also introduced as an alternative pollution severity measurement technique.
4.1 Surface Pollution Deposit Technique

The surface pollution deposit technique determines the natural pollution deposit on an insulator after an interval of time,
during which some natural washing may have occurred. Both the active and inert pollution are measured.

A string of seven cap-and-pin disc insulators is installed at a height of at least 3 m, and clear of obstructions, at the site to
be assessed. The first and last disc in the string are not tested, but are used to ensure aerodynamic similarity in the
string. The active and inert (non-soluble) pollution values are determined (as described in Section 4.1.1 and Section

4.1.2) monthly on disc two, three-monthly on disc three, six-monthly on disc four, yearly on disc five and two-yearly on
disc six. The maximum values obtained during the test period are used to determine the site severity class.

If the above test procedure cannot be used then a surface pollution deposit measurement on existing insulators in the
network can be made. However, this is more risky as the measurement is one snapshot in time, and could indicate a
lower pollution severity for the site than is really the case.
4.1.1 Active Pollution – Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD)
2
The ESDD value is defined as the equivalent amount of NaCl deposit, in mg/cm , on the surface area of an insulator
which will have an electrical conductivity equal to that of the actual deposit dissolved in the same amount of water.

The ESDD technique involves washing of the contaminants from the insulator surface with distilled water and measuring
the conductivity of the solution obtained.

The measurement procedure for a cap-and-pin disc insulator is as follows:

4.1.1.1 On Site

a). Without touching the glass or porcelain surface, cover the metal cap and pin with plastic cling wrap.

b). Measure a volume of 500 to 1000 ml of demineralised water of conductivity less than 5 µS/cm and pour into a clean
bowl.

c). Place the test insulator on its cap in the water and wash the top surface with gentle hand strokes. On completion, turn
the insulator over and wash the bottom surface.

d). Remove the insulator, gently shaking off any remaining water into the bowl. Pour the wash water into a labelled
container, taking care that all the deposits are transferred from the bowl and the gloves.

Note:

1. Wear clean surgical gloves to avoid the possibility of contamination.

2. The bowl, container, measuring cylinder, etc. must also be washed well enough to remove any electrolytes prior to the
measurement.

3. The top and bottom surfaces of the cap-and-pin disc insulator can also be treated separately.
4.1.1.2 Measurement Location

a). Swirl or stir the wash water solution until all the soluble salts are dissolved.

b). Measure and record the volume conductivity and temperature of the solution.

c). The ESDD value is obtained from the measurements of the volume conductivity, solution temperature, and volume of
the wash water solution. A conductivity probe measures the volume conductivity, σt, at the solution temperature Ts. If
the instrument used does not automatically compensate for temperature then the measurement must be corrected to
a standard temperature of 20 °C by using the equation:-

[ (
σ 20 = σ t . 1 − k t Ts − 20 )] eq. 4-3.2

where:-

σt = Measured volume conductivity, in µS/cm

Ts = Solution temperature, in °C
σ20 = Volume conductivity corrected to 20 °C
kt = Temperature constant

The temperature constant is calculated using the equation:-

-8 3 -5 2 -4 3 -2
k t = −3,200.10 .t s2 + 1,032.10 .t s − 8,272.10 .t s2 + 3,544.10 eq. 4-3.3

The salinity, Sa (kg/m3), of the solution at 20°C is given as:-

(
S a = 5,7.10- 4.σ 20 )1,03 eq. 4-3.4

The equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD) in mg/cm2 is given as:-

S a .Vd
ESDD = eq. 4-3.5
A ins

where:-
3
Vd = Volume of distilled water used, in cm
2
Ains = Area of washed/sampled insulator, in cm

Note:

1) The inert component of the wash water solution can be measured using the method described in Section 4.1.2.

2) For more detailed information on the constituents and/or source of the pollution, the wash water solution may be
sent to a laboratory for comprehensive chemical analysis.

4.1.2 Inert Pollution – Non-soluble Deposit Density (NSDD)

The NSDD defines the amount of non-soluble, inert pollution deposit per square centimetre of the insulator surface. The
NSDD measurement is normally performed using the wash water solution obtained from the ESDD measurements. The
liquid is filtered through a pre-dried, clean and weighed filter paper of grade GF/A 1,6 µm or similar, and the
contaminated filter paper is then dried and weighed.

The NSDD value is calculated using:-

M2 − M1
NSDD = eq. 4-3.6
A ins

where:-
2
NSDD = Non-soluble deposit density, in mg/cm
M1 = Weight of dry clean filter paper, in mg
M2 = Weight of dry contaminated filter paper, in mg

4.2 Directional Dust Deposit Gauge Technique

The dust gauge, as shown in Figure 4.3, comprises four vertical tubes each with a slot milled in the side - these being so
arranged as to face north, south, east and west. A removable container which collects the deposits blown into the slots is
attached to the bottom of each tube.

These containers are removed at monthly intervals, their contents mixed with 500 ml of demineralised water and the
conductivities of the solutions measured. The pollution index is defined as the average of the conductivities of the four
directions, expressed in µS/cm, and normalised to a 30-day interval. To facilitate international comparison of results, the
slot size as shown in Figure 4-3.3 should be used.

Collection 40mm
Tubes
30mm

Collection
Jars

351mm

500mm
Support
Column

Figure 4-3.3: Directional Dust Deposit Gauges as Installed (a), and Dimensions (b).

The monthly measurement procedure is as follows:

4.2.1 On Site Data

a). Remove the four collection jars from the tube ends and close with the lids provided.

b). Record the date of removal on the jar label.

c). Attach four clean jars to the tubes, having completed the label on each jar to indicate the site, the direction and the
date of installation.

4.2.2 Measurement Location

a). Add 500 ml of demineralised water to each collection jar. The conductivity of the water must be less than 5 µS/cm.
Should the vessel contain rain water, add demineralised water to make up the volume to 500 ml. If, owing to heavy
rainfalls, there is more than 500 ml in the jar, no additional water is required.

b). Swirl or stir the contents until all the soluble salts are dissolved.

c). Measure the conductivity of the solution - preferably with a conductivity meter which automatically corrects the
reading to 20 °C. If the meter is not compensated to 20 °C, then measure the temperature of the solution as well.

d). If the volume of the solution is not 500 ml, for example in the case of excessive rain having accumulated in the jar,
measure the actual volume.

e). Calculate the corrected conductivity for each direction – this being the conductivity at 20 °C, expressed in µS/cm, and
normalised to a volume of 500 ml and a 30-day month. The normalised DDG value is calculated using the equation:-

Vd 30
DDG = σ 20 . . eq. 4-3.7
500 D

where:-

DDG = Directional deposit gauge conductivity, in µS/cm

D = Days DDG installed

If the conductivity reading is not compensated for temperature by the measuring instrument, the value can be
corrected to 20 °C using Equations 4-3.2 and 4-3.3.

f). Calculate the Pollution Index (PI) for the month by taking the average of the four corrected directional conductivities,
expressed in µS/cm, i.e.

DDGNorth + DDG South + DDGEast + DDG West

PI = eq. 4-3.8
4

Note:

1). Some contamination can collect on the inside of the tubes and will be washed into the collection jars when it rains.
The pollution indices for the wet months may therefore show slightly higher values than those when there was no
precipitation. If the readings are averaged over a period then this makes no difference. However, if very accurate
monthly figures are required, then the internal walls of the tube can be rinsed off using a squeeze bottle of
demineralised water before the collecting jars are removed for analysis.

b) If an assessment of the non-soluble deposit is required, following the conductivity measurements, the solutions should
be filtered using a funnel and pre-dried and weighed filter paper of grade GF/A 1,6 µm or similar. The paper should
then be dried and weighed again. The weight difference then represents the Non-Soluble Deposit (NSD).

c) For more detailed information on the constituents and/or source of the pollution, the gauge contents may be sent to a
laboratory for comprehensive chemical analysis.

4.3 Site Severity Class

The site severity class is determined from the surface deposit and dust gauge measurements as described below.

4.3.1 Surface deposit index

The Surface Deposit Index is directly given by the ESDD value, calculated as described in Section 4.1.1.

The relationship between the respective pollution severity classes and the surface deposit index, preferably measured
over a period of at least one year, is tabulated in Table 4-3.1.

Table 4-3.1: Surface Deposit Index in Relation to Severity Class

Surface Deposit Index, Pollution

2
ESDD (mg/cm ) Severity Class
(Monthly Maximum)
< 0.06 I Light 16 mm/kV
0.06 – 0.12 II Medium 20 mm/kV
> 0.12 – 0.24 II Heavy 25 mm/kV
> 0.24 IV Very Heavy 31 mm/kV

To take into account the influence of the non-soluble contaminants, as a rule of thumb, the site severity class should be
2
increased by one level if the measured NSDD value is above 2 mg/cm , or, if not measured, a high NSDD is expected
such as encountered in the vicinity of a cement factory.

4.3.2 Dust Deposit Gauge Pollution Index

The site severity class can be obtained from the monthly average or the maximum of the pollution indices measured by
the dust gauge.

The relationship between the site severity class and the pollution index, preferably measured over a period of at least
one year, is provided in the Table 4-3.2.

Table 4-3.2: Dust Deposit Gauge Pollution Index in Relation to Site Severity Class

Pollution
Dust deposit gauge pollution index, PI (µS/cm)
Severity Class

(Monthly Average) (Monthly Maximum) Creepage

(mm/kV)
0 to 75 0 to 175 I Light 16
76 to 200 176 to 500 II Medium 20
201 to 350 501 to 850 II Heavy 25
> 350 > 850 IV Very Heavy 31

If weather data for the site in question is available then the dust deposit gauge pollution index can be adjusted to take
into account climatic influences. This is done by multiplying the pollution index value (PI), as determined in Section 4.2
above, by the climatic factor (Cf).

The climatic factor is given by:-

Fd Dm
.
Cf = 20 3 eq. 4-3.9
2

where:-

Fd = Number of fog days (≤ 1000 m horizontal visibility) per year

Dm = Number of dry months (< 20 mm of precipitation) per year

To take into account the influence of the non-soluble contaminants, as a rule of thumb, the site severity class should be
increased by one level if a high NSDD is expected such as encountered in the vicinity of a cement factory.

4.4 Other Pollution Assessment Methods

4.4.1 Localised Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (LESDD)

To obtain an estimate of the severity of a pollution layer on an insulator in service, a localised ESDD (LESDD)
measurement can be undertaken using the method as discussed in the paper “A novel method to measure the
contamination level of insulators – spot contamination measurement”.

Figure 4.4: LESDD Sampling Tool and Associated Toolbox with Measuring Equipment

The LESDD is calculated using the same equations as those for the ESDD - the only differences being the surface area
tested and the volume of distilled water used. However, care must be exercised in the interpretation of the results. It must
be appreciated that the ESDD values shown in Table 4-3.1 relate to the contaminant averaged over the entire surface of
the insulator and not a single small area.

4.3.4.2 Surface conductivity hand probe

The conductivity of a pollution layer on an insulator can be measured using the hand probe described in IEC 60507. The
hand-held meter is connected to a probe consisting of two spherical electrodes that are pressed onto the insulator
surface. The test area is slightly wetted with demineralised water to dissolve the pollutant. The surface conductivity value
between 0 and 500 µS is then indicated on the meter. The measured conductivity is, however, a function of the amount
of wetting, which cannot be accurately controlled.

The hand probe readings usually do not correlate well with ESDD readings or most other pollution monitoring devices.
The probe readings are rather used to compare localised deposits.

Figure 4.5: IEC Surface Conductivity Hand Probe.

4.4.3 Automated Insulator Pollution Monitoring

For more detailed and frequent assessment of site conditions instruments have been designed to automatically
determine the severity of the pre-deposited pollution at selectable intervals and to record instantaneous pollution events.
Some also allow the monitoring of the leakage current amplitudes on in-service insulators.

Typical measurements performed are:-

• Insulator surface conductivity under natural pollution and wetting.

• Insulator surface conductivity under natural pollution but with artificial wetting (An estimated ESDD value may also be
calculated for every measurement).

• The leakage current amplitude on in-service insulators.

An alarm could be generated when pre-deposited and instantaneous pollution levels reach critical values and the data
collected may be downloaded via cell modem and pollution profiles in relation to time displayed.

Figure 4-3.6: An Insulator Pollution Monitoring Device (IPMD) Installed in the Field

Typical results obtained from an in-service IPMD are shown in Figure 4-3.7. As both pre-deposited and instantaneous
pollution levels are recorded daily, the natural pollution and wetting events are not averaged out over a month. This
eliminates the possibility of missing singular severe pollution events, as is the case with both the surface pollution deposit
and directional dust deposit gauge methods.

Figure 4-3.7: Typical IPMD Field Measurement Results

The measurements in Figure 4-3.7 show both the surface conductivity under natural wetting and ESDD under artificially
wetted conditions.

4.4.4 Existing insulator performance

The performance of insulators already existing at the site can give valuable information regarding the severity of the
environment. The history of faults on the system and operational experience should be studied to establish whether
pollution may pose a problem. The insulators themselves should also be examined for signs of leakage current activity.
Typical signs include evidence of flashover, erosion of the dielectric material or corrosion of metal fittings. For example,
pin corrosion on disc type insulators, as shown in Figure 4-3.8, is a good indicator of significant leakage current activity
over the insulator surface and can be taken as a warning of high pollution severity or under-insulation.

Figure 4.8: Pin Corrosion on Disc Type Insulators.

By monitoring the leakage currents on nearby in-service insulators, a good indication of site severity can be obtained.
The comparison of the highest amplitude measured (Ihighest) with Imax (as calculated from Equation 4-3.12) shows the
likelihood of flashover of the monitored unit and the specific creepage required for the site.

Sample calculation

Over a period of two years, an Ihighest value of 165 mA peak was measured on a 132 kV string of ten glass cap and pin
discs (ni) each of creepage distance (dcr) 290 mm. Examination of the insulator pins showed no signs of corrosion.
Based on this information, need to determine the indicated site severity class.

System highest voltage (Um) = 145 kV

(Dcr) = ni. dcr eq. 4-3.10

= 10 x 290

= 2900 mm

where:-

Dcr = Total creepage distance of insulator string in mm/kV

Dcr
S CD =
Um
2900
= eq. 4-3.11
145
= 20 mm/kV

where:-

SCD = specific creepage distance in mm/kV

2
I max = 
 S CD 

 15,32 
2
 20 
=  eq. 4-3.12
 15,32 
= 1,704 A (peak)

As Ihighest is less than 10% of Imax, it is apparent that the existing insulator is coping well with the environmental
conditions. This is supported by the lack of corrosion of the pins. With reference to Table 4-3.2, a specific creepage
distance of 20 mm/kV is the recommended value for areas of “Medium” pollution severity. The Severity Class for this
particular site thus appears to be in the “Light” to “Medium” range. A conservative approach would be to insulate for the
latter.

It should be noted that the relationship between the Ihighest/Imax ratio and the probability of flashover is not linear but
exponential. Thus, if Ihighest exceeds 20% of Imax the insulation should be designed for at least one pollution class higher
than the monitored unit.

5. NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS

The numbers of disc insulators (ni) to be used for various system voltages under light, medium, heavy and very heavy
pollution conditions can be determined as follows:-

Dcr .Um
ni = (from eq. 4-3.10)
dcr

Since glass insulator discs can fail as a result of any variety of reasons, it is usual to include one or two additional discs
in a string to allow for this, otherwise the remaining discs become more highly stressed and effectively result in a lower
creepage distance.

Table 4-3.3: Number of Glass Discs for Various System Voltages

Number of Glass Insulator Discs (U120) Composite

(Creepage per Disc = 291 mm) Insulator
connecting
Length
String Type I-String Vee – Suspension String Vee – Strain String
Pollution Class Light Medium Heavy Very Light Medium Heavy Very Light Medium Heavy Very Heavy
Heavy Heavy Heavy

Creepage (mm/kV)at Um 16 20 25 31 16 20 25 31 16 20 25 31

System Voltage (kV)

Un Um
6,6 7,2 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - -
11 12 1 1 1 2 - - - - - - - -
22 24 2 2 2 3 - - - - - - - -
33 36 3 3 3 4 - - - - - - - -
44 48 4 4 4 6 - - - - - - - -
66 72 5 5 7 8 - - - - - - - -
88 96 7 7 9 11 - - - - - - - -
132 145 10 11 13 16 - - - - - - - -
220 245 14 18 22 26 18 18 - - 14 18 - -
275 300 18 22 27 32 22 22 - - 18 22 - -
330 365 21 26 32 39 26 26 - - 21 26 - -
400 420 24 30 38 45 30 30 - - 24 30 - -
765 800 45 56 70 86 56 56 - - 45 56 - -

6. OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 Bird Streamers

In environments where birds such as eagles, herons, geese, cranes, egrets, storks, crows and buzzards are found, the
risk of flashovers due to bird streamers should be considered.

Figure 4.9: Yellow-billed Stork Streamer in Excess of 2,4 meters in Length.

6.2 Birds, Rodents and Termites

Birds (for example parrots), rodents and termites can damage polymeric insulators. Knowledge of their presence is
important for the storage and installation of insulators.

6.3 Soil Resistivity

The footing resistance of structures is determined by the soil resistivity and the quality of the earthing. This may have a
significant effect on the probability of back flashover of the insulation. In areas of high soil resistivity, special measures
may have to be taken.

Table 4-3.4: Typical resistivity of various soil materials

Material
Soil Resistivity (Ω ⋅ m)

General average 100

Sea water 0,01 – 1,0
Swampy ground 10 – 100
Dry soil 1000
7
Pure slate 10
8
Sandstone 10

6.4 Seismic activity

Insulators can be mechanically damaged during earthquakes. Thus, for areas of known seismic activity, this must be
taken into account when selecting insulators. For example, instead of rigid ceramic station post busbar supports, more
flexible composite units may be preferred.

6.5 Corrosion

Highly corrosive environments can adversely affect the life and performance of the end fittings of insulators. In such
environments, non-ferrous fittings may be preferred or heavier galvanising specified. For disc insulators a sacrificial zinc
collar may be specified.

High corrosion rates in an area usually indicate that high levels of pollution can also be expected.

6.6 Vandalism

When installing lines or substations in places where vandalism could be a threat, insulators of suitable design and
material should be selected. Toughened glass discs, with their inherent mechanical pre-stress, can shatter violently on
impact and thus represent an attractive and satisfying target. They should not therefore be used in areas known for stone
throwing and shooting. Although composite insulators are preferred for such environments it must be appreciated that
any damage inflicted may not be obvious from the ground and could precipitate failure in the longer term.

Figure 4.10: Gun Shot Damage to the Core of a Composite Insulator

7. REFERENCES

7.1 Eskom Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1

7.2 WL Vosloo, “A comparison of the performance of high voltage insulator materials in a severely polluted coastal
environment”, PhD dissertation, University of Stellenbosch, March 2002.

7.3 Verma M.P., Niklasch H., Heise W., Luxa G.F., Lipken H. and Schreiber H., The criterion for the pollution flashover
and its application to insulation dimensioning and control. Cigre Report 33-09, 1978.

7.4 Rizk F.A.M., Mathematical models for pollution flashover, Electra Vol.78, pp 71-103, 1978.

7.5 Holtzhausen J.P., A critical evaluation of AC pollution flashover models for HV insulators having hydrophilic
surfaces. PhD Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1977.

7.6 Claude de Tourreil, Roy Macey, Wallace Vosloo, Franck Schmuck, GUIDE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
NATURALLY POLLUTED INSULATOR TESTING STATIONS. Cigre Working Group B2.03, October 2007

SLDG 5-1

GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES FOR THE DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS

1. GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES

This document is intended to introduce and familiarise the reader with issues that are closely associated with the design
of substations, but is by no means intended to present in-depth subject matter at this point. This is the purpose of
sections later on in the guide where rigorous discussion of the subject matter is provided.

1.1 Safety Rules (See Also SLDG 19-1 and 19-2)

Definitions:-

Step Voltage: The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging the distance of a human step
without contacting any other conductive part.

Touch Voltage: The maximum potential difference between the accessible earth surface and dead part which can be
touched by a hand of a person standing on the surface.

Safe Current: The current which can flow through the human body without threat to the life and health of the exposed
person.

The maximum step and touch voltages are set to levels which will limit the current flowing through an exposed person to
the safe current level.

The proposed methods of service and repair work must be considered in the design of a substation.

In most countries the minimum distance between live parts and personnel is standardized. The following parameters are
usually defined:-

a) minimum height of live parts above the accessible surface (dealt with in part in SLDG 4-1).

b) minimum horizontal distance between a live part and protective rails, fences etc. (SLDG 4-1).

c) minimum distance between a live part and a human body (or conductive tools) whilst working in the substation
(SLDG 4-1).

d) minimum distance between a live part and the transporting mechanism or any moving conductive part (SLDG 4-1).

The isolated main circuit must be handled as a live part until it is earthed. The checking of voltage on the conductor
before inserting the earthing device is generally required. As it is not easy to test voltage by an independent device in
EHV and UHV substations, the remote controlled earthing switch can sometimes be switched after visually checking the
disconnectors are in the open position.

It is also dangerous to handle a long rod with an earthing conductor in the vicinity of live parts. Therefore earthing
switches would be preferable in substations above 220 kV where portable earthing devices are used for additional
earthing only (e.g. prevention against induced voltage on long busbars).

1.2 Over-voltage and Insulation Levels (See Also SLDG 4-1)

All equipment installed in a substation must be designed to take account of the permanent voltage at a network;
temporary voltage surges at power frequency caused by sudden changes on system configuration (such as the drift of
neutral point following an earth fault); switching over-voltages and lightning over-voltages. In order to determine its
capability it is subject to voltage tests as follows:-

a) Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage (1,2/50)

b) Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage (usually 250 / 2500 µs).

c) Power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) (wet and / or dry).

Additionally an oscillating voltage or chopped wave test may be required.

The set of test voltage values determines the insulating level. Standard insulating levels are defined in IEC standard 71
although the Network parameters may dictate other values.

The necessary insulation level depends on the insulation co-ordination, i.e. on the properties of different parts of the
network (mainly lines), the protection used against over-voltages and also on the required reliability of the substation
(permissible probability of flashover) and may vary in different parts of the same substation.

1.3 Current Rating and Over-currents

The instantaneous load flow within a substation depends on the state of the entire electrical network.

Usually a complete network analysis is required to determine the nominal values of currents flowing in an individual
substation circuit. It is theoretically possible for maximum current flow to occur with a relatively low total production of
electricity in the network, e.g. the supply to a pumped storage power station or when utilising the by-pass facility within a
substation.

In designing a substation it is necessary to consider two aspects of the effect of current:-

a) the thermal effect (including induced currents).

b) the mechanical effect on conductive items of plant and their support structures.

Precise thermal modelling of equipment is very difficult as many factors influence the resultant temperatures of
conductive parts e.g. previous loading, ambient temperature, wind speed, and solar conditions.

Thermal design is therefore empirical and is proven by type test covering nominal current rating and short-circuit current
rating.

Standard procedures have been devised to predict the thermal behaviour of conductors, particularly with respect to sag.

It may be possible to assign a short-term current rating in excess of the nominal but the analysis leading to this must be
exceedingly thorough to ensure that no “hot spots” (transformers, terminals, busbar support points) are overlooked.

Methods of calculating short-circuit current values are given in IEC standard 909 and the effects of short-circuit current
can be evaluated in accordance with IEC Standard 865.

1.4 Electrical Clearances (See Also SLDG 4-1)

It is not possible to test the whole HV installation by the corresponding test voltage. Therefore minimum clearances in
air between live parts or between live and dead parts in the air are stated, to obtain the required insulation level in
arrangements that have not been tested. As the clearances are stated universally, they must assume the insulation in
the worst supposed case of spark gap with sufficient reliability. Smaller clearances are permissible if the particular
arrangement has been tested by the prescribed insulation test as discussed in SLDG 4-1.

The values of minimum distances of live parts in the air also depend upon practical experience and therefore, some
differences can be found when comparing rules in different countries.

The specified electrical clearances must be maintained under all normal conditions. Exceptionally reduced electrical
clearances may be allowed. For example, in the case of conductor movement caused by short-circuit current or by
extremely strong wind.

1.5 Mechanical Forces (See Also SLDG 41-1 and SLDG 41-2)

1.5.1 Weight

Together with the normal weight of apparatus, conductors, structures etc. the additional and temporary loads must be
considered, especially the weight of frost and ice (depends on local climate) and maintenance staff.

The strain during erection must also be considered (lifting of structures, asymmetric pull of conductor etc.).

1.5.2 Wind Loading

The wind pressure may substantially influence the strain of structures and footings and also reduce the clearances
between flexible conductors. Standard values are given by IEC but local conditions must always be considered. The
twist of flexible conductors that can impose extreme strains on the structures may be caused by turbulent air flow if the
substation is located in an area with a rough landscape.

1.5.3 Short-circuit Forces

Generally, equipment is type tested in a short-circuit laboratory. However, the short-circuit strength of the busbars is
usually only calculated and the calculation methods are verified by testing some typical busbar arrangements.

In simplified methods the peak value of short-circuit current is used to evaluate mechanical stresses.

The force caused by short-circuit current excites the strain of the movement of conductors. Rigid conductors may
amplify the strain of supports by resonance. The reduction of clearances between flexible conductors has to be
considered. The analysis and computation methods of short-circuit current influences and guidelines for design are
described in CIGRE Technical Brochure 23 - 19.

1.5.4 Combination of Forces

The probability of the simultaneous occurrence of various mechanical forces will be dependent upon local conditions.

Calculations should normally include specified combinations of:

a). Wind loads

b). Ice loads

c). Short circuit loads

d). Earthquake loads whenever necessary

e). Maintenance and / or erection loads

Additionally mechanical loads due to low ambient temperatures and circuit-breaker operations have to be taken into
account.

1.6 Corona and Radio Interference (See also SLDG 4-2)

All devices must satisfy the specified level of radio noise. The limits of radio noise are stated by national standards.
International rules are IEC-CISPR Publication 1 and IEC-CISPR Recommendation No 30.

1.7 Acoustic Noise (See also SLDG 11-2)

The permissible acoustic noise level is generally given by national regulations or standards. Recommended noise
levels are contained in the ISO Recommendation of R1996 “Acoustic”.

An acoustic study for the planned substation should be carried out to determine the acoustic conditions of the various
items of equipment, chiefly the transformers and their working equipment and, if necessary, the circuit-breaker.

Within the framework of this study, the nature, distribution and number of sources of noise for the final installation and at
intermediate stages has also to be considered.

If the acoustic study shows that the natural attenuation of the sound level is not enough to meet the permissible agreed
noise criterion, three courses of action are open :-

a). Use of a low-noise transformer.

b). Modifying the installation plan of the substation, e.g. position of transformers, direction of oil-cooler fans.

c). Provision of one or more noise attenuation devices. The attenuation that was obtained for different types of them
is shown in Table 5-1.

Table 5-1: Effectiveness of Acoustic Barriers

Type of Acoustic Insulation Attenuation

Steel plates (4 mm thickness) with sound-absorbing glass fibre or rockwool, mounted 8 - 10 db (A)
on the transformer tank.

Screens (concrete, plain metal) 10 - 15 db (A)

Carefully erected metal enclosure incorporating sound absorbent metal 15 - 25 db (A)

Brick built or concrete enclosure 20 - 35 db (A)

Double absorbent metal or double concrete enclosure 30 - 40 db (A)

Additionally the propagation of acoustic frequency into supporting structures may be limited by spring, rubber or
hydraulic dampers.

1.8 Water Contamination (See also SLDG 11-4)

All noxious materials in the substation must be used and handled without leakage. The vessels of power and measuring
transformers, capacitors, coils etc. must be leak-proof.

In most countries additional measures against detrimental materials are required. Oil pits are designed to catch some
proportion of the oil (or other liquid) and to prevent oil from burning. If a central underground tank is used, it must take
in the whole volume of the biggest oil tank and any rainwater which has fallen in the period between two emptying.
When no oil leakage occurs, the rain water may be drained off. Otherwise decontamination is necessary by such
means as mechanical separation, filtering or chemical cleaning.

1.9 Civil Design

Civil design includes supporting structures, foundations, facilities (internal roads, rails, site surface, etc.) fencing and
buildings.

1.9.1 Supporting Steelwork Structures (See also SLDG 21)

Supporting structures include terminal gantries, structures for circuit breakers, isolators, instrument transformers and
post insulators. Whereas reinforced concrete may be used for HV substations, supporting structures of UHV
substations are commonly made from welded or bolted steel lattice, of open profile or of tubes. In some cases
aluminium structures are used for their low weight and resistance to corrosion but it must be noted that the buried
portion must be made of steel in order to avoid electro-chemical corrosion.

Calculation of loads is usually covered by national standards and regulations that specify safety factors and load
combinations.

1.9.2 Foundations (See also SLDG 16)

Calculation methods are given by national or company standards. Dimensioning is carried out according to the loads on
the structures and additional forces such as the dynamic stresses imposed by circuit breaker operation.

Depending upon the type of soil and the loads, foundation types can be:-

a) Poured concrete with or without steel reinforcement

b) Prefabricated reinforced concrete

c) Concrete slab (mostly used in indoor substations or for (GIS)

d) Drilled (suitable in hard soil)

e) Auger bored piles

Steel stubs (usually in the case of transmission lines) or anchor bolts to which the structures are attached, are usually
cast into the foundation. A template is used to locate such fixings prior to the concrete being poured. GIS support
structures can be fixed to rails or bolted directly to the floor.

1.9.3 Transformer civil works

Civil works for transformers or reactors have four main purposes:-

a) To support the transformer during service and enable its transport (rails may be needed depending upon
transformer type).

b) To retain any leakage of transformer oil and help to extinguish burning oil under the transformer ; the oil
containment area may be filled with gravel covered by an upper layer of broken stones, connected to an
underground tank or oil catchment dam through a pipe system.

c) To prevent the risk of fire propagation: fire walls and fire stops in trenches are appropriate.

d) To reduce the level of acoustic noise.

1.9.4 Site facilities

Facilities for maintenance and operational needs must be taken into account in substation design. Where access by
crane or trucks has to be provided for maintenance or replacement operations, roads or tracks have to be constructed,
particularly in yards at the UHV level.

The surface of the site will also influence access. Usually stone chippings are used.

1.9.5 Fencing

External fencing reduces the possibility of unauthorised persons entering. Special measures are usually given in
national standards. Special attention must be paid to touch voltage when metallic fencing is used.

Internal fencing is mostly protective and wire fencing can be used for this purpose.

1.9.6 Buildings

The design of buildings has to conform to national and utilities standards. Their main role is to contain and give shelter
to protection relays, SCADA equipment, auxiliaries, batteries, fire protection pumps , etc.

Whether a substation is manned or unmanned will determine the extent of the facilities required locally for the operators.

For economic reasons (reduction of the auxiliary cable lengths and sections, lowering voltage of auxiliary supply,
minimising first investment) several dispersed buildings rather than one central building can be built in a substation. This
may become a necessity when busbars become very long.

1.10 Fire Protection

The use of fire protection systems and / or measures is mainly based on:-

a) Minimising the hazard for the operators and the public and protecting the environment.

b) Limiting the damage to power transformers and to adjacent apparatus, equipment and building.

c) Minimising the loss of customer’s service.

A water spray protection system is sometimes preferred for outdoor installations, predominantly to protect the power
transformers, CO2 for indoor installations.

Smoke detectors (indoor), bimetal, quartzoid bulb detectors and an independent detecting pipe system with compressed
air of 0.25 - 0.8 MPa are the most common fire detecting elements. To prevent an inadvertent operation of the fire
protection system, the use of two criteria is recommended. For starting the fire fighting system of power transformers,
transformer-protection-relays are also common.

To minimise the risk of fire damage, passive protection measures should be also taken into account that means
measures to prevent a propagation of fire or to limit damage, e.g. fire barriers between and or around transformers, fire
resistant material, drainage system to lead leaked oil away from the affected bund area etc.

Provision may be made to aid the extinguishing of burning oil under the transformer, such as:-

a) A 200 - 300mm layer of broken stones on the grid above the oil-containing pit.

b) A gravel filled pit.

c) A steel or concrete chamber connected to the oil retaining area by a pipe, e.g. 5 m long by 200mm diameter.

Fire protection of cables in indoor and outdoor HV substations is usually obtained only by passive protection measures
to reduce the fire propagation - usually fire stops (concrete, steel, mineral wool, sand, silicone) and / or fire resistant
painting. In installing fire barriers care must be taken to ensure that hot spots are not induced. Power and control
cables should be installed along separate routes e.g. separate cable racks or separate trenches.

2. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS

2.1 Rating of Equipment and Equipment Bays

When the maximum load currents have been determined, the rated current of the switching equipment should be
selected from the IEC series. Nowadays we can say that the lowest current rating available on the market may be over-
dimensioned for most purposes especially in the networks of the developing countries.

The current rating of busbars depends on the scheme. The rated current of the main busbar is normally chosen to be
1,5 to 3 times higher than that of the line bays. The physical grouping of the feeders may affect this choice. Busbar
cross-flow studies under various contingencies would be very useful if the future layout is being considered. Busbars
are often over-dimensioned during the first stage of a substation’s life, because their reinforcement later on
may be difficult and expensive, and the additional cost of over-dimensioning is relatively small. The rating of
meshed scheme configurations can be difficult (e.g. 1 ½ circuit breaker) and it is necessary to define which switching
conditions and network contingencies have to be governed, making allowance for maintenance outage. The nominal
current of the by-pass busbar and coupling bay is at least the same as the highest rating of any of the circuits that may
be connected. The sectionalizing bay is dimensioned for 100 % of the current rating of the corresponding busbar.
Flexible or rigid conductors and connectors have several standards sizes.

Power transformers have a considerable short-time and continuous overload capacity especially at low ambient
temperatures. On the other hand switching equipment possesses very little overload capacity. Therefore, the current
rating of the transformer bays should be some 50 % higher than the rated current of the transformer.

System planning determine the number, capacity and future extension requirements of the compensating equipment. It
is to be noted that according to IEC the current rating of the shunt capacitor bank switching equipment should be 1,3
times that of the capacitor. It is also recommended that breakers switching shunt reactors be over-rated, because of
their onerous switching duty.

2.2 General

The common ratings of switchgear and control-gear including their operating devices and auxiliary equipment should be
selected from the following:-

a) Rated voltages.

b) Rated insulation level.

c) Rated frequency.

d) Rated normal current.

e) Rated short-time with-stand current.

f) Rated peak withstand current

g) Rated duration of short circuit.

h) Rated supply voltage of closing and opening devices and of auxiliary circuits.

i) Rated supply frequency of closing and opening devices and of auxiliary circuits.

j) Rated pressure of compressed gas supply for closing and opening devices. This type of equipment has largely
become obsolete and been replaced by devices containing SF6.

k) Pollution level.

l) Corona and RIV requirements.

The most important characteristics that require specifying are the insulation level, the mechanical strength and key
dimensions (to ensure compatibility with other equipment).

Equipment has to be type tested in order to verify its compliance with the specified ratings.

Note: Other rated characteristics may be necessary and are specified in the relevant IEC standards.

2.3 Circuit Breaker (See also SLDG 25)

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal
circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short-circuit.

The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is defined by a large number of parameters. The value of breaking / making
current must be related to the transient recovery voltage (TRV) which depends mainly on the properties of the circuit

to be switched. The shape of TRV varies at the same point of the network depending upon switching state (the number,
type and load of interconnected bays) and on the location of the short-circuiting point. These circumstances give
different resonant circuits and the circuit breaker must be able to break the current in all cases.

The shape of TRV is partially influenced by the circuit breaker itself as it depends on the deformation of the current
waveform immediately before the interruption. More beneficial conditions are given by minimum-oil and SF6 “puffer”
than by air-blast arc extinction chambers.

The switching process is considered to give rise to a steep fronted TRV when the short circuiting point is up to 3 km on
the line side of a circuit breaker. Switching of longer lines may lead to a lower steepness but higher peak value of TRV,
which may threaten the insulation of switch-gear.

The results of long-term investigations form the basis of type tests given by IEC Standard 56. However, in particular
cases the switching conditions may be more sever then those given by IEC 56, in which cases an over-rated circuit
breaker may need to be used for lower current. Some methods of evaluation of breaking capacity under non-standard
TRV conditions have been formulated, e.g. by employing controlled switching techniques.

The time period between receiving a trip command and current interrupting or making is very important for the setting of
back-up protection relays. Therefore it influences the requirements of the current carrying capacity of all switch-gear as
well as the dynamic processes in the EHV network. A longer time can be expected when breaking current after auto-re-
closing on to an un-cleared fault.

Circuit breaker types are defined by their interrupting medium and their drive mechanism.

2.3.1 Interrupting Medium

a) Bulk oil

b) Small oil volume.

c) Air blast.

d) SF6 (or a mixture of SF6 and Nitrogen for very low ambient temperatures)

e) Vacuum.

Although other types of circuit breaker may be available, the present day choice at Transmission Voltages is generally
SF6.

These are grouped in accordance with their arc extinction chambers as “dead tank” or “live tank”.

The majority of circuit-breakers supplied for outdoor open-terminal substations are of the “live tank” type in which the
interrupters are housed in porcelain weather-shields on top of an insulated support column.

A small number however, have interrupters housed in an earthed metal container with their connections taken out
through porcelain bushings. The benefit of this ‘dead tank’ arrangement is that the bushings may be used to house the
current transformer windings saving the cost of separately mounted post CT’s.

2.3.2 Drive Mechanism

There are three types of drive mechanism in common use for circuit breakers at Transmission Voltages:-

a) Pneumatic - using either a unit compressor or a compressed air system common to a complete substation.

b) Hydraulic - using a high pressure oil system in conjunction with a nitrogen gas or spring accumulator.

c) Spring - Using a spring charged by an electric motor.

Any circuit breaker drive must be fitted with an energy storage device that permits a complete standard cycle of
operation without further input of energy. Usually this is an “Open-Close-Open” or a “Close-Open” sequence. If the
circuit breaker is in the “Open” position its operation must be automatically inhibited if there is insufficient stored energy
for a further “Close-Open” sequence.

IEC 56 clause 8 gives comprehensive details of the selection of circuit breakers for service in terms of their electrical
and mechanical performance.

2.4 Isolator and Earthing Switches (See also SLDG 26)

An isolator is a mechanical switching device that provides, in the open position, an isolating distance in accordance with
specified requirements.

An isolator is capable of opening and closing a circuit when either negligible current is broken or made, or when no
significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of the isolator occurs. It is also capable of
carrying currents under normal circuit conditions and carrying for a specified time currents under abnormal conditions
such as those of short-circuit.

An earthing switch is a mechanical switching device for earthing parts of a circuit, capable of withstanding for a specified
time currents under abnormal conditions such as those of short-circuit, but not required to carry current under normal
conditions of the circuit.

There are four types of isolators in common use:-

a) Rotating-End-Post (single arm or double arm)

b) Rotating-Centre-Post

c) Pantograph (vertical and horizontal)

d) Single Lifting Arm.

The way in which each of these types of disconnector (isolator) operates has an important effect on the design of the
substation. Three insulation conditions must be considered when selecting isolators:-

a) phase-to-earth insulation level

b) phase-to-phase insulation level

c) pole-to-pole (open contact) insulation level

The pole-to-pole insulation level is particularly important in areas where surge over-voltages can occur across an
isolator.

With all these types of isolators except the rotating centre post, the contacts remain live whether the isolator is open or
closed. Thus, electrical clearances, have to take into account the volume swept by the blades of the isolator. Use of
rotating-end-posts isolators, for instance, requires greater phase-to-phase clearance than the use of rotating-centre-post
isolators.

Another factor which has to be considered is that in the case of rotating end post and rotating centre post designs,
earthing switches can usually be mounted on the same structure rather than having to be separately mounted.

At transmission voltages it is usual for isolators to be motorised. Earthing switches may be motorised but are usually
operated manually.

In the case of double circuit lines special consideration has to be given to the interruption of capacitive and inductive
loads when the parallel circuit is energised. The isolator must also be capable of interrupting and making parallel
circuits when transferring load between main and bypass busbars.

2.5 Surge Protection Device (See also SLDG 32-2)

The effectiveness of any surge protection device is very dependent upon the quality of the earthing system and the
geometrical arrangement of the device. In particular, the wave impedance, the length of the connection between hot
line and earthing system, and the earth resistance play an important role.

2.5.1 Spark Gaps

The spark gap is a surge-protective device that consists of an open air gap between an energized electrode and an
earth electrode and provides the simplest possible form of surge protection.

There are several disadvantages to the use of co-ordinating gaps as a means of surge protection.

Firstly, if the gap operates, a fault is caused on the system. Secondly, if the gap is set for positive impulses, the
protection against negative switching impulses is poor at the higher voltages; thirdly, a higher insulation is generally
required if gaps are installed; lastly, the increasing threshold voltage causes inadequate protection against steep fronted
surges.

Spark gaps should never be set across the bushings of power equipment such as transformers and reactors, particularly
if the bushings are of the capacitor type, due to the very fast fronted over-voltages that are generated which can cause
puncturing and insulation breakdown. Spark gaps used to be a popular practice but has since ben discontinued.

2.5.2 Surge Arresters (See also SLDG 32-2)

The use of a surge arrester provides superior protection compared to a co-ordinating gap, and it is not sensitive to
polarity. A big advantage is that a system fault is not caused by the operation of a surge arrester. The margins between
the protective level and insulation levels of a system are covered in IEC standard 71.2.

The two types of arrester in common use are gapped silicon carbide and “gapless” zinc oxide varieties.

The silicon carbide arrester comprises a stack of silicon carbide blocks with series gaps. There is some variation in the
voltage at which “spark over” occurs, especially for steep fronted surges the threshold voltage rises.

The zinc oxide arrester is gapless and comprises a stack of zinc oxide blocks and is, therefore, very simple to construct.
Its characteristic can be set very precisely and unless temporary over-voltages are relatively high (as non effective earth
system) then it is usually possible to obtain lower protective levels compared with the gapless types of arrester.

2.5.3 Lightning Protection (See also SLDG 32-1)

In most areas it is necessary to ensure protection against direct lightning stroke and this can be achieved by installing
different types of effectively earthed conductors. Substation protection is provided by means of vertical rods on top of
support structures or, specially erected masts or protective conductors may be suspended above the substation.

When interconnected overhead lines are not generally protected against direct lightning stroke, it is necessary to take
measures to protect the substation. Usually an earthwire should be installed on each overhead line for a distance of
approximately 3 km from the substation. This measure does depend, however, on the rated voltage of the system and
is not normally applied to medium voltage distribution networks.

2.6 Instrument Transformers (See also SLDG 28-1)

2.6.1 General

Instrument transformers are the devices used to transform the values of current and voltage in the primary system to
values which are suitable for measuring instruments, meters, protection relays and other similar apparatus. An
essential property of an instrument transformer is that it isolates primary voltages from the accessible parts of the
secondary system.

Internal insulation is oil-impregnated paper, SF6 or, cast resin.

Traditionally instrument transformers have been either of the inductive or capacitive type although developments are
taking place using optical fibres.

It is possible to combine the current and voltage transformers in one housing, however, this becomes less practicable at
higher voltages.

2.6.2 Voltage transformers (VT) (See also SLDG 28-3)

Voltage transformers are either of the capacitor (CVT) or electromagnetic type.

CVT’s are used singly for metering purposes or in three-phase sets for protection.

Electromagnetic VT’s are used when a higher degree of accuracy than can be provided by a CVT, is required - for
example high accuracy metering, or when no other means of discharging an overhead line is available.

2.6.3 Current transformers (CT) (See also SLDG 28-2)

Current transformers are specified by their primary rated current and their accuracy class which are selected according
to their service requirement.

The rated current of the current transformers should be selected from the IEC series. Rated currents and ratios should
be selected according to the requirements of continuous current rating, accuracy and protection. Current rating can also
be extended (120 %, 150 % or 300 %)

When the characteristics of a network are likely to evolve multi-ratio CT’s are necessary to follow the network evolution.
They require adequate nominal current rating and the ability to operate protection relays when short-circuit current is at
its minimum.

Usually a number of multi-ratio current transformers are housed within a single unit to allow for future development and
an increase in circuit loading.

Application of accuracy class is as follows:-

Accuracy Class Function

0,1
0,2 Measurements and Metering
0,5
1
5 Protection
10

Measurement and metering require a different core from protection with different accuracy class, secondary power
rating and rated over-current factor.

2.7 Line Traps (See also SLDG 30-1)

A line trap is an apparatus intended for series insertion into a high-voltage line and, in conjunction with a coupling
capacitor, it forms a parallel, resonant circuit. Its impedance must be negligible at the power frequency so as not to
disturb the power transmission, but must be relatively high over any frequency band appropriate to carrier transmission.

A line trap consists of a main coil with a protective device and, usually, a tuning device.

Line traps are used for power line carrier protection and may be mounted directly on post insulators or CVT’s for
support or hung from suspension insulator sets.

Note: For operation of power line carrier protection equipment it is necessary to inject the signal through a
capacitor. It is most economical to use the CVT’s for this purpose rather than to provide a separate
coupling capacitor unit.

2.8 Busbars and Connectors (See also SLDG 41 and SLDG 42)

Busbars may be either flexible stranded conductor or of tubular construction. Aluminium (and its alloys) and copper are
the most commonly used materials.

Connectors may be bolted, welded or crimped or any combination of these. Fittings should allow for expansion and
contraction with temperature.

Mechanical strength must be considered in addition to the general ratings described in paragraph 1.5. Aeolian vibration
of tubular conductor can cause fatigue failure and steps may need to be taken to limit this, for example, stranded

conductor laid inside a tubular busbar is often a very effective damper or special clamps with built-in dampers may be
used. Bi-metallic joints require special construction and jointing techniques to prevent corrosion. All busbars, fittings
and joints should be designed to mechanically avoid the ingress of moisture and electrically to avoid corona discharge.

2.9 Post Insulators (See also SLDG 33)

A post insulator consists of one post insulator unit or an assembly of such units and is intended to give rigid support to a
live part which is to be insulated from earth or from another live part.

The dimensions of post insulators have been standardised and details are given in IEC standard 273. The testing
requirements are given in IEC standard 168.

2.10 High Voltage Cables (See also SLDG 44-1)

In some circumstances it will be necessary that connections into, out of, and within a substation will be by means of
underground cables, e.g. within an urban area where overhead line entries are not possible or in order to connect a
particular circuit to a particular section of the substation.

Cables have to be terminated in sealing ends which act mechanically to retain the cable and seal the cable oil or XLPE
zone, depending on what type of cable is employed.

2.11 Earthing Grid (See Also SLDG 19)

The earthing grid comprises conductors that are buried in the ground in the substation and is complemented, in some
cases, by conductors that are above ground.

The conductors in the ground are buried in the form of a grid at a depth of about 0,5 - 1,0 metres and designed to limit
conductor temperature and, touch and step voltages to the maximum allowable values under specific fault conditions.

Earth rods may be driven into the ground around the perimeter of the earthing grid and are bonded to the grid. The
quantity and length of the earth rods will depend upon the resistivity of the soil. Additional earth rods are sometimes
required immediately below (or adjacent to) certain items of equipment such as capacitor voltage transformers and
surge arrestors.

The buried grid is usually made of copper rod or copper strip and the earth rods of copper-covered steel, although other
materials such as galvanised steel and cast iron may be used. In order to avoid electro-chemical reaction the copper
strip may be coated with a thin layer of zinc or tin. For the same reason stranded conductors should be avoided.

All main parts of structures and dead parts of equipment are bonded to the earthing grid as well as the neutral points of
primary equipment’s.

Where there are conductive pipelines, railway lines or other similar items, special attention must be paid to earthing in
order to prevent the transmission of earth current leading to a rise in ground potential outside the substation.

If there are telephone lines or a low-voltage network in the neighbourhood their protection against ground potential
rise (GPR) may cause considerable extra costs. The most effective way to limit the potential, would be to use shield
wires with good conductivity.

The layout of the earthing grid also has an effect on transient ground potential rise phenomena.

2.12 Power Transformers and Compensating Equipment

2.12.1 General

Plant that is intended to alter voltage or frequency, or influence the power factor of transmitted energy, is considered to
form part of a substation. The rating of such equipment however, is different from that which may apply to other switch-
gear in that the main parameter is the total power handling capacity of the unit.

The specification of this power rating is dependent upon the total required power, the cyclic nature of this power
requirement and the policy of the utility on reserve capacity.

It is usually economic to use units of the same rating within a substation but in certain individual cases this may be
unnecessary for example if a utility has determined to use a particular standard rating or if individual circuits have
differing requirements.

2.12.2 Power Transformers (See also SLDG 34-1)

Power transformers are usually of the two-winding type. However when both HV and MV systems have similar earthing
factors, and it is not necessary to limit the earth-fault current at the MV side due to interference or potential rise
problems, auto-transformers are often used. As a cost saving measure, the insulation level of the main transformers are
designed to be lower than that of other equipment, depending upon the effectiveness of the over-voltage protection.

The capacity of transformers is usually decided by system requirements and it is necessary to specify this together with
the general ratings given in SLDG 5-1.

Transformers may be designed with all three phases in a common tank or as three, separate, single-phase units.

In general it is only economic to choose single phase unit if there are transport problems or if it is important to replace a
failed transformer by a spare unit very quickly.

The single phase units are easier to transport and install but transformation losses will be greater than in the case of a
three phase unit. Additionally, three separate foundations are necessary; more space will be required and, depending
on the fire fighting philosophy, extra barrier walls are often installed between the single phase transformers.

2.12.3 Compensating Equipment

There are several forms of compensating equipment:-

2.12.3.1 Synchronous Compensators

Comprising a variably exited small synchronous machine

2.12.3.2 Shunt reactors (See also SLDG 35-1)

Comprising mechanically switched shunt reactors which may be installed on the tertiary winding of a system transformer
or connected directly to the grid system.

2.12.3.3 Mechanically Switched Capacitors (Shunt Connected) (See also SLDG 36)

May be installed on transformer tertiaries or connected directly to a grid system for local voltage control purposes.

2.12.3.4 Series Capacitors (See also SLDG 37)

Used in conjunction with long transmission lines

2.12.3.5 Static VAR compensation (SVC) (See also SLDG 38)

Comprising thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR), thyristor switched capacitors and harmonic filters. SVCs are usually
connected directly to their own discrete transformers.

The type of compensation required will usually be determined by the system planners but it should be noted that
switching compensating devices imposes an unusually onerous duty on the circuit breaker. In this case, controlled
switching techniques may be employed.

3. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

3.1 A.C. Supplies (See also SLDG 18-1)

A.C. supplies provide energy for drivers, compressors, charging batteries, lighting and heating. Usually two
independent sources of supply are used with 100 % redundancy and automatic emergency switching. It should be
noted that external supplies tend to be less reliable than sources fed through a station transformer from the main
substation circuit. If supplies are taken from the MV network it should be ascertained that there is a degree of
independence from the HV substation itself.

A secure supply of up to 20 kVA e.g. for a transformer tap-changer, can be provided by D.C. - A.C. invertors from the
batteries. Figure 5-1.4 gives an example of the LVAC supplies for a substation.

3.2 Diesel Generation

Diesel generators are used to provide a back-up LV supply in important substations for loads up to about 800 kVA and
are activated automatically in the event of failure of the main LVAC supply (or supplies).

A diesel generator would be designed to provide energy for the essential components of the substation for a specified
period of time (usually the estimated time it will take to restore the main supply). The components considered to be
essential may vary from substation to substation and may include circuit-breaker drives (or charging of their energy
source), charging of batteries, operation of isolators, cooling of transformers and emergency lighting.

3.3 D.C. Supplies (See also SLDG 24-1)

Lead Acid batteries providing energy for a minimum specified period of time (usually 2 - 3 hours - based upon the time it
will take for maintenance staff to reach the site and the time it may take to remedy the fault) connected in parallel to the
load are fed by chargers. In case of failure of the AC charge voltage, the batteries take over the load. DC voltage up to
60 V is provided for remote control and communication, up to 220 V for emergency light, operation of switch-gear, etc.
Traditionally batteries were kept in separate room(s) with proper ventilation; heated if necessary as the capacity falls by
o o
1 % C below 20 C.

Nowadays leak-proof cells are available and these may be placed indoors adjacent to LV equipment without taking any
special precautions.

The servicing and maintenance schedules for batteries should be adhered to closely in order that full capacity under
emergency conditions is retained.

3.4 Compressed Air System

Compressed air systems provide pneumatic power for circuit breaker drives and is the extinguishing medium for air blast
circuit breakers. In the case of small plant, air is compressed on demand at service pressure but normally is stored at a
level much higher than service pressure and is reduced directly at the device supplied; for indoor plant a central facility
is common.

To avoid humidity problems at service pressure level, a ratio of at least 5 : 1 for storage pressure to service pressure is
o o
recommended; this is designed to cover temperature falls of 20 K within a temperature range of - 35 C to + 50 C.

MV NETWORK

MAIN TRANSFORMER

20 kV

20 kV SWITCHING BAY 20 kV
AUXILIARY AUXILIARY
FEEDER TRANSFORMER FEEDER TRANSFORMER DIESEL
0,4 kV 0,4 kV ~ GENERATOR
R
500-800 kVA
0,4 kV

BUSBAR 2 380/220 V BUSBAR 1

BUSBAR 4 BUSBAR 3

BUSBAR 6 BUSBAR 5

1
~ 1 ~
220 V

220 kV
AUXILIARY AUXILIARY 220V AUXILIARY 220V AUXILIARY 380/220V
SUPPLY DC SUPPLIES DC SUPPLIES AC SUPPLIES
SWITCHING BAY
AUXILIARY
380/220V
AC SUPPLIES

Figure 5-1.4: Example of Auxiliary Equipment Diagram for an Important Substation.

4. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF SECONDARY EQUIPMENT

4.1 General

The term “secondary equipment” covers protection-, control- and measuring circuits. Not much more will be said here as
this is a specialised field and should be covered under a separate design guide. Some fundamentals are however
covered under SLDG 6-1.

5. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (See also SLDG 49)

With today’s Computer Aided Design (CAD), the emphasis is moving very much towards the “conceptual” ability of the
system.

The term CAD includes not only a sophisticated drawing ability but an advanced system capable of processing and
analysis on a conceptual level.

The drawing function is a tool used in the creation and manipulation of graphic entities, to furnish a “hard copy” of
drawings created by computer.

One of its greatest assets is that objects which are frequently used on drawings can be stored in a library and recalled
when required; thus saving time at the creation stage.

This tool lends itself quite readily to substation design as this is a matter of repetition of structures and modules. Thus
elements and also the grouping of elements to form bays may readily be stored in the library.

Even more time can be saved when, in working to create a new drawing, one only has to change an existing drawing.
However, this requires a certain minimum of “standardisation”.

In enhancing and adding to the simple drawing facility the ability to process and manipulate simple graphics can be
developed in to a “Design Package” which may include:

a) Automatic verification of electrical clearances

b) Verification of the conformity of the earthing grid

c) Dimensional calculations

d) Automatic calculation of a substation inventory (listing of constituent components) or even determination of the
overall construction cost of the particular substation

6. COMMISSIONING

Commissioning covers all the measures that need to be taken on-site in order to assure the correct functioning of both
single components of equipment and the substation as a whole. Beside the type tests, routine tests, and sample tests
in the factory, additional tests on-site may be necessary; these tests ensure the specifications of the equipment are met
and serve to detect any damage caused by transportation, shipping, or erection which may modify the characteristics.

In general, all installations that have to be erected on site are subject to commissioning tests. This involves both
providing the wiring that provides remote control, signalling and measurement, and also testing the HV equipment. One

example is the gas-insulated substation, which, after erection is subject to various commissioning tests, the most
important of which is the high voltage test.

Typical examples of commissioning tests are:

a) Checking of wiring, contact travel diagram of breaker and switches.

b) Duty cycle and hot spot checking for each bay test of proper operation of remote control, signalling and
measurement.

c) Checking of electrical clearances and conductor sag.

d) Insulation tests if required, (especially for GIS).

Commissioning tests are the most important quality assurance instrument when an installation is transferred to the user
after erection. The extent of tests, the responsibilities, and the procedure of repair or correction in case of detected
defects is subject to agreement between the companies concern.

SLDG 5-2

FUNCTION AND POSITIONING OF HIGH-VOLTAGE APPARATUS

1. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

When entering into an equipment yard, it would become evident that there are similarities in the positioning of primary
plant in the primary plant bays. In order to determine the positioning of the various items of primary plant in a substation
equipment bay, one firstly needs to understand what the essential parameters are that need to be measured, secondly
the function of the different items of primary plant (briefly discussed in SLDG 5-1)and thirdly, the purpose of the
equipment bay. To this end, a brief explanation of the essential parameters is given, a definition, and description of the
items of plant are also provided. This is then tied up with the purpose and functioning of the particular bay type.

A substation comprising a switchgear installation contains all the apparatus and auxiliary equipment necessary to
ensure reliable operation of the installation and a secure supply of electricity. In order for this to be done successfully, a
number of measurements need to be made so as to determine the instantaneous state of the installation and compare
these to predetermined set values which defines a healthy system. Power consumption measurements also need to be
made for billing the end user of this power. Meters normally provide the rms values of voltage and current.

1.1 Measurement of Basic Parameters

The basic parameters that need to be measured are voltage, current and the phase angle between the two since most
of the other parameters can be calculated from these.

1.1.1 Voltage = Vrms

= √2.Vp eq. 5-2.1

V
Vp
Vrms

t Vrms

Meter

Figure 5-2.1: A Typical Sinusoidal Voltage Signal

1.1.2 Current = Irms

= √2.Ip I eq. 5-2.2

Ip
Irms

t Irms

Meter

Figure 5-2.2: A Typical Sinusoidal Current Signal (Phase Shifted)

1.1.3 Phase Angle

1
T =
f
1
= eq. 5-2.3
50
= 20 ms

o
For a frequency of 50 Hz, the period is 20 ms. A time period (T) of 20 ms represents a full cycle of 360 . Therefore, any
time shift between the two signals can be translated into a phase shift (Figure 5-2.3) by:-

(t2 - t1)
ϕ= .360
T
1
= eq. 5-2.4
50
= 20 ms
V,I
Vp, Ip
Vrms, Irms

t φ

(t2-t1) Meter

Figure 5-2.3: A Typical Sinusoidal Voltage Signal

Electrical power has a real component which is the energy component (P) measured in watts (W, kW, MW or GW), and
an imaginary component (Q) which is the reactive component measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAr, kVAr, MVAr,
GVAr). The vector sum of these components which are at right angles to each other is referred to as the apparent power
(S) and is measured in VAr-Amps (VA, kVA, MVA, GVA). The cosine of the angle between the energy component and
the apparent power is called the power factor. Since the voltage and current measured by the meters are already in a
complex format, 3 multiplied by their product will give the apparent power (S) value. The real and reactive components
can then be calculated using the phase angle φ measured.

√3 (Watts, kW, MW, GW)

Real Power = Voltage . Current . cos(φ) .√ eq. 5-2.5

Reactive Power = Voltage . Current . sin(φ) . √3 (VAr, kVAr, MVAr, GVAr) eq. 5-2.6

√3 (VA, kVA, MVA, GVA)

Apparent Power = Voltage . Current .√ eq. 5-2.7

System healthy as referred to electrical system s can essentially be described to be that set of conditions present in the
system where all electrical equipment is operating within its rated parameters, i.e. normal operating conditions. Any of
the parameters outside the predetermined system healthy values will then describe a system unhealthy condition. An
abnormal condition would for example arise under short circuit conditions where current would be excessively high and
possibly also leading to low system voltage.

1.2 Protection and Control Application Using Basic Measurements

1.2.1 Synchronising Independent Systems

When different sections of a grid are to be connected together, it must be ensured that the voltages are synchronised,
or else a short circuit condition will arise. For example, consider Figure 5-2.4, where the magnitude of the peak and rms
values of voltage are exactly the same.

V
V
Vp1
Vp2
Vrms1
Vrms2

t t

Figure 5-2.4: Sinusoidal Voltage Signals that are Out of Phase

Superimposing the waveforms on the same axes, one discovers that the instantaneous voltage values are different, i.e.
the instantaneous values of v1 and v2 are not the same at every point, but are time displaced, i.e. the wave forms are
said to be out of phase as shown in Figure 5-2.5.

V
V1rms V2rms
Vp
Meter Vrms Meter

t1 t2 t

Figure 5-2.5: Short Circuits Due to Out of Phase Sinusoidal Voltage Signals

Connecting the two systems would result in a short circuit since v2 - v2 ≠ 0.

For two parts of a network, or for two different networks to be connected to each other, they must not only have the
same peak and rms voltage values, but must also have the same phase angle (be in phase), i.e. the instantaneous
voltage values, v1 and v2, must be very close to or be equal. The two systems are then said to be synchronised. This is
illustrated in Figure 5-2.6.

V
Vp
V1rms Vrms V2rms

Meter Meter
t

Figure 5-2.6: In-Phase Sinusoidal Voltage Signals

1.2.2 Fault Current Protection - Interrupting Line Faults

Faults are bound to occur on lines connecting two substations. Fault current will be fed into the fault from both sides of
the line, the contributions of which depend on the system impedances and configuration (see Figure 5-2.7). For
illustrative purposes we assume that some sort of over-current protection exists at both sides of the line, that conditions
are similar at both stations, but with no means of communication between the two stations. We consider the sequence
of events that would take place.

Substation A Substation B

If1

Meter

Figure 5-2.7: Fault Close to Substation A

With a fault occurring at a position close to Substation A, one could under the above conditions assume that the larger
portion of the fault current contribution would come from Substation A. The measurement made at Substation A would
then cause the opening of the appropriate device to interrupt the fault current from station A (see Figure 5-2.8).

Substation A Substation B

If2

Meter

Figure 5-2.8: Fault Current from Substation A Interrupted

Once the fault current from Substation A is interrupted, Substation B would momentarily still feed into the fault, and may
even increase slightly. The measurement made at Substation B would then cause the opening of the appropriate device
at Substation B a while time after that of Substation A (see Figure 5-2.9).

Meter

Figure 5-2.9: Fault Current from Substation B Interrupted

It could also be the case that the fault current contribution from Substation B is relatively much lower than from
Substation A, and may not even be detected as a fault, in which case the fault is not isolated. To overcome this, and to
reduce the time delay between the opening of both interrupting devices, some form of communication between the two
substations can be installed, so that when one interrupting device is activated, a signal is sent to the substation at the
opposite end of the line to activate the corresponding interrupting device. This way, isolation of the fault is ensured.

OPEN OPEN

If
Meter

a): Fault Current from Substation A Activates Signal

OPEN OPEN

I
Meter

b): Fault Current from Substations A and B Interrupted

Figure 5-2.10: Interrupting a Line Fault

1.2.3 Over-voltage Protection

Another form of protection that must be provided for is that of over-voltages that develop on lines due to lightning
strikes. These occur due to direct strikes onto transmission line towers with a corresponding flashover onto the line
conductor, or nearby cloud to earth strikes that induce transient over-voltages on the line.

Figure 5-2.11: Back-flashover from a Tower Strike

2. PRIMARY PLANT

2.1 Busbars (See also SLDG 5-1, 2.8)

An electrical bus (alternatively spelled "buss"), derived from busbar, is a common electrical connection between
multiple electrical devices or equipment bays.

A bus can either allow signals to be transferred between devices, the summing (mixing) of output signals from the
devices or the distribution of input signals or power amongst the devices. A bus often takes the form of a conductor that
terminates on multiple connector devices that allows the devices or equipment bays to be connected onto the busbar.

2.2 Circuit Breaker (CB)

Circuit breakers are mechanical switching devices that make, carry and interrupt currents occurring in the circuit under
normal conditions, and can make, carry for a specified time and break currents occurring in the circuit under abnormal
conditions, such as short circuit currents.

It is the first device to open when interrupting (de-energising), and the last to close when making (energising).

Terminals Single Vertical

Breaking Chamber

Load/Fault Current
SYMBOL Opening
and Closing Device

Hollow Post Insulator

Housing Drive Rod

Marshaling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.13: Circuit Breaker with One SF6 Breaking Chamber

Terminal Terminal

Breaking Breaking
Chamber Chamber

Hollow Post Insulators

Housing Drive Rod

Marshaling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.12: Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers

Closed Position Intermediate Positions Open Position

Common
Connection
Plate

Fixed Arcing
Contact

Fixed
Continuous
Current Contact

Movable Arcing
Contact Fixed Continuous
Current Contact
Movable
Fixed Arcing
Continuous
Contact
Current Contact
Movable Arcing
Arc Quenching Movable Contact
Nozzle Continuous
Current Contact
Compression Compressed
Chamber Insulating Gas Insulating Gas
Compression Being Escaping Through
Cylinder Compressed Gap Extinguishing
Compression Arc
Piston
Actuating Rod

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with One SF6 Breaking Chamber

Closed Position

Intermediate Opening Position – Just Before Arc Starts Forming

Fixed Continuous
Current Contacts

Movable Continuous
Current Contacts

Insulating Gas
Being Compressed

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers (Continued)

Intermediate Opening Position – Arc extinguished by Compressed Gas

Fixed Arcing
Contact
Movable Arcing
Contact

Compressed
Insulating Gas
Escaping Through
Gap Extinguishing Arc

Open Position

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers (Continued)

2.3 Isolator (IS)

Isolators, or sometimes referred to as disconnectors, are mechanical switching devices which provide an isolating
distance in the open position.

They are capable of opening and closing a circuit if either a negligible current (0,5 A) is switched or if there is no
significant change in voltage between terminals of the poles. Examples are capacitive charging current for bushings,
busbars, connections, very short lengths of cable, and currents of voltage transformers.

Currents can be carried continuously under normal operating conditions and for a specified time under abnormal
conditions such as short circuits.

Current Path

Terminal
Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Moving
M Contact

Rotating
Centre
SYMBOL Post
Insulators
No Load/ Current
Diverting

Marshaling
Kiosk

Current Path
Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
Rotating Centre Moving
Post Insulators Contact

Figure 5-2.14: Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

Closed Position

Current
Path Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
Moving
Rotating Centre Contact
Post Insulators

Moving
Contact
Current
Path
Opening

Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact

Rotating Centre
Post Insulators

Moving
Contact

Current
Path
Open Position

Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
o
70
Rotating Centre
Post Insulators

Figure 5-2.15: Operation of a Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

Fixed Contact
Connected to
Busbar

M
Current Moving
Path Contact
SYMBOL
Terminal
Terminal

Solid Core
Post Rotating Driving
Insulator Solid Core
Post Insulator
Stack

Marshalling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.16: Pantograph Type Isolator

Fully Open Intermediate Positions Fully Closed

Figure 5-2.17: Operation of a Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

2.4 Earthing Switch (ES)

Earthing switches are mechanical switching devices for earthing and short circuiting circuits. They are capable of
carrying currents such as short circuit currents for a specified time under abnormal conditions. They are not required to
carry normal operating currents. Earthing switches for transmission networks may also be required to make, carry and
break induced currents (capacitive and inductive) under normal circuit conditions. Earthing switches with short circuit
making capability must be able to make the short-circuit current.

Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Solid Core
Post
SYMBOL Insulator

Earth Moving
Blade Contact

Mech
Box

Figure 5-2.18: Earthing Switch

Fully Open Intermediate Positions Fully Closed

Fixed
Contact

Moving
Contact

Earth
Blade
Arm

Mech
Box

Figure 5-2.19: Operation of an Earthing Switch

2.5 Current Transformer (CT)

Current transformers are used to transform high currents to values that can be unified or measured safely with low
internal losses. The primary winding carries the load current while the secondary winding current is identical to primary
side in phase and ration except for the transformer error. Current transformers operate almost under short-circuit
conditions. Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrically independent and insulated from one another as
required by the service voltage.

I
Bellows
t
P1 P2
. Primary Bar
P1 P2 Insulator Secondary
Coils
Load/Fault
Hollow Post
SYMBOL
Insulator

Secondary
Tapings

Proportional
I Signal

t Graded Proportional
Insulation

Secondary t
Tap

a). Top Core Type

Cap Connected
To P2
P1 P2
Terminals

Hollow Post
Insulator

Full
Insulation
Oil
Dielectric
Secondary
Hair Pin Coils
Primary
Secondary Tap
Connection Box

b). Hair-pin Type

Figure 5-2.20: Current Transformers

2.6 Circuit Breaker and Current Transformer Combination

A fault occurring on a circuit will cause a high current to flow, the direction of which depending on where the failure took
place. Regardless of direction, the current transformer (CT) will send a representative signal back to the associated
control panel which will be detected as a fault current by the panel, and send a signal back to the adjacent circuit
breaker (CB) to open. It is generally the case that CTs are located next to the CB, sometimes even on the same
structure, in order to keep the distance between these two components as small as possible. On certain types of CBs
such as the dead-tank type, ring core CTs are part of the CB construction.

One will notice that the current transformer terminals are marked P1 and P2. The cap or head of the CT is electrically
connected to the P2 terminal, while the P1 terminal is insulated from it. This allows for the classification of a fault as
being either on the busbar side of the CT or on the “line” side. A fault on the busbar side will be classified as a buszone
fault which activates the buszone protection, whist a fault on the “line” side will activate only the protection associated
with that equipment bay. The P1 terminal always faces the circuit breaker, while the P2 terminal faces away from the
CB.

P1 P2
..
P1 ....
..

SYMBOL

Sends Signal
Receives Signal to Protection
from Protection Panel
Panel to Trip or
Close

Figure 5-2.21: Circuit Breaker and Current Transformer Combination

2.7 Voltage Transformer (VT)

Voltage transformers are used to transform high voltages to values that can be unified or measured safely with low
internal losses. The primary winding is connected to the service voltage while the secondary winding voltage is identical
to the primary side in phase and ration except for the transformer error. Voltage transformers operate at no load.
Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrically independent and insulated from one another as required by
the service voltage.

These transformers can be classified into two types, inductive and capacitive.

2.7.1 Electromagnetic/Inductive Voltage Transformers

Inductive or electromagnetic voltage transformers are characterised by low output of high accuracy. They are normally
applied at system voltages of up to and including 132kV. They are also used for voltage measurement on static var
compensators (SVC) connected at up to 400kV where high accuracy measurements are required.

Terminal

Hollow Post
Insulator t

Full
Insulation System
SYMBOL Voltage

Oil
Dielectric Secondary
Coils Proportional
t Primary
Coil Secondary
Tap V
Connection
Box t

Figure 5-2.22: Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer

2.7.2 Capacitive Voltage Transformers

Voltage transformers at higher system voltages up to Um of 800 kV that operate with the principle of the capacitive
divider can also be used. They also have the advantage of being usable for coupling high-frequency power-line carrier
systems for telecommunications, remote-control installations and similar purposes.

Considering a system frequency of 50 Hz, the impedance of a capacitor with a capacitance of 6500 pf is given as:

1
XC =
2.π.f.C
1
= -12
eq. 5-2.8
2.π.50.6500.1 0
≈ 490 kΩ

It is apparent that the impedance is too high to allow the signal from going through. Now consider a high frequency
carrier signal of 500 kHz:

1
XC = 3 -12
2.π.500.10 .6500.10 (from eq. 5-2.8)
≈ 49 Ω

The impedance is several orders of magnitude lower, allowing the carrier signal through, which is drained off and sent
via a co-axial cable to the carrier cabinet housed in the control building.

Terminal
SYMBOL
V

t
Hollow Post
Insulator
Major System Voltage
Capacitor
Voltage
Minor Capacitor Sensing and Carrier
Capacitor Signal Draining
Earth Device
V Connection

t Oil Dielectric Secondary Proportional

Coils
Secondary Tap V
Primary Coil
V Connection Box
t
t

t
Carrier
Figure 5-2.23: Capacitive Voltage Transformer

2.8 Line Trap (LT)

Apart from the 50 Hz power signal, high voltage transmission lines are also used for transmitting carrier signals between
30 kHz and 500 kHz for remote control, voice communication, remote metering and protection, and so forth, and are
often referred to as Power Line Carrier (PLC) systems. Line traps prevent transmission of these high frequency signals
to unwanted directions without loss of energy at power frequency. Line traps are series-connected to the transmission
lines, and are designed to withstand the rated power frequency current and the short-circuit current to which the lines
are subjected.

Line traps are a key component in power line carrier (PLC) systems used for remote control signals, voice
communication, remote metering and control between substations in the electrical transmission and distribution
networks.

Considering a system frequency of 50 Hz, the impedance of a line trap with an inductance of 0,2 mH is given as:

XL = 2.π.f.L
-3
= 2.π.50.0,2.10 eq. 5-2.9

≈ 63 mΩ

It is apparent that the impedance is very low and will therefore allow the signal passing through. Now consider a high
frequency carrier signal of 500 kHz:

3 -3
XL = 2.π.500.10 .0,2.10
(from eq. 5-2.9)
≈ 630 Ω

The impedance is several orders of magnitude higher, therefore not allowing the carrier signal through.

A line trap therefore acts as means for allowing a 50 Hz power frequency signal through, but blocking high frequency
carrier signals as illustrated in Figure 5-2.24. The tuning device which is located inside the line trap is for fine tuning to
obtain the best signal possible.

Terminal Carrier

High Frequency
Carrier Signal
Line Blocking
SYMBOL Matching Device
Unit 100-500kHz

Terminal Inductor (0,2-0,5 mH)

I
Solid Core
t Post Insulator
Stack

50Hz Frequency
Goes Through
Line Matching
Equipment

Figure 5-2.24: Line Trap

Figure 5-2.25: Line Trap Details Illustrating Tuning Device

a). Phase-to-Earth (Single Phase) Coupling

b). Phase-to-Phase (Two-Phase) Coupling

c). Phase-to-Phase (Two-Phase) Coupling

Figure 5-2.26: Line Trap Coupling Configurations

2.9 Line Trap and Capacitor Voltage Transformer Used in Combination

As discussed above, a line trap acts as means for allowing a 50 Hz power frequency signal through, but blocking high
frequency carrier signals, whilst a capacitor voltage transformer acts as a means for allowing high frequency carrier
signals through, but blocks 50 Hz power frequency signals through. The two devices are used in combination to filter off
the carrier signal as illustrated in Figure 2-5.27. Power lines are thus used as a means for communication between the
two substations.

Is
SYMBOL
t

Is
Icr

Icr

t
Is
Vs Carrier

t
Icr
System
t
Signal Filtering
Vcr Device
Carrier
t
Carrier

Figure 5-2.27: Line Trap and Capacitor Voltage Transformer Used in Combination

Capacitor voltage transformers are generally only employed at voltage levels of 220 kV and above. On lower voltage
level lines where power line carrier systems are employed, e.g. on international interconnections, it is common practice
to order a coupling capacitor which then also becomes the supporting insulator for the line trap. Voltage transformers
would only be installed if accurate metering is required and the busbar voltage transformers are not of the correct class.
These would be of the normal electromagnetic type.

2.10 Surge Arrester (SA)

Lightning or switching surges result in over-voltages in substations. If these over-voltages exceed the insulation level
(BIL) of the equipment, it could cause permanent damage to the equipment. Surge arresters provide the primary
protection against over-voltages caused by external sources (e.g. lightning) and by system disturbances (e.g. switching).
Surge arresters limit these over-voltages to a safe level (lower than the BIL of the equipment) and thus protect the
equipment. The maximum voltage that the arrester transmits further is called the arrester protection level. The
difference between the BIL of the equipment and protection level is the protective margin

V V

1,2 50 t (µs) 250 2500 t (µs)

Switching
Lightning

Figure 5-2.28: Fast Fronted Surge Voltages due to Lightning and Switching

Live Terminal V

Grading Ring
1,2 50

Hollow Post Insulator Lightning

Metal Oxide Stacked Block V

Material Non-linear Resistance
SYMBOL
Surge/Over-Voltage
Arresting Device 250 2500

Switching
Earth Terminal

Figure 5-2.29: Surge Arrester

3. THE COMPOSITION OF A SUBSTATION ELECTRICAL BAY

Having briefly discussed some of the major components that are employed in an equipment bay, and their particular
function, it is now time to discuss their positioning within the bay itself. An equipment bay is a grouping of discrete items
as discussed above to fulfil a certain overall function with elements of protection built in. With the equipment bay may be
configured to be a feeder bay, which means that it is connected to a line which in turn is connected to a feeder at
another substation. The appropriate type of protection system will be employed, viz. a line protection scheme (distance
protection). If it is an equipment bay to feed a transformer, it will be configured in a particular way so that an appropriate
transformer protection scheme (differential protection) can be employed. A bay configured for the installation of a shunt
capacitor bank will again be configured such that its particular type of protection scheme can operate successfully, so to
for a reactor bay and so on. These bays all have some common features that will be discovered as one progresses
through this chapter, with additional features that are peculiar to the application. Equipment bays that deviate a bit from
those mentioned above are busbar coupling and busbar sectioning bays. However, even they, as one will see, can be
easily understood when analysing their functioning.

The topic of Busbar Arrangements is discussed at length under SLDG 6. The chapter indicates that the starting point of
almost all bays would be the busbar, and in particular, the arrangement chosen. The busbar defines the electrical
conductor that connects all the circuits together in a substation. It allows the current from any connected circuit to flow to
any other circuit in accordance with system requirements, system configurations and impedances. The current flow

through the busbar cannot be directly controlled however the switching of equipment can change the current flow.
Different busbar configurations are used in different circumstances as discussed under SLDG 6.

3.1 A Feeder Bay With Double Busbars

3.1.1 Busbars

As described above, the starting point for developing an electrical bay is the busbar system, which in this case is a
double busbar system. These are normally labelled Busbar 1 (BB1) and Busbar 2 (BB2). Which of the busbars is
labelled Busbar 1 and Busbar 2 will become more apparent later in the text under paragraph 3.1.11.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.30: Double Busbars

3.1.2 Busbar Isolators

The two busbar arrangement allows an equipment bay to be connected onto one or the other busbar, but not to both at
the same time under normal in service conditions. For this to be realised, one side of an isolator is connected directly to
a busbar, i.e. one isolator per busbar. This isolator is referred to as a busbar isolator, so there is Busbar 1 Isolator, and
Busbar 2 Isolator. The non-busbar sides of the isolators are connected to each other to form a common point. The
isolator is operated under no load conditions and is not designed to make or break load current.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.31: Busbar Isolators Added

3.1.3 Circuit Breakers

Since isolators are operated under no load, a means for switching out a circuit by interrupting load or fault current needs
to be allowed for. The device that performs this function is called a circuit breaker and is specially designed for this
capability. It is placed next to the busbar isolators so as to keep the interconnection to the isolator common point to the
circuit breaker as short as possible, whilst still observing electrical clearances. The circuit breaker requires a signal
initiated by a means external to itself for the open or close operation.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.32: Circuit Breaker Added

3.1.4 Current Transformers

The circuit breaker does not in itself have the ability to detect or distinguish between load and fault current and trip itself.
This function is performed by a current transformer. It is therefore desirable that the current transformer therefore by
necessity, needs to be as close to the circuit breaker as possible, and is therefore generally placed as the next device in
the bay. A small signal that is representative of the actual load current is measured, and through wiring sent back to the
control panel in the control building which then analyses the signal by comparing it to the settings. If it is determined that
the current measured is a fault current, the control panel will send a trip signal to the circuit breaker to open in the
manner discussed earlier.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.33: Current Transformer Added

3.1.5 Voltage Transformer

The monitoring or measurement of bay circuit voltage may also be required for some special applications where busbar
voltage measurement is not suitable. This may include the metering of a large or international customer which requires
accurate readings for billing purposes. An accurate voltage signal is used with a current signal to determine the phase
angle between them in order to calculate the power factor (cosφ) as discussed in paragraph 1.1.3, hence the energy
consumption (MW), reactive power consumption (MVAR), and apparent power usage (MVA) can also be determined.
The voltage transformer may, but not necessarily, be next to the current transformer. If it were a capacitor voltage
transformer, as is employed on feeders at HV and higher voltage levels, then they need to be outboard (line side) of the
line trap as it has a dual function, i.e. voltage measurement and a connection to receive and transmit signals for the
teleprotection purposes.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.34: Voltage Transformer Added

3.1.6 Line Isolator

Circuit breakers require maintenance from time to time and safe working conditions needs to be created to be able to
carry out maintenance activities. Two busbar isolators already exist on the busbar side of the circuit breaker. With the
circuit breaker in the open position and no current flowing, these isolators are both opened to isolate the CB from the
busbars. A third isolator is installed on the “line” side external to the current and voltage transformers as is the case here
to be able to isolate the bay equipment from apparatus external to it. This then allows total isolation of the circuit breaker
for safer working conditions.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.35: Line Isolator Added

3.1.7 Earth-switches

While isolators offer a means to totally disconnect the common point from the busbar system, this does not guarantee
safe working conditions. Electrostatic and electromagnetic induction due to live circuits in close proximity to the circuit
breaker can produce dangerously high induced voltages. In addition, the circuit breaker cannot be relied on to remain
closed after isolation as spurious signals can cause the inadvertent opening of the breaker or the breaker may be
required to opened for testing. Therefore, applying an earth connection on one side of the breaker is not enough; it has
to be done on both sides. In fact, any section of conductor that can be isolated from the rest of the bay or busbar system
needs to have an earthing point. This will become clear later when bays are meshed together to make up an equipment
yard.

Where the busbar fault level is less than 20 kA, it is normal to employ portable earths to those areas to make it safe for
work. Where fault levels are 20 kA and greater, it is highly recommended that fixed earths be applied at these points,
either as stand alone units, or mounted directly onto isolators. It is also expedient to apply earth-switches on the “line”
side of the line isolator as well due to inadvertent closing of the breaker at the remote end and due to electrostatic and
electromagnetic induction of lines in close proximity.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.36: Earth-switches Added

3.1.8 Line Trap

A line trap, being a large air-core inductor is placed outboard of the line isolator so as to prevent high frequency signals
from entering the busbar and so exit onto other lines. It is on the line side of the line isolator since it needs to be

operational even it the line is de-energised and earthed. The line earth-switch is placed behind the line trap so that the
carrier signal is not short circuited.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.37: Line Trap Added

3.1.9 Coupling Capacitor

A means for filtering off the received and allowing the transmission of high frequency signals is required. As stated in the
previous paragraph, the line trap stops the signal from entering the busbar area (it blocks it), while a capacitor will allow
it through. A coupling capacitor is therefore placed on the line side of the line tap to filter the signal off.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.38: Coupling Capacitor Added

At HV, EHV and UHV voltage levels, the VT and coupling capacitor are combined in the form of a capacitor voltage
transformer to fulfil both functions of voltage measurement and power line carrier.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.39: Capacitor Voltage Transformer Added

3.1.10 Surge Arrester

A device is required to protect substation equipment from transient over-voltages that occur on lines due to lightning and
switching. The surge arrester is placed as the first device at the line entrance point to perform this function.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.40: Surge Arrester Added

Surge arresters are also located close to power plant such as transformers and reactors, cables and bushings that are
sensitive to switching over-voltages and may result in solid insulation damage.

3.1.11 Feeder with Bypass Facilities

Radial lines are those that feed a substation which has no other in-feed into it. This means that if the circuit breaker at
either end of the line needs to be maintained, then the feeder illustrated in Figure 5-2.10 would have to be switched out,
and the station being supplied would be without power for the duration of the maintenance period. This would in most
cases not be acceptable and a means for keeping the remote end station alive would have to be found.

Keeping the remote end station energised could be done by building a second line between the two stations, however,
this is generally not a cost effective solution, so a means of bypassing the circuit breaker in a way so that the line
protection remains functional must be implemented. The line must still be selectable to the two busbars.

3.1.11.1 Busbar Side Circuit Breaker Isolator

The circuit breakers must be totally isolated and earthed on both sides, calling for an additional isolator to be placed on
the busbar side of the circuit breaker to separate it from the busbar isolators for the busbar side of the circuit breaker1.
An isolator mounted earth-switch is required as shown on Figure 5-2.4 and is therefore included on the breaker side of
the busbar side breaker isolator. The line side isolator with the required earth-switch is already in place to separate the
breaker from the line.
BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.41: Busbar Side Circuit Breaker Isolator Added

3.1.11.2 Circuit Breaker Bypass Isolator

The next step is to bypass the circuit breaker with yet another isolator. No additional earth-switches are as they already
exist in the relevant positions as illustrated in Figure 5-2-42. The end result is a feeder bay that has double busbar
selection and bypass.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.42: Circuit Breaker Bypass Isolator Added

3.1.11.3 Reposition the Bay Current Transformers

The associated feeder protection must be kept in service so that the current transformer cannot remain where it is
positioned in Figure 5-2-43. It needs to move “outboard” of the line and bypass isolators so that regardless of which
current path is selected, it remains in-circuit.

BB 2

Figure 5-2.43a): Current Transformer Repositioned

3.1.11.4 Repositioning the Line Side Earth-switch

A further modification of Figure 5-2-43a) is required since if the line side earth-switch remains on the busbar side of the
current transformer, and it is closed to earth the line, trapped line charge will flow through the current transformer to
earth. This will appear as a buszone fault and will activate the buszone protection scheme. All circuits attached to the
same zone as this feeder will be stripped from the busbar unnecessarily. To stop this from happening, the earth-switch
is placed on the line side of the current transformer so that the flow of trapped line charge to is not seen by the current
transformer.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43b): Line Earth-switch Repositioned

3.1.11.5 Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

The configuration of Figure 5-2.43b) can be even more to bypass even the busbar isolators and save on the busbar side
breaker isolator by connecting the bypass isolator to the Busbar 2 directly. The need for the busbar side breaker isolator
then falls away.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43c): Removal of the Busbar Side Breaker Isolator - Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

3.1.11.4 Single Busbar Selection with Bypass

It may be that double busbar selection with bypass is too elaborate for the station being fed, allowing a further
simplification to the bay layouts. In this case, single busbar selection with bypass will suffice and is a configuration that
has been popular at voltage levels of up to 275 kV. It is however far more common at the lower voltages from 132 kV
down.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43d): Removal of the Busbar 2 Isolator - Single Busbar Selection with Bypass

3.2 A Transformer Bay With Double Busbars

The transformer bay would, as with the feeder bay, be built up in like manner to the feeder starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer. It may, but usually does not have a voltage
transformer for voltage measurement. The voltage signal is normally sourced from voltage transformers connected to
the busbar. A ‘line’ isolator is generally not included unless the power is sourced from, or being supplied to a client with
a bay in an adjacent yard, where isolation may be deemed necessary to ensure safety to maintenance staff. In this
case, an isolator on the owner’s side and one on the client’s side may be required for independent isolation of the two
sides (see Figure 5-2.46a) If this isolation requirement is considered necessary, then all of the earth switches would be
retained for the same reasons as above. Transformer differential protection is the protection of choice. Line traps would
not be required since teleprotection would not be applied, being inappropriate for this application. As discussed above,
the surge arrester is required to protect the transformer due to its sensitivity to transient overvoltages.

3.2.1 Free-standing Earth-switch

Earth-switches are applied when the busbar fault level is 20 kA or greater. When a ‘line isolator’ is not called for in the
transformer bay, a free standing 3 phase earthswitch would be installed if dictated by the fault level.

BB 1 BB 2

a). Transformer Bay with ‘Line’ Isolator

BB 1 BB 2

b) Transformer Bay with Free Standing Earthswitch

Figure 5-2.44: Transformer Bay with Free Standing Earthswitch

3.2.2 Power Transformer

Since the purpose of this equipment bay is to either transform the system voltage up for further power transmission, or
transform the system voltage down to a more appropriate voltage for clients, the bay equipment would be connected to
a power transformer of suitably rated capacity.

The transformer could be located either in the client’s yard, or in the yard of the owner supplying the power.

BB 1 BB 2 Own Client’s
Yard Yard

a). Transformer in Clients Yard

BB 1 BB 2

b). Transformer in Own Yard

Figure 5-2.45: Transformer Bay

The opposite side of the transformer would be connected to a bay virtually identical to the one just created, but with
equipment of higher or lower voltage depending on whether the voltage was transformed up or down respectively.
Again, a voltage transformer, a ‘line’ isolator and earthswitches would be employed under the conditions already
discussed above.

BB 1 BB 2 Own Client’s BB 2 BB 1
Yard Yard

a). One Transformer Bay in Own Yard and other in Client’s Yard

BB 1 BB 2 BB 2 BB 1

b). Both Transformer Bays in Own Yards

Figure 5-2.46: Position of Transformer Bays

3.2.3 A Shunt Capacitor Bay With Double Busbars

The shunt capacitor bay would, as with the transformer bay, be built up in like manner starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer. Depending on the configuration of the capacitor
bank and type of protection, the bay may or may not have a voltage transformer for voltage measurement. The voltage
signal is sometimes sourced from voltage transformers connected to the busbar. A ‘line’ isolator is generally not
included. Not the all of the earthswitches would therefore be retained, only one on either side of the circuit breaker for
the same reasons as above. Surge arresters are not necessarily a requirement, but may be called for under certain
conditions.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.47: Shunt Capacitor Bank Bay with Double Busbar Selection

3.2.4 A Shunt Reactor Bay With Double Busbars

The shunt reactor bay would, as with the transformer bay, be built up in like manner starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer for fault current detection. As before, the bay may
or may not have a voltage transformer for voltage measurement. As with the shunt capacitor, the voltage signal is

sometimes sourced from voltage transformers connected to the busbar. All of the earth-switches as shown in the
capacitor bank bay would be retained for the shunt reactor. Surge arresters are a definite requirement, for protection
against switching transient over-voltages.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.48: Shunt Reactor Bay with Double Busbar Selection (Busbar Reactor)

3.2.5 A Bus Coupler Bay

A busbar coupling bay is a bay that electrically ties two separate busbars together, whilst offering a means for automatic
separation them if a fault occurs on one of them. As with all the previous bays, it is built up by starting with the two
busbar isolators, this time not directly connected to each other, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current
transformer for fault current detection. Depending on the protection philosophy applied, a second current transformer
can be included, one either side of the circuit breaker. This is normally a requirement at power stations where the
buszone protection schemes need to clear a fault in the shortest possible time. The bay usually does not have a voltage
transformer directly associated with it. The voltage signal is normally sourced from voltage transformers connected to
the busbar. The circuit breaker side isolator mounted earthswitches would be retained. In addition, busbar side, isolator
mounted earth switches may be required for earthing the busbars for busbar maintenance purposes. Surge arresters
are normally not a requirement.

BB 1 BB 2

a). Application at all other Substations

BB 1 BB 2

b). Application at Power Station High Voltage Yards

Figure 5-2.49: Bus Coupler

3.2.6 A Bus Section Bay

A busbar sectioning bay is a bay that electrically ties two sections of the same busbar together, whilst offering a means
to automatically separate them if a fault occurs on one of the sections. As with the bus coupling bay, it is built up by
starting with the two busbar isolators, also not directly connected to each other, then the circuit breaker, followed by the
current transformer. The configuration is virtually the same as that of a Bus Coupler except that the bay is arranged in
line with the associated busbar. As with bus couplers, depending on the protection philosophy applied, a second current
transformer is included, one either side of the circuit breaker. Again, this is normally a requirement at power stations
where the buszone protection schemes need to clear a fault in the shortest possible time. The bay may or may not have
a voltage transformer associated with it. These are referred to as busbar voltage transformers. The circuit breaker side
isolator mounted earthswitches would be retained. Busbar side, isolator mounted earth switches would be required for
earthing the busbars for busbar maintenance purposes if they have not been included in the Bus Coupler. Surge
arresters are normally not a requirement.

BB 1A BB 1B

a). Application at all Substations with Busbar Voltage Transformers

BB 1A BB 1B

b). Application at Power Station High Voltage Yards with Busbar Voltage Transformers

Figure 5-2.50: Bus Section

3.2.7 Developing a Complete Equipment Yard

Having developed the equipment bays that form the basic building blocks of an equipment yard, one can now start
putting them together to arrive at a first draft of a functional substation yard. Once the first draft has been developed, an
optimisation exercise may be needed to see what improvements can be made to the busbar configuration.

The requirements for the substation would be provided by the planning engineers once their system studies have been
completed and have received confirmation from the client that what is being offered is acceptable.

Suppose the requirements for the higher voltage equipment yard comprises two feeders, one feeding in and one feeding
out, a single transformer to start with, with a second transformer to be installed soon after, and then possibly a third
transformer and a third feeder some time after that. The arrangement developed must accommodate all the relevant
bays together with the required busbar coupling and busbar sectioning bays. Figure 5-2.51 provides a layout that is
practical from a protection point of view.

Once the single line for the higher voltage side has been developed, the lower voltage side can be developed using the
higher voltage side as a starting point. Now suppose the lower voltage side has a single feeder to start with, with two

more feeders later once the second transformer is installed, and another feeder when the third transformer is installed.
A capacitor bank is to be installed during the first stage of the substation establishment. Figure 5-2.52 provides a layout
that will accommodate these requirements.

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

(Future)

Busbar 2

Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

Bus Section 1
(Future)

Bus Coupler A Bus Coupler B

(Future)

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

(Future) (Future)

Figure 5-2.51: Single Line Diagram of an Equipment Yard comprising a number of Equipment Bays

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

(Future)

HV YARD
Higher System Voltage

Busbar 2

Busbar Busbar
1A 1B

Bus Section 1
(Future)

Bus Coupler A Bus Coupler B

(Future)
Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3
(Future) Bus Coupler B
Bus Coupler A (Future) (Future)

Bus Section 1
(Future)
Busbar Busbar
1A 1B

Busbar 2

MV YARD
Lower System Voltage
Shunt
Fdr 1 Capacitor Fdr 4 Fdr 5
(Fut) Fdr 2 Fdr 3 Bank 1 (Fut) (Fut)

Figure 5-2.52: Single Line Diagram of Two Equipment Yards of Differing System Voltage

SLDG 6-1

PROTECTION SCHEMES

1.1 Purpose of Protective Relays

Protective relays are used to detect defective lines or apparatus, and to initiate the operation of circuit-interrupting
devices to isolate the defective equipment. Relays are also used to detect abnormal or undesirable operating conditions
other than those caused by defective equipment and either operates an alarm or initiate operation of circuit-interrupting
devices. Protective relays protect the electrical system by causing the defective apparatus or lines to be disconnected to
minimize damage and maintain service continuity to the rest of the system.

1.2 Design Objectives

The design objectives of protective relaying are to minimize the effects of a system disturbance and to minimize the
possible damage to power system equipment. A good protective relaying system will address dependability, security,
speed, and simplicity.

1.3 Dependability

Dependability is the certainty of correct operation in response to system troubles. It includes the reliable operation of the
relay system operating when it is supposed to and selectivity of the relay system operating to isolate the minimum
amount of the system necessary to provide continuity of service.

1.4 Security

Security is the ability to avoid mal-operations between faults. Every relay system needs to be designed to either operate
or not operate selectively with other systems.

1.5 Speed

Speed means clearing all faults in the shortest possible time with all due regard to dependability and security.

1.6 Simplicity

A relaying system should be no more complex than is required for any given possibility of equipment failure and mal-
operation.

1.7 Indications of Defective Equipment or Abnormal Conditions

1.7.1 Short-Circuits

A short-circuit is an abnormal connection of relatively low resistance between two or more points of differing potential in
a circuit. If any of these points is at earth (ground) potential, it is referred to as an “earth (or ground) fault”. If earth
potential is not involved, it is referred to as a “phase fault”. Phase faults cause excessive currents and low voltages.
Earth faults may or may not cause excessive currents or abnormal voltages, depending on whether the system is
normally unearthed, high- or low- resistance or impedance earthed, or effectively earthed.

1.7.2 Excessive Heating

Equipment is designed to deliver full-rated capacity with the temperature maintained below a value that will not be
damaging to the equipment. If operating temperature becomes excessive, the life of the equipment (generator, motor,
transformer, etc.) will be reduced. Excessive heating may be caused by overloading, high ambient temperatures,
improper cooling, or failure of cooling equipment.

1.7.3 Overvoltage

Equipment is designed for normal operating voltages as stated on its nameplate with a slight allowance (usually about 5
percent) for normal overvoltage. Abnormal overvoltage may cause:-

a). Insulation failure

b). Shortening of the equipment life

c). Excessive heating as a result of greatly increased excitation currents where electromagnetic devices are used

d). Excessive heating in resistors used in controls

e). Failure of transistors and other electronic devices

1.7.4 Under-voltage

Continuous under-voltage will likely cause overheating of motors and dropping out of contactors, and lead to the failure
of electrical equipment.

1.7.5 Unbalanced Phase Conditions

On balanced three-phase systems with balanced three-phase loads, a sudden unbalance in the current or the voltage
usually indicates an open or partially short-circuited phase. An unbalance voltage condition is especially serious for
three-phase motors because negative sequence currents can lead to considerable overheating within the motor. On
balanced three-phase systems with single-phase loads, the loading on each phase may normally vary, depending on
the magnitude of each single-phase load. However, it is desirable to keep this unbalance to a minimum to maintain
balanced voltages for three-phase loads. Unbalanced conditions, which include single-phase and double-phase faults
with or without earth, can be detected with the use of negative and zero sequence relay elements.

1.7.6 Reversed Phase Rotation

Reversed phase rotation can occur after circuit changes have been made or during an open phase condition. Reversed
rotation of motors may cause considerable damage to the facility driven by motors, such as a conveyor.

1.7.7 Abnormal Frequency

Abnormal frequencies can occur when the load does not equal the generation. The frequency may be above or below
the system normal frequency. Frequency is normally below system frequency when load exceeds generation, while it is
normally above the system frequency when load is less than generation. Many facilities such as electric clocks,
synchronous motors, etc., are frequency sensitive.

1.7.8 Over-speed

Considerable mechanical damage can be done to generators and motors because of over-speed. Excessive over-speed
may cause parts of the generator or motor to be thrown for considerable distances, which is dangerous to personnel as
well as other facilities. Generators and series connected motors may reach dangerous over-speeds when loads are
suddenly removed.

1.7.9 Abnormal Pressure

In electrical equipment, such as transformers or reactors, that use liquid as an insulating fluid (transformer oil), high
internal pressures can be created during internal faults.

1.7.10 Abnormal Impedance

Electrical equipment has impedance associated with it that either has definite values or values that may vary within a
known range during known varying operating conditions. These values are normally determined during the manufacture
and installation of equipment. Substantial deviations in the impedance of the equipment can indicate a failure of the
equipment.

1.7.11 Out-of-Step Conditions

Electrical power systems in many countries in Europe, Africa and Australasia operate at a frequency of 50Hz, while
those in North America operate at 60Hz. All generators and rotating equipment on the applicable systems rotate at an
rpm to maintain the given frequency. As such, each machine on the electrical system maintains a relative position, or
phase angle, with respect to every other machine on the system. Once a machine exceeds a critical phase angle, it can
no longer stay in phase with the system. It is said to have moved out of step with the system, and has to be removed
from the system and re-synchronized to the system in order to establish operation. Out-of-step conditions are typically
monitored through the use of impedance relays and set to trip or block the trip of circuit breakers in order to segment the
system at predetermined locations based on system stability studies.

1.7.12 Excessive System Phase Angles (Synchronism Check)

The closing of a circuit breaker on a system connects the electrical systems on either side of the circuit breaker. The
closing of the breaker will cause any differences in voltage and phase angle across the breaker to be reduced to zero,
causing current flow from one system to the other to equalize the system voltages, currents, and phase angles. If the
voltages and phase angles across the breaker are too much, excessive currents can flow, resulting in a disturbance to
the system, possibly damaging the breaker or adjacent rotating equipment. Typically, the voltage and phase angle
across the breaker are compared to confirm the systems are within proper limits before the breaker is closed.

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Phasors

A phasor is a complex number used to represent electrical quantities. In protective relaying systems, phasors are used
to aid in applying the connecting relay and for analysis of relay operation after faults. Phasor diagrams have to be
accompanied by a circuit diagram. The phasor diagram shows the magnitude and relative phase angle of the currents
and voltages, while the circuit diagram shows the location, direction, and polarity of the currents and voltages.

2.2 Polarity

The relative polarities of a current transformer’s primary and secondary terminals are identified either by painted polarity
marks or by the symbols “P1” and “P2” or “H1” and “H2” for the primary terminals, and “X1” and “X2” for the secondary
terminals.

The convention is that if current enters “P1” (“H1”) terminal, secondary current leaves the “X1” terminals, or when
current enters “P2” (“H2”) terminal, secondary current leaves the “X2” terminal. Normally when paint is used, the
terminals corresponding to “P1” (“H1”) and “X1” are identified. Since ac current is continually reversing its direction, one
might well ask what the significance of polarity markings is. Its significance is in showing the direction of current flow
relative to another circuit or to a voltage, as well as to aid in making proper connections. The polarity marks for a voltage
(potential) transformer have the same significance as for a current transformer.

2.3 Faults

A system fault (short circuit) is a condition in which the electric current follows an abnormal path as a result of the failure
or removal of the insulation that normally confines the electric current to the conductors. Insulation is usually either air or
high-resistive material that may also be used as a mechanical support. Air insulation can be accidentally short-circuited
by birds, rodents, snakes, kite strings, tree branches,; broken down by over-voltages due to lightning; or weakened by
ionisation due to a fire or smoke. Organic insulation can deteriorate because of heat or aging or can be broken down by
overvoltage due to lightning, switching surges, or faults at other locations. Porcelain insulators can be bridged by
moisture with dirt or salt, or can develop a crack as a result of mechanical forces.

2.4 Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical components are the foundation for obtaining and understanding fault data on three-phase power systems.
Today, fault studies are commonly made with digital computers. System changes can be accurately modelled and
incorporated into the database. Knowledge of symmetrical components is important both in making a study and in
understanding the data obtained from the computer. It is also extremely valuable in analysing faults and relay
operations. A number of protective relays are based on symmetrical components. Symmetrical components are one of
the most powerful technical tools used by a protection engineer. The practical value lies in the ability to think and
visualise in symmetrical components.

2.5 Relay Input Sources

Instrument transformers are the primary sources in providing relays with currents and voltages that are proportional to
voltage and current flowing in the primary circuit. Voltage signals are obtained from voltage transformers (VTs), and
current signals from current transformers (CTs). Instrument transformers and their applications are described in SLDG
28.

2. BASIC RELAY TYPES

3.1 General

Protective relays consist of three basic modules:-

• Input Sources

• An input module

• A decision module

• An output module

The modules are each constructed of components that will vary depending on the type of construction of the relay:
electromechanical, static, or microprocessor. See Figure 6-1.1.

System Control/
Input Decision Output
Control Information
Module Module Module
Inputs Systems

Figure 6-1.1: Logical Representation of Protective Relays

Relays are also classified according to the function they provide to the system. The five most common functions are:

• Protection

• Regulation

• Reclosing and synchronizing

• Monitoring

• Auxiliary

The primary emphasis of this discussion is protection. Other functions are included as applicable.

Each of the basic relay modules operates to perform tasks as follows:

3.1.1 Input Module

The principal function of the input module is to receive the inputs from the electrical system to the relay, generally in the
form of currents, voltages, and status input contacts. It acts as the interface between the relay decision module and the
electric power system, protecting the sensitive decision module from the harsh environment of the electric power
system. The electrical system input section typically consists of transformers, transducers, zener diodes, and other
equipment to provide a signal, proportional to the inputs, to the decision module. The input equipment will condition the
input signals to be in a format required by the decision module. Conditioning may be converting the voltage, contact, or
current inputs into voltages and currents suitable to electronic equipment. It may also include the conversion of the
signals from analog values to digital values. The input section will also typically contain equipment that will provide
protection for the relay to withstand the surges, transients, and oscillations that may be present in the substation
environment.

An additional task of the input section of the relay is to provide for the input and storage of the relay settings. For
electromechanical and static relays, this is most often the setting of various taps, dials (which are normally preset

tension on a spring), and selector switches on the face of the relay. For microprocessor relays, the input section often
includes a series of push buttons that will allow the input of relay settings or the input of requests for the relay to display
settings or data processed by the relay. The relay settings will be stored for use by the relay in providing its protective
functions.

Microprocessor relays often include a number of additional inputs to the relay. Included in these inputs are the power
supply; clock signals to provide sequence of events (SOE) timing, communication ports to provide direct computer,
SCADA, or other data inputs; and front panel push buttons to set the relay or scroll through metering functions.
Microprocessor relays are often provided with multiple relay setting groups that will allow for changes in the electric
power system configuration. The change from one settings group to another can usually be keyed locally by an external
contact in the substation control scheme or remotely via SCADA. It should be noted that there is an inherent danger of
inadvertently changing a relay setting or setting group with this type of microprocessor relay.

The protection engineer has to be aware of the electrical system inputs that are available for use in determining the
failure of the electric power system or its components. Knowledge of the electric power system and how the system
responds to various failures is invaluable in making decisions as to the types of relays that are used to protect it.

3.1.2 Decision Module

This module monitors the input data included in the relay settings input to the relay and the system data, including
currents, voltages, status contacts, and control signals that were input to the relay. The module will evaluate the system
data in comparison to the relay settings. When the system data exceed the threshold determined by the relay settings,
this module will signal the output module to function and record the results. The quantities to which the relay responds
usually designate the relay type.

For electromechanical relays, the decision often consists of disks that work by induction, plungers, or solenoids; levers
that will work on a balance beam principle; units that work on the basis of thermal characteristics; or D’Arsonval units
that consist of a combination of fixed magnetic and electromagnetic elements. Each of the units is configured with a
contact that either makes (closes) or breaks (opens) upon the operation of the device. The recording of the action is
usually accomplished by the dropping of a target to indicate the relay operation. The module compares the input relay
settings to the input settings through the inherent magnetic or thermal action of the relay to overcome the spring
tensions and inertia associated with the relay settings. Relays may operate in the following ways:

• Instantaneously

• With some definite time delay

• With a time delay that varies with the magnitude of the quantities to which the detecting element responds

Static relays replace the electromechanical components with solid-state components and make the comparisons by
electronic means. Static or solid-state detecting elements generally convert the current, voltage, or power inputs to
proportional dc millivolt signals that are then applied to adjustable transistor amplifiers. These amplifiers have a “go-no
go” characteristic that causes an input signal up to the set level to produce no output and input signals beyond that level
that level to produce full output. The output may be another dc millivolt signal applied to further transistor logic or to
contact closure. Indication of the operation of the relay is usually accomplished by dropping of a target to indicate the
relay operation.

Microprocessor relays replace the decision module with a small digital computing unit that utilizes sampled input data
and digitized setting parameters. Comparisons are made digitally by the computer performing a calculation or series of

calculations, comparing the relay setting information to the periodic samples obtained from the electric power system.
When the threshold values are exceeded, the module activates the output module. Most relays will also store a number
of metering values, the status of input devices, intermediate logic elements, and other information available to the relay
in output storage devices, intermediate logic elements, and other information available to the relay in output storage
registers. The information is then available for retrieval either locally at the substation or remotely through
communications that are often provided to the relay.

3.1.3 Output Module

This module provides an output from the decision module to the control system in order to operate electric power
system equipment and isolate faulty system components.

For electromechanical relays, this system typically consists of output contacts or auxiliary relays with multiple contacts.
The contacts act as the interface between the relay and the electric power control system. These contacts are then used
to trip circuit breakers, provide alarms, trip other relays such as lockout relays and send signals via communications to
remote equipment or personnel, or other functions. The contacts will carry specific ratings for the voltages and currents
they will successfully carry or break.

Static relays provide the option for outputs to be either auxiliary reed (magnetically activated) relays and their associated
contacts or solid-state-controlled thyristors. Electronically controlled thyristors are usually faster than their relay
counterparts. Triggering circuitry may include opto-isolators to provide isolation between the relay and the harsh
environment of the electric control system.

Microprocessor relays will use either reed relays or solid-state-controlled thyristors for output elements. Usage will vary
between manufacturers and may be optional to the user. In addition to the standard relay outputs, microprocessor
relays may include a number of additional output contacts that may be programmed for the user’s requirements. One of
the output contacts is normally designed as the relay alarm contact. Most relays include a number of output storage
registers where the relay stores a number of metering values, the status of the input devices, intermediate logic
elements, and other information available to the relay. The information is then available for retrieval either locally at the
substation or remotely through communications that are often provided to the relay. Most microprocessor relays include
communication capabilities that allow to transmit data in digital format to computers, SCADA systems, or local systems.

Many microprocessor relays also include a display unit as a part of the output. This display unit is typically used to
display metering values of the input that are brought to the relay or metering information that is calculated in the relay.
The display may also show other functions of the relay, such as the internal variables, flags, and input parameters. This
display typically provides a means of getting information out of the relay without the requirement to connect a computer
to one of the output ports.

3.2 Relay Selection

The type of relay selected for an application is of primary importance. Knowledge of the existing system needs to be
coupled with additional studies in order to determine the types of failures that each component of the electrical system
can experience and the characteristics of the failure. The electrical system inputs that will be available to the relay and
the speed with which the relay has to operate to maintain electrical system stability has to be known. With this
information, appropriate relays can be selected that will measure the identified characteristics of the electrical power
system component with the previously established relay and operate dependably and security in protecting the electrical
system. Some of the following factors need to be considered.

3.2.1 Electromechanical relays are the oldest and have the most history associated with them. They provide discrete
protection functions within each case. Relay settings are usually straightforward and well documented in most
instruction books. A relatively good knowledge of magnitudes of electrical signals that will be applied to the
relay is necessary in order to obtain the proper range of settings for each application.

3.2.2 Static relays generally provide discrete functions similar to electromechanical relays. Since the operation of the
relay depends only on threshold values being met, these relays are generally faster than their
electromechanical counterparts. Static relays often come in cases similar to their electromechanical
counterparts, making replacement relatively simple. They are also available in “packages” or “schemes” that
include all the protective functions for the line in a single rack or panel.

3.2.3 Microprocessor relays often can accommodate more complex system operation because of the inputs provided
to the relay and the programming features included with the relay. In many cases, numerous functions are
provided in the relay so that the number of discrete relays required for protection may be reduced substantially.
In many cases, additional functions may be provided to protect a system from abnormal conditions that might
not otherwise be considered based on the low occurrence of such conditions or because of other
considerations.

3.2.4 Microprocessor relays often provide many more options for providing protection than either electromechanical
or static relay counterparts. Once the inputs to the relay are obtained, the decision module can then be
programmed to provide many protective functions with these inputs. This information can also be used to
implement the transmittal of data remotely through SCADA or other data retrieval means. In terms of the
number of functions, the microprocessor relay will often provide more protective functions per unit cost.

Some of these relays may be slightly slower to operate than some of the electromechanical or static relays that
are available, operating in the range of 1,5 to 2 cycles, while other may operate in less than 1 cycle.

Microprocessor relays usually include internal self-checking functions for the majority of their functions. It is
necessary to be aware of the functions and features that may not be covered by an alarm, such as capacity of
the output relays to function.

3.2.5 In new installations, the use of microprocessor relays may result in reduced cost since fewer relays are
required. Generally, less floor space is needed so smaller control buildings are needed for the equipment. This
may result in reduced auxiliary power system requirements. The interconnection wiring in a panel is also
reduced since many of the protective functions are included in one relay enclosure.

3.2.6 For simple systems, control system design may be equally simple with electromechanical, static, and
microprocessor relays. If the complexity of the power system requires many specific functions of protection, the
microprocessor relays provide simpler installation.

3.2.7 Consider the effects of the protective relay system on the personnel who will operate and maintain the
equipment. If new devices are being proposed, special training may be required for them to operate and
maintain the equipment. Additional equipment may be necessary for relay testing, such as computers to
connect locally to the microprocessor relays.

3.2.8 Consider the lifetime of the installation the relays are being applied in. Will spare parts be available for the
devices? Will the manufacturer have personnel available to answer questions on the relays in future?

2.8.9 Be aware that the complexity of the relay will increase the complexity of the settings. A simple
electromechanical over-current relay has basically two settings: a tap setting for the pickup of the relay and the
time dial to determine the time delay until trip, if any. A feeder with four over-current relays will thus have eight
settings, with a set of common phase settings. By comparison, a microprocessor relay may have up to 10 or
more pages of relay settings. A small part of these settings will actually involve the protective functions of the
relay; however, the applicability of the function need to be studied to determine whether or not to use them. In
general, if the function is not required, it should be disabled in the relay to avoid over-complicating the
protection scheme.

3.2.10 Personal preference regarding the protective schemes and equipment used can play an important part in the
decision making process. Design and application of protective relaying schemes is an art that uses science to
make it work. In most cases, many relays and protective schemes can be used to protect a line or piece of
equipment. What is used depends on the skill of the designer and preferences of those who will be operating
and maintaining it.

3.2.11 Substation automation combines many functions, such as relaying, metering, and data acquisition. Designers
should be aware of the benefits and traps included in implementing relays in a substation automation project.

Substation automation provides many more options controlling equipment. There are some cases where firms
use programmable logic controllers to perform protective relay functions. These cases are either very simple,
such as providing a timing function, or very complex, providing logic to control switching or testing of a three-
terminal line. In the majority of cases, relays that provide the relay functions should be used and not introduce
automation equipment into the relay functions. It is recommended the relays be used what they are designed to
do, provide system functions, and use automation equipment to provide additional operating features or
metering functions.

3.2.12 The communication relaying functions being used on a system, device function numbers and contact
designations have been developed to identify devices in protective schemes. Appendices F and G to this
chapter list the function numbers and contact designations summarised.

3.3 Over-current Relay

The over-current relay responds to a magnitude of current above the specified value. There are four basic types of
construction: plunger, rotating disc, static, and microprocessor. In the plunger type, a plunger is moved by a magnetic
attraction when the current exceeds a specified value. In the rotating disc induction-type, which is a motor, the disc
rotates by electromagnetic induction when the current exceeds a specified value. Static types convert the current to a
proportional dc millivolt signal and apply it to a level detector with voltage or contact output. Such relays can be
designed to have various current-verses-time operation characteristics. In a special type of rotating induction-disc relay,
called the voltage restrained over-current relay, the magnitude of voltage restrains the operation of the disc until the
magnitude of the voltage drops below a threshold value. Static over-current relays are equipped with multiple curve
characteristics and can duplicate almost any shape of electromechanical relay curve. Microprocessor relays convert the
current to a digital signal. The digital signal can then be compared to the setting values input into the relay. With the
microprocessor relay, various curves or multiple time-current settings can be input to set the relay operation. Some
relays allow the user to define the curve with points or calculations to determine the output characteristics.

The protective characteristic of the over-current relay, in terms of the impedance diagram, is a circle assuming a
constant voltage, with the relay located at the origin of the R-X coordinate diagram as shown in Figure 12.2. The relay
operates on the simple magnitude of current passing through it according to the settings applied to the relay.

The over-current relay may be the simplest relay in concept to use. When the current exceeds the setting value, it
causes a trip. Complications in applying the relay may occur when the system does not provide adequate differentiation
between current values, such as between short lines with high fault current duties. When a number of over-current
relays are used sequentially in a circuit, the trip delay times may become excessive.

Note: Voltage Assumed Constant

Figure 6-1.2: Over-current Protective Characteristic

3.4 Distance Relay

The distance relay responds to a combination of voltage and current. The voltage restrains operation, and fault current
causes operation that has the overall effect of measuring impedance. The relay operates instantaneously (within a few
cycles) on a 50Hz or 60Hz basis for values of impedance below the set value. When time delay is required, the relay
energizes a separate time-delay relay or function with the contacts or output of this time-delay or function performing the
desired output functions.

The protective characteristics of the distance relay, in terms of the impedance diagram, is a circle with the relay located
at the origin of the R-X coordinate diagram as illustrated in Figure 6-1.3. The relay operates on the magnitude of
impedance measured by the combination of restraint voltage and the operating current passing through it according to
the settings applied to the relay. When the impedance is such that the impedance point is within the impedance
characteristic circle, the relay will trip. The relay is inherently directional. The line impedance typically corresponds to the
diameter of the circle with the reach of the relay being the diameter of the circle.

Since the relay responds directly to the value of impedance represented by the fault current and voltage applied to the
relay, it will discriminate more correctly between the location of faults since the electric power system also may be
represented by its impedance. The distance relay may be used more successfully on an electric power system when the
magnitudes of fault current do not provide adequate location differentiation to be able to accurately trip specific breakers
and isolate a fault.

Figure 6-1.3: Distance Protective Characteristic

The distance element in a relay may be used when a component of the electric power system, such as a transmission
line, has defined impedance characteristics. Several distance elements are often used, with the circles passing through
the origin of the R-X diagram, to provide several zones of protection for the system component. Additional zones of
protection will be used with timers to provide direct protection or without timers and used in pilot protection schemes
requiring communications from all remote terminals of the transmission line. Distance elements may be used for out-of-
step protection with the first zone impedance characteristic passing through the R-X impedance coordinate diagram
origin and the remaining zones concentric around the first zone.

3.5 Differential Relay

The differential relay is a current-operated relay that responds to the difference between two or more currents above the
set value. The relay works on the basis of the differential principle that what goes into the device has to come out. This
is illustrated in Figure 6-1.4. If the current does not add to zero, the “error” (fault) current flows to cause the relay to
operate and trip the protective device.

The differential relay is used to provide internal fault protection to equipment such as transformers, generators, and
busbars. Relays are designed to permit differences in output currents as a result of current transformer mismatch and
applications where the input currents come from different system voltages, such as transformers. A current differential
relay provides restraint coils on the incoming current circuits. The restraint coils in combination with the operating coil
provide an operation curve, above which the relay will operate. Some of the relays for specific equipment, such as
transformers, use additional restraint proportional to the harmonics sensed in the incoming currents. Setting levels are
based on the characteristics of the protected equipment.

6 6
Protected
Device

6
3

8
2
87 Relay
2 6 D

Note: For Simplicity of Illustration, the CTs are Indicated with a 1:1 Ratio
and Equal Currents in the Primary and Secondary of the CTs

Figure 6-1.4: Differential Relay Principle

Differential relays are often used with a lockout relay to trip all power sources to the device and prevent the device from
being automatically or remotely re-energized. The relays are very sensitive. The operation of the device usually means
major problems with the protected equipment and the likely failure in re-energizing the equipment.

3.6 Over-voltage Relay

The overvoltage relay responds to a magnitude of voltage above a specified value. As noted, the basic types of
construction include plunger, rotating induction-disc, static, and microprocessor relays, all of which are discussed in
Section 3.3.

3.7 Under-voltage Relay

The under-voltage relay responds to a magnitude of voltage below a specified value and has the basic construction as
the overvoltage relays.

3.8 Power Relay

The power relay responds to the product of the magnitude of voltage, current, and cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current, and is set to operate above a specified value. The basic construction includes rotating
induction-disc, static, or microprocessor relay. The relay is inherently directional since normally open contacts close for
power flow in one direction above a set value but remain open for power flow of any amount in the opposite direction.

3.9 Directional Over-current Relay

A directional over-current relay operates only for excessive current flow in a given direction. They are available in
electromechanical, static, and microprocessor constructions.

3.9.1 An electromechanical over-current relay is made directional by adding a directional unit that prevents the over-
current relay from operating until the directional unit has operated. The directional unit responds to the product of
the magnitude of current, voltage, and the phase angle between them, or to the product of two currents and the
phase angle between them. The value of this product necessary to provide operation of the directional unit is
small, so that it will not limit the sensitivity of the relay (such as an over-current relay that it controls). In most
cases, the directional element is mounted inside the same case as the relay it controls. For example, the over-
current relay and a directional element are mounted in the same case, and the combination is called a directional
over-current relay.

3.9.2 Microprocessor relays often provide a choice as to the polarizing method that can be used in providing the
direction of fault, such as applying residual current or voltage or negative sequence current or voltage polarizing
functions to the relay.

3.10 Frequency Relay

A frequency relay responds to frequencies above or below a specified value. The basic types are electromechanical
relays with a vibrating reed or rotating induction-disc with a frequency-sensitive circuit, static relays, and microprocessor
relays.

3.11 Thermal Relay

A thermal relay responds to a temperature above a specified value. There are two basic types: direct and replica.

3.11.1 Direct

In the direct type of thermal relay, a device such as a thermocouple is embedded in the equipment. This device converts
temperature to an electrical quantity such as voltage, current, or resistance. The electrical quantity then causes a
detecting element to operate.

3.11.2 Replica

In the replica type of thermal relay, a current proportional to the current supplied to the equipment flows through an
element, such as a bimetallic strip, that has a thermal characteristic similar to the equipment. When the equipment is
heated by the flow of current, one of the bimetallic strips expands more than the other, causing the bimetallic strip to
bend and close a set of contacts.

3.12 Pressure Relay

The pressure relay responds to sudden changes of either fluid or gas pressure. It consists of a pressure sensitive
element and a bypass orifice located between the equipment to which the relay is connected and a chamber that is part
of the relay. During slow pressure changes, the bypass orifice maintains the pressure in the chamber to the same value
as in the equipment. During sudden pressure changes, the orifice is not capable of maintaining the pressure in the
chamber at the same value as in the equipment, and the pressure-sensitive element mechanically operates a set of
contacts.

3.13 Auxiliary Relay

Auxiliary relays perform such functions as time delay, counting, and providing additional contacts upon receiving a
signal from the initiating relay. These relays are necessary to provide the broad variety of schemes required by a power
system.

3. RELAY SCHEMES

4.1 General

Protective relays are most often applied with other protective and auxiliary relays as a system rather than individually.
The following basic scheme descriptions apply to electromechanical, static, and microprocessor relay systems.

The static and microprocessor relay systems generally have more elaborate logic involved in the tripping decision,
particularly in the area of transient blocking during external fault clearing. Static systems require more careful treatment
of input circuits, i.e., CT and VT leads are often shielded. Static systems are slightly faster require less maintenance and
considerable more costly than electromechanical systems.

Microprocessor relays are very versatile and often can perform many functions at a lower cost than other methods. In
addition to basic relaying they may do fault locating, fault data recording, self-testing, and metering. Since
microprocessor relays tend to have protective functions available in a relay case, it often allows the designer to provide
additional protection that would not have been considered. Microprocessor relay systems tend to have fewer devices
since they contain more functions in one case. This will tend to reduce the cost of installation.

4.2 Transmission Line Protection

Transmission lines provide the links between the various points of the power system and deliver power from the point of
generation to the ultimate user. The lines operate at the differing voltages included in the power system. The
significance of a line to the electric power system varies according to the voltage level, the location of the line in the
system, the loads carried by the line, and other factors specific to the utility. Schemes for the relay protection of the line
vary according to the significance of the line in the system, the characteristics of faults on the line, the speeds at which a
line fault has to be cleared, and the preferences of the designer and the utility’s practices. The protection schemes
available for transmission line relay protection include:-

a) Over-current, instantaneous, non-directional

b) Over-current, timed with either inverse curves or discrete times, non-directional

c) Over-current, instantaneous, directional

d) Over-current, timed with either inverse curves or discrete times, directional

e) Current differential using over-current

f) Distance, instantaneous and timed

g) Pilot with a communication channel between all terminals

Depending on the fault characteristics of the line in question, the designer may use any of the above relay protection
schemes for the protection of phase and ground faults on a transmission line. Protection schemes may include the use
of the schemes individually or in combination to protect lines with primary and secondary protection schemes.

The following information is necessary in order to determine the relay protection to be used for a transmission line:-

a) The configuration of the transmission line

b) The number of line terminals

c) Whether the line is radial or looped in the system

d) How many taps, if any, or on the line

e) How the line will be loaded

f) Fault levels associated with the line

g) Any other transmission line-specific data peculiar to the system

h) Load-specific information such as specified outage times, temporary power levels, etc.

i) System constraints such as out-of-step relay requirements

j) Coordination requirements with relay systems of the remote line terminals

Higher voltage transmission lines tend to have more sophisticated relay protection schemes often using
communications channels providing information from the remote end of the line to provide greater security.
Transmission lines at 220kV and above normally utilize two primary relay schemes with teleprotection. The voltage of
the line is, however, not the primary factor in determining the types of relay protection that may be used. It is rather the
significance of the line of the line that will determine the speed in which the line has to be removed from the system
when a fault occurs. Some lower voltage systems are in operation where extremely sophisticated relay schemes are in
place, while some higher voltage systems operate with simplistic characteristics of the system at the location of the line.

With the above information, it is possible to make a decision as to the type of relay schemes that may be used. Below
are schemes that are used for transmission line protection.

4.2.1 Non-Teleprotection (Pilot) Schemes

In these cases, relays are used to provide protection without the assistance of communications channels providing
information from the remote end of the line. The relay measures the input quantities, makes the action decision based
on these quantities, and provides an output to the circuit breakers or circuit logic at the site of application based on the
input and the relay logic. All the inputs and outputs are local to the site of application.

4.2.1.1 Over-current Relaying

Over-current relay protection is the simplest form of protection usually applied on lower voltage lines or on radially
supplied lines. In its most basic form, non-directional inverse time over-current relays are applied on radial feeders with
two phase devices and one earth device. The fault current is reduced by increased line impedance the further out on the
line the fault occurs, resulting in a longer time for the relay to trip the line.

When a back-feed from another power source is possible on the feeder, directional over-current relays may be used to
provide selectivity between faults ‘in front’ of or in tripping direction of the relay verses those behind the relay. An
instantaneous over-current element is often used to protect the transmission line or feeder for high-current, close-in
faults near the terminal where the relay is located.

While this type of protection can be used on a network system with varying contributions from both directions on the
lines, it is extremely difficult to coordinate such a system and it should be avoided where possible.

4.2.1.2 Current Differential with Over-current Relay

This circuit uses the differential principle in connecting the CT circuits and an over-current relay instead of a differential
relay. The scheme has limited use since the CTs from all terminals of the line, line segments, or busbars has to be
connected by the hardwire circuits back to the over-current relay. This connection is more secure and can be set more
sensitively than a simple over-current relay application. It also can keep one more over-current relay from being in a
string of over-current relays that have to be set with increasing time delay.

The circuit is typically used within a substation or generation plant facility where short line segments or busbars require
protection that does not need the speed of a differential relay. In applying the circuit, the designer needs to be aware of
the CT error and mismatch that may occur in the differential circuit to the relay and set the relay over any mismatch that
may occur.

The circuit is often applied in a variation as an open differential circuit. This circuit has a number of lines connected to it
with CTs connected in n-1 lines (see Figure 6-1.5). The over-current relay is then set for the load of the line without the
CT. The circuit is often applied as a backup circuit to a transformer differential circuit at a substation with an in-and-out
transmission line. The designer has to be aware of through faults on the lines with CTs that do not involve the line
without the CT. CT mismatch will result in an error current as a result of the through-fault current that will flow in the
relay.

50/51

Figure 6-1.5: Open Differential

4.2.1.3 Step Distance Relaying

Since the distance relay responds to the impedance of the device it is protecting, it can more easily be coordinated and
used when the coordination of over-current relays does not work. The distance relay is more costly than the over-current
relay and requires the addition of line potential sources, adding cost to the scheme. Advantages of distance relays
include a fixed reach based on the impedance of the protected device, regardless of the system voltage and current
changes; the ability to operate at fault currents less than load current; and little transient overreach.

Two relays are used to protect the total length of the line, protection referred to as zones (see Figure 6-1.6). Zone 1
relay is typically set for 85 to 95 percent of the line impedance. Zone 1 tripping time is set for instantaneous tripping, i.e.
with no intentional time delay. Zone 2 is typically set to 120 to 150 percent of the line impedance. The zone 2 needs to
extend past the line being protected into the adjacent lines, not reaching past the far end terminal of the adjacent lines,
yet ensuring the line in question is covered. Zone 2 tripping time is typically set with 18 to 30 cycles of trip delay.

120% - 150% of ZL

≈
85% - 95% of ZL

F2 ZL F1
C1 C2
85% - 95% of ZL

120% - 150% of ZL
≈

Figure 6-1.6: Distance Relay Zones 1 and 2

This scheme provides instantaneous tripping for 70 to 90 percent of the transmission line for a fault (F1, Figure 6-1.6)
located within Zone 1 reach for both ends of the line. For the remainder of the line, a fault (F2, Figure 6-1.6) near each
line terminal is cleared in the time delay used for Zone 2. A fault located near a line terminal will be sequentially cleared
by the near breaker tripping first and the remote terminal breaker tripping after the Zone 2 trip time delay.

A third zone of protection, Zone 3, is often used in step distance relaying. Zone 3 is usually set to reach through the next
line to cover breaker failures. The reach for Zone 3 relay is usually in the range of 200 to 225 percent of the line
impedance. Zone 3 tripping time is typically set with 60 to 120 cycles. The impedance setting will vary depending on the
length of the adjacent lines. Because the reach of the Zone 3 characteristic, it often encroaches on the load impedance
and is susceptible to power system swings. Causing needs to be applied when incorporating Zone 3 relays since long
settings can result in tripping on load.

Zone 3 may be reversed to look in the opposite direction of the line to which step distance relays are being applied. This
is the case when carrier schemes are applied. Occasionally, a reverse-set Zone 3 relay reach is used as a local breaker
failure relay, indicating failure of adjacent circuit breakers.

Step distance relaying may be difficult to apply when the transmission lines are short, with little impedance. The settings
for the distance relays may be very small, near the limits of the design for the relay reach, resulting in the possibility of
the relay’s overreaching and tripping for adjacent line faults. Three terminal lines will often use distance as fault
detectors, but will normally require the implementation of a telecommunications scheme to ensure tripping for all fault
conditions.

4.2.2 Telecommunications (Pilot) Schemes

Telecommunications (pilot) schemes simultaneously measure and monitor system parameters at all terminals of a
transmission line, local and remote, and then respond according to their predetermined functions. These schemes
require the use of a communications channel that may be provided through radio, microwave, optical fibre, or power line
carrier. If the measured parameters exceed the threshold values, appropriate actions are initiated.

“Pilot” schemes can generally be broken into primary categories. These are direction directional comparison and phase
comparison. Directional schemes use directional relays for phase fault detection and either directional distance relays or

directional over-current relays for earth fault detection. The decision to trip is based on relay setting thresholds being
exceeded and the faults being located in the predetermined direction for trip.

Phase comparison schemes are an extension of the differential protection principle. Currents from all line terminals are
converted (summed) into a composite signal, transmitted to the remote terminals, and compared to the local terminal
composite signal. The result of the comparison will result in a trip if the relay setting threshold is exceeded. Phase
comparison schemes are inherently directional and secure, not tripping for faults outside the protected zone of
operation.

4.2.2.1 Directional Comparison

Directional comparison schemes are divided into four categories, blocking schemes, unblocking schemes, overreaching
transfer trip schemes, and under-reaching transfer trip schemes.

a) Blocking Schemes

Directional comparison blocking uses distance relays as directional indicators and block initiation for phase faults. Either
distance or directional over-current relays may be used for earth fault indicators and block initiation. Each terminal has
trip and start relays. The trip relay reaches toward the remote terminal and a little beyond. The start relay reaches
backwards, away from the protection section. The trip relay attempts tripping when it operates unless it is stopped by
receipt of a blocking signal (carrier, audio tone, or microwave) from the remote end. The start relays at each end initiate
the blocking signal. Thus if only the trip relays see the fault, it is within the protected section and both ends trip. If the
fault is just outside one end, the start relays at that end operate and send a block signal to the remote end, which would
otherwise trip. The earth relays operate simultaneously.

A tripping delay is necessary to allow for the receipt of the blocking signal. A typical delay time of 6- to 60-msec is
required to coordinate for the channel delay in communications. The communication channel is not required for tripping
the breakers since the breakers will trip in the absence of the blocking signal. Failure of the channel could result in over-
tripping of the breakers for adjacent line faults within the reach setting of the distance relays. Blocking directional
comparison is commonly used with on/off type carrier facilities. Since it is not necessary to drive a signal through a fault
to operate this scheme, it is the most popular carrier relaying system (see Figure 6-1.7).
120%

A B

R
21P Trip Breaker B 21P

21S 21S

Carrier, Tone or MCW

T R
On - Off

Trip If:
Local 21/P Operates and Carrier is not Received

Figure 6-1.7: Blocking Directional Comparison

b) Unblocking Schemes

Directional comparison unblocking is similar to the blocking scheme except that the start relays are deleted and the
blocking, “guard” signal is sent continuously (see Figure 6-1.8). The communication signal for an unblocking scheme
uses a frequency shift keying (FSK) channel.

For an internal fault, the frequency is shifted to the unblocked, “trip” frequency. The receivers receive the trip frequency
and close the output contact, which in series with the 21P relay output contact will trip the breaker. For an external fault,
within the reach of one of the 21P relays, the distant 21P relay will see the fault while the local 21P relay will not see the
fault since it is behind the relay. The distant 21P relay will shift its transmitter frequency to trip. The local 21P relay will
not send the trip frequency or close the 21P output contacts. The line thus stays in service. Should the receivers fail to
receive a guard signal and a trip signal, the receivers will allow typically 150-msec of receiver contact closure to permit
the 21P relay contact to trip the line. After this time, the communication channel will lock out.

120%
120%

A B

21P 21P

Carrier, FSK
T R

Figure 6-1.8: Directional Comparison Unblocking

This scheme is more secure since over-tripping is avoided at all times with the exception of the 150-msec interval during
the loss of signal. Reliability is improved since the communication channel operates continuously and can be monitored,
providing an alarm in the case of failure. The scheme is applicable for two-terminal and multi-terminal lines. Separate
channels are required between each pair of line terminals.

c) Overreaching Transfer Trip Schemes

Permissive overreach is also a simple scheme, requiring only one overreaching fault detector at each terminal. This fault
detector sends both a trip signal and attempts local tripping through a contact on the receiver. If both relays see a fault,
both ends trip simultaneously. The scheme appears similar to the directional comparison unblocking scheme of Figure
6-1.8.

A trip signal is required for this scheme to trip. Power line carrier channels therefore are not recommended for these
schemes since a fault could short out the carrier signal. These channels are normally used with audio tones with
frequency shift keying over microwave, leased line, or fibre-optic communications.

The overreaching transfer trip scheme provides highly secure transmission line protection since a trip signal is required
from both ends of the line for tripping to occur. The dependability of the scheme may be less than the blocking schemes
since the trip signal has to be received before the tripping is initiated. The scheme is often used when an existing “non-
pilot” scheme has communications added for “piloting”.

d) Under-reaching Transfer Trip Schemes

Under-reaching transfer trip schemes include two variations; direct under-reach and permissive under-reach.

i) Direct Under-reach

This form of protection requires only a single distance fault detector at each end. It has to be set short of the remote end
and will simultaneously trip the local breaker and send a trip signal to the remote end, which then trips directly upon
receipt of the signal. Note that local confirmation is not required upon receipt of this trip signal. Though this scheme is
the least complex, it is seldom used because of the high risk of false outputs from the communication channel, which
would result in false trips. This risk can be minimized by using a dual-channel transfer trip, which requires the receipt of
two signals from the remote end to effect a trip as illustrated in Figure 6-1.9.
90%

A B

21ΙΙ 21ΙΙ

Trip Breaker A

T R

Trip Breaker B
Carrier, Tone or MCW
T R
FSK

Trip If:
• Local 21/I Operates or
• Two T/T Signals are Received

Figure 6-1.9: Direct Under-reach

ii) Permissive Under-reach

This scheme is identical to the direct under-reach scheme with the addition of an over-reaching fault detector. The
transfer trip signal requires local confirmation by this fault detector before tripping can occur. This increases the security
of the scheme and the consequent range of application. It is commonly selected when an existing step distance relay
line is to have the “pilot” added as illustrated in Figure 6-1.10. Carrier is not normally used since a fault could short out
the communication signal and prevent the signal from reaching the remote terminal.

90% 120%

A B

21 Ι 21ΙΙ

21 P 21P

Trip Breaker A

21P
Carrier, Tone or MCW Trip
T FSK R
Breaker B

Trip If:
• Local 21/I Operates or
• Local 21/P Operates and 1 T/T Signal is Received

Figure 6-1.10: Permissive Under-reach

4.2.2.2 Phase Comparison

Phase comparison relay systems monitor the current direction at each line terminal of the protected line and transmit
this information to the other terminal via a communication channel. Each line terminal compares local and remote
current direction and trips if the current is into the line from both terminals. The communication channel is normally an
on/off type of communications, transmitting only when the over-current detector’s thresholds have been exceeded. This
system is immune to tripping on overloads or system swings since it operates on current direction only. It needs no
potential source unless it has to be supervised by distance relays because of low fault currents.

Current or distance fault detectors are used to supervise tripping. These detectors have to be set above line charging
current, which can appear to the relays as an internal fault at low loads. Internal timers have to be set to compensate for
the transit time of the communication channel. One of the most popular applications of this system is on lines with series
capacitors because it is less likely that such a current-operated scheme will operate incorrectly for faults near the
capacitors.

a) Pilot Wire

This scheme is a form of phase comparison since it compares current direction at each terminal. The difference
between this scheme and others is that a pair of telephone wires is used as the communication channel. A special filter
in the relay converts the three-phase currents to a single-phase voltage and applies this voltage to the wires. When
current flows through the protected section, the voltages at each end oppose each other and no current flows in the
operate coils. When current enters the line from each end, the voltage on the pilot wire reverses to allow current to
circulate through the operate coils and consequently trip both ends. Special monitor relays sound an alarm if the pilot
wire pair become open or shorted. The wire line has to have adequate protection against induced voltages and a rise in
station ground potential but may not use carbon block protectors because the line has to remain in service while the

protection is operating. Neutralizing transformers and gas tubes with mutual drainage reactors, all with adequate voltage
ratings, comprise the preferred pilot wire protection package.

This relaying has the advantage of simplicity and does not require a potential source. It does not provide backup
protection. Its application is limited to short lines of 1,5 kilometres or so in length because of pilot wire cost and
increased exposure. The system’s dependency is based on the integrity of the pilot wires themselves. Many pilot wire
systems have been replaced with other pilot schemes because of the failure of the pilot wire system to function reliably
and securely. In more recent years, pilot wire systems have been replaced with fibre-optic systems providing the
communication systems, using a module to convert the output voltage to a light signal. These modified systems have
provided a more dependable and secure protection system.

b) Single-Phase Comparison

This scheme applies a sequencing network to the current inputs to the relay to produce a single-phase voltage output.
This output is proportional to the positive, negative, and zero phase sequence components of the input currents. This
signal is squared so that the positive portion of the signal provides the positive portion of the square wave. The negative
portion of the signal provides the zero portion of the square wave. Two fault detectors are normally used to provide
security, with the more sensitive detector used as the carrier start to transmit signal to the remote end. The less
sensitive detector is used to arm the comparison module for a trip upon the correct comparison of the local and remote
signals as illustrated in Figure 6-1.11.

Normally current-operated units are used as the fault detectors. In a case where the fault current is less than the load,
impedance-operated units may be used for fault detection. The use of impedance fault detectors will increase the cost of
the system because of the necessity of having line potentials for operation of the relay.

A B

FD FD
A1 B1

FD FD
A2 B2

Sequence Sequence
Network Network

Squaring Squaring
Amp Amp

Communication
Channel

Delay Delay

Comparison Comparison

Trip Breaker A Trip Breaker B

Figure 6-1.11: Single Phase Comparison

c) Dual-Phase Comparison

This scheme is similar to the single-phase comparison scheme except that square wave signals are developed for
the positive and the negative portions of the signal voltage output of the sequencing network. Each signal requires
a separate channel for the transmission of information to the remote site. This scheme can provide a slightly higher
speed of detection since faults are detected on both the positive and the negative portions of the single-phase
voltage output of the sequencing network. This scheme is normally used with a frequency-shift channel, which is
continuously transmitted. On a line carrier it is configured as an unblocking scheme.

d) Segregated Phase Comparison

This scheme is similar to the single-phase comparison scheme except that square wave signal is developed for
each phase of the transmission line. A communications channel is required for each phase to provide

communications to the remote terminal. Comparisons made on each of the three phases. The operation of the
scheme is basically as described above in the previous phase comparison schemes.

4.3 Distribution Feeder

Distribution line switching and protection within the substation are provided by circuit breakers, reclosers, or fuses. The
selection of the protective devices to be used on any particular feeder will depend on the load being fed by the feeder,
the magnitude of loads being served, any special protective requirements necessitated by the load, and the clients
preference in design and operating practices. In addition to the above-listed items, sectionalisers may be located on the
distribution for additional segmenting of the line during fault conditions.

4.3.1 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers will most commonly use over-current relays to provide fault protection at a substation. On a typical
radial distribution feeder, two phase and one earth (if the system is an earthed system) non-directional inverse time
over-current relays with instantaneous elements will be the minimum relays that are applied that will detect all phase
and earth faults when properly coordinated. Often, a third over-current relay is applied to the phases to provide full
protection on all three phases. This will provide complete protection for faults if one of the relays should be disabled.
This permits the complete removal of one of the relays for testing, providing protection for the feeder without taking the
feeder out of service. With today’s microprocessor relays, three-phase relays and the neutral relay are applied to detect
all faults when properly coordinated. The time-current characteristic chosen for coordination of protective devices will
depend on what downstream devices are present on the feeder. See Figure 6-1.12.

Other protection may be provided in addition to over-current relays, such as voltage-controlled over-current relays and
negative sequence relays. Special circumstances on a feeder will allow specific relays to be applied to address those
circumstances. Microprocessor relays will often have a number of protective functions available that may be used for
special circumstances. Relay protection of circuit breakers may be readily customized and applied to special situations.
Many of the microprocessor relays available for distribution feeder protection also include multiple setting groups. This
feature will allow a relay to be set for a particular configuration. Should the configuration change, the setting group can
be changed, either automatically or manually, to provide for different settings to adjust the relay protection to the new
configuration.

Station Supply Busbar

F4
ACR

Recloser
F3
Fuse

Sectionalizer S
OC Relay

Figure 6-1.12: Distribution Circuit Protective Elements

4.3.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers

Reclosers are devices similar to circuit breakers but more compact and self-contained so that they may be used within
the substation or mounted on poles out on the distribution feeder. The controls allow various combinations of
instantaneous and time-delayed trips and automatic reclosures so that coordination may be accomplished with both
upstream and downstream devices. Reclosers may be single- or three-phase interrupters. Single-phase reclosers are
series trip devices, and three-phase reclosers may be either series trip or non-series trip devices. Non-series trip
reclosers usually employ a solid-state control and have a self-contained battery. Some single-phase reclosers are
available with electronic controls.

Single-phase reclosers usually provide better service reliability to rural distribution circuits because a fault to earth on
one phase will not trip the other phases. However, where loads are predominantly three-phase, or where the load on the
circuit is large, three-phase reclosers with earth trip settings are desirable to achieve the required sensitivity for earth
faults.

Microprocessor controls are also available for reclosers. The microprocessor adds much flexibility to the controller and
provides additional functions, similar to many of the microprocessor relays. Also, many additional protective

characteristics (curves) are typically available in the microprocessor controls. There is normally a telecommunications
port available on the control that can then provide data to remote sites.

4.3.2.1 Sectionaliser

These devices, located outside the substation on the distribution lines, are similar to reclosers, except that they do not
interrupt fault current. Instead, the sectionaliser counts trips of an upstream recloser and opens its contacts during a de-
energized period following a predetermined number of closure interruptions. Sectionalisers can, however, interrupt load
currents within their rating. Refer back to Figure 6-1.12.

4.3.2.2 Fuses

Fuses are used both to protect connected distribution transformers and to protect sections or branches of the
distribution circuit. Occasionally, they are used in the substation for protection of a feeder or as backup protection for a
bypass switch around a recloser or a breaker. They are most commonly supplied in outdoor holders that are
combination fuse-holders and isolating switches. Fuses are usually applied as the furthest downstream device in a
sectionalising scheme because of their non-repeating nature. An upstream recloser trips and recloses several times with
the accumulated “on” time being sufficient to blow the fuse during a delayed trip. The recloser then resets before the trip
occurs.

4.3.2.3 Coordination

Coordinating devices on a distribution circuit involves the progressive disconnecting of sections of the distribution circuit
beginning at the end furthest from the station until the fault is removed. Since several different types of devices are
involved, this process can be more complex than coordinating a transmission line.

With reference to Figure 6-1.12, it may be seen fault F1 should be interrupted by the fuse. This means that the relay,
recloser, and sectionaliser has to be programmed to allow enough accumulated fault current through (integrated over
several reclosures) that none of these devices locks out. Generally, the recloser will have one fast and three delayed
trips in such a situation. Time curves will be selected so that the fuse will blow during the second delayed trip. The
sectionaliser will be programmed to open following the second delayed trip to clear fault at F2. A fault at F3 would then
be cleared when the recloser locks out following the third (delayed) trip. The relay will be set to clear a fault F4 but
coordinated with the line recloser so as not to trip for a fault F3, paying careful attention to over-travel and rest time of
electromechanical reclosers following each successive interruption.

This is a simplified example of distribution coordination and ignores complications, such as long branches and
improperly applied protective devices, both common occurrences on real distribution systems. In such cases,
compromises have to be made and areas of non-selectivity accepted. The coordination process involves moving these
areas of non-selectivity into positions where they do the least harm.

4.4 Major Equipment

4.4.1 Transformer and Reactor Protection

Transformers are protected by circuit-interrupting devices such as breakers or circuit switchers with relays detecting
faults and providing trip signals to the circuit interrupting devices. Transformers 5MVA and below are sometimes
protected with fuses although the trend is to prefer relay protection of transformers, particularly for units rated at 10MVA
and above.

Fuse protection has the merits of being economical and requiring little maintenance. Fuses require no circuit interrupting
devices such as circuit breakers and no battery power systems for auxiliary power. Auxiliary equipment that would
normally be located within a control building is minimized, resulting in the reduced need for and cost of a control
building. Fuses will provide protection for primary and secondary external faults, but little protection for transformer
internal faults. Fuses introduce the probability of creating a severely unbalanced (single-phasing) voltage condition for
secondary loads should only one fuse blow. Proper coordination with secondary devices is essential to avoid this
condition.

Relay protection for the larger size transformers usually includes sudden pressure relays, differential relays, over-current
relays or directional phase distance relays, and earth over-current relays as illustrated in Figure 6-1.13. Sudden
pressure relays are often considered by many to be the primary relay protection on a transformer. The sudden pressure
relay is sensitive to sudden changes in pressure in the transformer tank that occur during an internal fault. Differential
protection is a primary scheme of protection that is normally applied on a percentage differential basis to allow for
differences in transformer rations, magnetizing current, and current transformer mismatch. Over-current relays are often
applied on the primary voltage winding to provide backup protection to the differential relay protection. If the over-current
relays are not coordinated with the secondary main and feeder relays, a directional phase distance relay may be
applied.

Figure 6-1.13 indicates the possibility of using local primary and secondary breakers. As a result of economics, a
primary breaker is sometimes not used. Tripping of the breaker is accomplished by sending a transfer trip signal to the
remote substation using a telecommunications signal or a high-speed earth switch. The time required to isolate the
transformer is increased by the communication channel time or time for the remote relay and breaker to clear the fault
established by the high-speed earth switch. Secondary breakers are often not used. The designer will have to decide
whether or not to trip all the feeder breakers or to manually open the feeder breakers before re-energizing the
transformer. Reactors may be protected by generator-type differential relays with phase and earth over-current backup
relays. Occasionally, phase distance relays are used for backup.

Additional means of protection applied to transformers and reactors include negative sequence relays, over-current
relays, and thermal relays. Negative sequence relays can be set sensitively to back up differential relays since they do
not respond to load current. Overvoltage relays will protect the transformer from excessive system voltage that will result
in excessive transformer magnetizing current and heating of the transformer core. Thermal relays provide additional
protection for the transformer against internal heating as a result of overloading the transformer.

Each transformer installation should be individually evaluated for the type of protection that is to be applied.

Optional CT Connection
if Local Primary Breaker
is Used

50H
51H

Trip Local
87 86 Breakers

50L Transfer
51L Trip
Remote
51N Optional Primary
Breaker
Breakers

Optional CT Connection
if Local Primary Breaker
is Used

Busbar

Typical Feeder

Figure 6-1.13: Typical Transformer Relay Protection

4.4.2 Busbar Protection

4.4.2.1 Remote Tripping for Busbar Fault

Faults on busbars can be isolated by allowing remote substation breakers on all lines that feed into the faulted busbar to
trip by Zone 2 or time-delay earth relay. This type of busbar protection is simple and the most economical. It has the
disadvantage that any loads fed by lines to the remote substations are also removed from service. Another
disadvantage is that the time necessary to clear the fault may be intolerable.

4.4.2.2 Local Tripping for Busbar Fault

a) In distribution substations, the bus protection is often provided by over-current relays, phase and neutral, located
on either the low-voltage or high-voltage side of the transformer as shown in Figure 6-1.13. Phase relays have to
be set to coordinate with the feeder relays and any additional downstream devices. This results in a slow trip time

for the clearing of the busbar. Each busbar has to be evaluated to determine if the time delay that will be
experienced by this type of protection will be excessive and if this type of protection will be adequate. This bus
protection scheme is very simple and may also be able to act, in part, as backup protection to the feeder relays.

b) A busbar fault can be removed by a bus protective scheme in which all the substation breakers associated with the
faulted busbar, or zone of busbar, are tripped. The two basic types of busbar protective schemes are current
differential and voltage differential. The current differential scheme connects all the current transformers on all the
circuits connected to a busbar in parallel, and the relay operates on the unbalance current that exists during fault
conditions as illustrated in Figure 6-1.14. During normal conditions, there should be no unbalance current, since the
current entering a busbar has to equal the current leaving a busbar. Restraint coils help to compensate for unequal
current transformer performance during external faults, but the scheme still has to be applied carefully on busbars
with high busbar fault levels.

Voltage differential schemes use the same parallel connection but connect a high impedance voltage element
across the parallel. It is possible to set this voltage element well above the worst case external fault voltage and still
retain adequate sensitivity for internal faults. This type of relay performs well on busbars with high fault current
levels.

In some cases, over-current relays are applied to the differential circuit. This provides an inexpensive relay for use
in the operation of the differential circuit. The disadvantage of the over-current relay is that there is no restraint in
each of the relay circuits. Any mismatch in the CTs has to be taken into consideration in the settings of the relay by
using higher pickup amperage or a longer time delay. This will make the operation of the circuit slower than the
times provided by differential relays. Often this time delay is unacceptable for the coordination with the rest of the
system relays.

Busbar

Figure 6-1.14: Busbar Differential Relay (Buszone) Protection

c) Since the recent use of the microprocessor relay that normally provides additional functions at a relatively
inexpensive cost, a pseudo busbar differential scheme has been applied. This scheme uses a combination of
instantaneous relay elements from the secondary main busbar relay and the feeder relays to detect whether the
fault is on the feeder or on the busbar. As shown in Figure 6-1.15, this scheme requires that there be no fault

sources on the feeders since the operation of the feeder instantaneous elements for reverse feeder current would
make the fault look like a feeder fault and cause the scheme to fail. If fault sources are located on the feeders,
directional instantaneous over-current relays have to be set to reach out further than the main breaker relay so that,
for any close-in feeder faults that the main breaker relay will see, the feeder relay will also see and disable the
circuit. For a busbar fault, the feeders will not see the fault so the relay takes no action. The main breaker sees the
fault, closes its contact, and after the appropriate time delay, trips the breaker. This circuit will be slower than actual
differential relay operating time, but will be faster than the over-current relay in protecting the busbar from damage.

d) Local tripping for a bus fault may be accomplished by the use of a reverse-looking Zone 3 element from a distance
relay. Zones 1 and 2 on a line are set to look out on the line, away from the busbar. Often, the Zone 3 element is
set to look in the reverse direction, which will see the busbar from behind. Through a timer, the Zone 3 may be set
to trip through-bus faults.

Transformer

50M
Main Busbar 51M
Relay

Main Busbar 5D-M

Breaker M a 62
5D-1
Busbar
b
5D-2
50-1 50-2 50-3 50-4 b
Feeder 51-1 51-2 51-3 51-4
Relays 5D-3
b
5D-4
Feeder b
Breakers 1 2 3 4

Timer 62 M TC
Feeders

Figure 6-1.15: Pseudo Busbar Differential Circuit

4.4.3 Breaker Failure Protection

Breaker failures can normally be separated into two classes: the failure of the breaker itself and the failure of the
relaying associated with the breaker. Schemes developed to protect for the failure of breakers are based on providing
either remote backup or local backup. Failure of the breaker results in the necessity to trip all the adjacent breakers in
order to clear the fault and to isolate the failed breaker.

4.4.3.1 Remote Backup

Remote backup normally consists of a Zone 3 relay and/or earth time over-current relay set to cover lines contiguous to
the line being protected. This scheme will provide protection for the breaker failure regardless of whether that failure is a

result of relay failure or breaker failure. It will normally see faults on the protected line plus faults on the next busbar and
line adjacent to the protected line. This scheme has the advantage of simplicity. Complications in using this scheme
include that the relay has to be set above the maximum load current that is carried on the lines, yet it has to be set
sensitively enough to see the faults that may occur on the lines. Faults occurring at the remote ends of the lines may not
be detected because of insufficient current flow. When applied on a system where the adjacent busbar has a number of
lines with varying length, the settings for the relay may extend beyond the adjacent lines resulting in over-coverage and
over-tripping. When adjacent lines are multi-terminal lines, a number of terminals may be unnecessarily tripped by
remote backup. Longer reach Zone 3 relays are more susceptible to out-of-step system swings. Even with its
shortcomings, in some situations with its inherent economics, this scheme may provide acceptable backup
performance.

4.4.3.2 Local Backup

a) A simple means of providing local backup protection is to use the Zone 3 relay looking in the reverse direction.
This provides a degree of protection for local equipment including all adjacent breakers, busbars, lines, and remote
terminals. Advantages and disadvantages in the use of this scheme are included in the discussion above on
remote backup.

b) An additional means of providing breaker protection is to add timing to the primary relays. If the relays do not trip
and the fault is still on the system within the set time of the timer, the timer will act to trip all adjacent breakers. This
scheme depends on the proper action of the primary relays and provides no backup to the failure of those relays.

c) An additional scheme provides the use of a second set of relays to back up the primary relaying. Carried to the
maximum limit, a second dc tripping system is provided including battery, panels, charger, relays, breaker trip
coils, CTs, and potential devices. This degree of duplication is normally applied on EHV and UHV systems. High
voltage systems will often provide dual trip coils in the circuit breakers, and primary and secondary relays with dual
dc trip busbars. The designer has to decide if auxiliary dc power systems will be duplicated, including power panels
and chargers; often both systems are fed from a common battery. The reduced cost of relaying afforded by the
development of microprocessor relays make this option a relatively economical option to provide backup protection
for relays. This scheme does not provide for the tripping of adjacent breakers in the case of the failure of the
breaker mechanical mechanism to trip the breaker and clear the fault.

d) Full breaker backup includes protection for the failure of relays and the failure of the breaker. A separate backup
relay that acts to trip all adjacent breakers, including remote breakers by means of a transfer trip, provides this
degree of backup. Figure 6-1.16 indicates a typical configuration for a local breaker failure relay. Indicated are
primary and secondary relays, dual trip coils in the breaker, and the fault detector and timer associated with the
breaker relay. Should either the primary or secondary relay call for a trip of the breaker, an auxiliary relay, 62X or
62Y, keys the timer. If the fault is not removed during the setting for the timer, the 86BF lockout relay is picked up
to trip all adjacent breakers and transfer trip any remote breakers. The time setting for the timer is usually in the
range of 10 to 20 cycles. If either the protective scheme resets or the current relay drops out within the set time,
nothing happens.

+ + +

Primary Secondary 62X 62Y

Relay Relay

50BF

52a 52a

52T1 62X 52T1 62Y 62T 86BF

- - -

Busbar

50-1
51-1

Sec
Relay 50BF

52 Breaker

Transmission Line

Figure 6-1.16: Typical Breaker Failure Relay Scheme

4.5 Reclosing

4.5.1 General

Protective relays detect faults or abnormal conditions. These faults or abnormal conditions can be transient or
permanent. For open-wire overhead circuits, such as most of the distribution lines, most faults are transient faults,
caused by inter-alia lightning, can be cleared by disconnecting the circuit from the power source. Service can be
restored by reclosing the disconnecting device. Certain abnormal conditions, such as overheating of motors, can be
relieved by reducing the load on the motor. The motor starters thus can be safely reclosed after the motor has cooled
off. The disconnecting device can be reclosed either manually or automatically. Manual reclosing is performed by
following the same procedures used in closing the device. Automatic reclosing is usually performed by automatic
reclosing relays. Reclosing is generally not applied where permanent faults are more likely such as on cables.

4.5.2 Automatic Reclosing Relays

Automatic reclosing relays permit the circuit disconnecting device, usually a breaker, to close one or more times when
the breaker has been tripped by protective relays. Relays that permit one reclosing operation are called single-shot
reclosing relays, while relays that permit more than one reclosing operation are called multi-shot reclosing relays.
Single-shot reclosing relays can be either the manual- or self-reset type. The manual-reset types have to be manually
reset after each automatic reclosing operation to obtain succeeding automatic reclosing operations. The self-rest types
automatically reset if the breaker remains closed for a predetermined time. Multi-shot reclosing relays are of the self-
reset type. Automatic reclosing can take place either instantaneously or with time delay, when the line is de-energized or
energized, or when the voltages on both sides of the breaker are synchronized. On radial circuits, the first reclosure is
usually instantaneous, with additional reclosures when used, taking place after some time delay. On loop or multi-
terminal distribution lines, instantaneous reclosing is generally not used unless special forms of protective relaying are
applied to ensure simultaneous operation of all line breakers for all line faults. After a specified number of unsuccessful
automatic reclosure attempts, the breaker is usually locked open.

4.6 Coordination

When a circuit element such as a line, transformer, or busbar experiences a fault, it has to be removed from service.
This, as has been previously stated, is the function of the protective relay system. Coordination is the process of
ensuring that only those elements of the power system that has to be removed to clear the fault, and no more, are
tripped in the shortest time possible.

As previously discussed, some schemes are inherently selective in tripping the protected equipment. Such protection
schemes include differential schemes and transmission line phase protection that are differential in nature. No additional
coordination is required for these schemes.

Coordination with distance relays is the easiest to accomplish. Since such a relay’s reach is constant under all system
conditions, the instantaneous zone is typically set short of the remote end of the line by 10 percent, and it will never trip
for any condition but a fault on the protected section. With the remote end set the same, 80 percent of the line is
covered by instantaneous protection. To cover the remaining 20 percent, the second zone can be relied on or a
“piloted/communications” scheme can be added. The second zone reaches beyond the protected section and so it has
to have a time delay to allow the breaker at the remote station to clear a fault on another line. The third zone reaches
beyond the remote zones and so has to time coordinate in the same manner, thus the increasing time settings.

Coordinating with over-current relays can be more difficult and can also require a more detailed knowledge of system
parameters.

For the simple system shown in Figure 6-1.17, with a fault at X, the near relays at C and D have to operate and their
breakers have to completely open before the remote or backup relays at A and F close their contacts. It is assume that:

a) A faulted condition exists until the breakers isolating the fault are entirely open.

b) When a relay closes its tripping contacts, a “seal-in” auxiliary relay ensures that the switching operation will be
completed even though the fault is cleared at the same instant the relay contacts close.

X
A B C D E F

Figure 6-1.17: Coordination Conditions

The time delay of the remote relay necessary for selectivity has to be equal to the operating time of the near relay plus
the opening time of the breaker; plus a reasonable factor of safety, which can be taken at about 25 percent of the
combined relay and breaker time with a minimum allowance of not less than six cycles if the relays are normally field
calibrated at the calculated setting. If the relays are bench tested at typical setting values and only adjusted in the field
with no further calibration, this margin has to be greater, typically 0,2 to 0,3 seconds.

Additional requirements for adequate relay coordination include the following:

• The relays have to be capable of carrying a reasonable emergency overload without tripping incorrectly on load
current.

• The relays have to be able to operate under minimum system generating conditions for faults at the far ends of the
sections that they protect.

Maximum system generating conditions include a sufficient number of generators in service to supply the maximum
demand load of the system. Similarly, the minimum system generating conditions include only the generators in service
necessary to supply the minimum system load. Such minimum conditions would probably exist early Sunday and
perhaps some public holidays, for example. In addition to the above generation, there are usually some emergency
generators in service called “spinning reserve” that can immediately pickup load if a generator fails. Both maximum and
minimum conditions have to be checked, since maximum generation usually results in faster operation of induction-type
relays with more critical selectivity, and the minimum condition determines whether the relays will receive sufficient
current to operate.

The output of a synchronous generator under fault conditions is variable, depending on the characteristics of the
machine and the duration of the fault. The initial output, which is maintained for three cycles or less, may be four to ten
times the normal machine rating and is determined by the sub-transient reactance. The generator output rapidly
decreases to the value determined by transient reactance, the average value of which may be assumed to exist for
about 30 cycles on turbine generators and up to 120 cycles on condensers and slow-speed generators. The transient
reactance may be taken roughly as 125 percent to 150 percent of the sub-transient reactance. If the fault is not cleared,
the generator output approaches the synchronous value, which is equal to or slightly less than the normal rating. It is
common practice, therefore, to use generator sub-transient reactance values when calculating maximum fault kVA and
to use transient values for minimum generating conditions. Synchronous values of short-circuit kVA are not usually
calculated, but the decrease in generator output should be considered for slow operating relays.

The earth current calculations and determination of selectivity for earth relays, it is customary to show only the maximum
fault conditions on transmission systems. On transmission systems where the relative distribution of earth current is
changed for minimum generation because earthed transformers have been removed from service, it may be necessary
to calculate and check the relay settings for both maximum and minimum earth faults. It may also be necessary to show
minimum earth faults for some special conditions with certain lines or transformer banks out of service.

Briefly summarized, the duty of a designer is to assume various types of faults at numerous points on a system. The
magnitude and distribution of fault currents are then calculated for these fault points with maximum and minimum
generating conditions. Faults are assumed for normal system operating conditions and for various special conditions
with certain lines, generators, or transformers out of service.

The operating time of all breakers involved have to be checked and tabulated and, for high burdens and low ratios, the
true or effective ratios of bushing-type current transformers have to be determined. Having obtained this data, the next
step is to determine suitable settings or adjustments for the relays that will provide selective operation for each fault
condition. The tentative relay settings, the calculated current values, and the operating times of the near and remote
relays for each fault condition are worked up and recorded as “Details of Selectivity” or on “Selectivity Curves”. After the
most satisfactory settings are determined, “Summary Sheets” are made up for all relays at each station. The Summary
Sheets have the instructions or calibration data to enable the relay personnel in the field to set or adjust the relays to
obtain the desired operating characteristics.

4. REFERENCES

5.1 Blackburn, J. Lewis, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1987.

5.2 IEEE Std. C37.2, “IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers and Contact Designations.”

5.3 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., IEEE Guides and Standards for Protective Relaying Systems,
New York: IEEE, 1992.

5.4 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Protective Relaying for Power Systems, New York: IEEE, 1980.

5.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Protective Relaying for Power Systems II, New York: IEEE, 1992.

5.6 Mason, C.R., The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.

5.7 McGraw Edison Company, Power Systems Division, Distribution System Protection Manual, Canonsberg, Pa.:
McGraw-Edison Co., 1972.

5.8 St. Leonards Works, GEC Measurements, Marketing Department, Protective Relays Application Guide, Stafford
ST147LX, England: St. Leonards Works, 1987.

5.9 Warrington, Van C., Protective Relays: Their Theory and Practice, 2d ed., London: Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1968.

SLDG 6-1 APPENDIX A

ANSI/IEC PROTECTION RELAY SYMBOLS AND NUMBERING

SLDG 6-2

BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF MAINTENANCE

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to build the concept of a substation busbar system by starting with the simplest of
substation layouts and logically developing this through to the most complex of busbar arrangements. At this point, only
the effect of planned switching operations for maintenance purposes will be considered and discussed. The effects of
electrical faults and how to design for availability and reliability of electrical circuits will be discussed in SLDG 6-3 since
these require one to consider the instrument transformers as well. In this chapter we will consider only the opening and
closing of circuit breakers and isolators due to controlled deliberate intervention will be considered.

The above explanation will ultimately lead to the classification of substations in terms of availability of electrical circuits
under maintenance conditions. As a result, an understanding of what is meant by Planning Levels 1, 2 and 3 will then
be developed.

In the development process, bypassing the circuit breakers is not considered. The addition of the bypass isolator as
shown in section 5-2, 3.1.11 obviously improves the situation intensely.

2. A TRANSFORMER-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The simplest “transformation substation” arrangement comprises a line terminating directly onto a transformer through
some equipment. In this case, there is no busbar and is essentially a feed-in/feed-out arrangement. If any part of the
system is removed for maintenance purposes, the supply to the end customer is lost. The supply must therefore be
highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers
F1

T1
Figure 6-2.1: Line Banked Transformer (Transformer Feeder), No Busbar, No Selectability

3. A TRANSFORMER-BUSBAR-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

This arrangement is essentially still a Transformer-Feeder except that the transformer and the feeder both terminate
onto a zone of busbar, each through some equipment. This would only be done if some equipment is to be connected
to the busbar such as another transformer to further reduce the transformed voltage to feed a local customer, or it is
envisaged that another transformer or feeder is to be installed in the near future as shown in Figure 6-2.3. As with the
previous case, if a any part is removed for maintenance purposes, the supply to the end customer is lost. The supply
must therefore be interruptible, e.g. domestic customers

Busbar

T1
Figure 6-2.2: Single Line and Transformer, Single Busbar Selection, One Zone of Busbar

4. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER OR TRANSFORMER

A further development may be that either a feeder is added to the station due to a new client, while the transformer
capacity is sufficient, or a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer supply. In both cases, the
arrangement is starting to resemble what one would consider to be a conventional distribution substation. Both
transformers and the feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment.

Unlike the previous case, if one of the lines in Figure 6-2.3a) (F1 or F2) is removed for maintenance purposes, then
only the applicable end customer will loose supply. However, if any part of the system from the busbar towards the
transformer is removed from service, then both end customers will be without power.

In the second case (Figure 6-2.3b) where a line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose
supply if parts towards the line including the busbar are removed for maintenance purposes. If any of the transformers
are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate
capacity.

The supply in both cases must therefore be relatively highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 3.

F1 F2 F1

Busbar Busbar

T1 T1 T2

a) Two Lines and One Transformer b) One Line and Two Transformers

Figure 6-2.3: One Zone, Single Busbar Selection

5. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER AND TRANSFORMER

Developing Figure 6-2.3 a) and b) further, a transformer is added to the station in a) to provide a backup transformer
supply in the previous first case, or a feeder is added to the station in b) due to perhaps a new client, while the
transformer capacity is sufficient. Both cases end up with the arrangement shown in Figure6-2.4. Both transformers
and feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment.

As with the case in Figure 6-2.3, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If the busbar is removed from service, then both end customers will be
without power.

If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit,
providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply therefore need not be as interruptible as the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some types of
factories can be supplied from such a system. The overall classification of this system is still a Planning Level 3 in
terms of the number of busbars, although a much better arrangement tan before.

F1 F2

Busbar

T1 T2
Figure 6-2.4: Two Lines and Two Transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

6. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION ADDED

The problem with the previous arrangement with respect to the removal of the busbar can be largely, overcome by
introducing a circuit breaker into the busbar. Each transformer-feeder pair then terminates onto a different zone of
busbar, all circuits through some equipment. The busbar circuit breaker splits the busbar into two zones, so that if
busbar maintenance needs to be done, only one zone is removed at a time. This will obviously affect the relevant
transformer-feeder pair.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the applicable
end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained to
both customers via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can therefore be relatively less interruptible as with the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some
types of factories. The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 3 in terms of busbar selectability.

F1 F2

Bus Section
Busbar

T1 T2

Figure 6-2.5: Two Feeders and Transformers, Two Zone Arrangement, Single Busbar Selection

7. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL BUS COUPLER ADDED

Previously the busbar was split into two zones, but not quite eliminating the issue regarding the removal of any zone of
the busbar. This can be completely overcome by introducing a second busbar running parallel with the first, and
coupling the two busbars with a circuit breaker in much the same way, except that the direction of coupling is
perpendicular to the last case. The two busbars form the two zones and each transformer-feeder pair can be made to
terminate onto the same or different zones of busbar by adding busbar selectable isolators. Busbar maintenance can
now be carried out by selecting all circuits onto one bar, and the other busbar removed from service. Each busbar can
then be maintained in turn. For the first time, the substation can be classed as fully maintainable without interruption
due to a single contingency in the substation. The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 2 as there are
the same number of busbars as there are transformers and both transformers can be selected to either busbar..

F1 F2

Bus
Coupler ‘A’
Busbar 2

Busbar 1

T1 T2
Figure 6-2.6: Two Feeders and Transformers, Two Zone Arrangement, Double Busbar Selection

8. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL BUS SECTION AND BUS COUPLER

In Figure 6-2.6, the consequence of removing one zone of busbar is that both pairs of transformer-feeder circuits are
then selected onto one zone of busbar. There are situations where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits always
remain on separate zones even in the case of any one of the zones of busbar are taken out for maintenance purposes.
This case is a requirement more from a system reliability point of view when considering busbar zone faults, to guard

against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the system. This will be discussed under “Busbar Arrangements
and the Consequences of Faults”.

Figure 6-2.7 (a) has the disadvantage that when the “middle” busbar zone is removed from service for maintenance
purposes, the bus system will be split in two, and the transformers may be unevenly loaded, perhaps even one being
under-loaded while the other overloaded. To obviate this situation, the busbar loop is closed with a second bus coupler
as shown in Figure 6-2.7b). This then holds the bus system together, regardless of which zone is removed for
maintenance.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the applicable
end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the
remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can be even less interruptible than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall classification
of this system is a Planning Level 1 as there is one more zone of busbar available to the transformers than the number
of transformers, and both transformers can be selected to two of the busbars.

F1 F2 F1 F2

Bus Bus Bus

Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ’B’
Busbar 2

B/S B/S
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

T1 T2 T1 T2

a) Double Busbar, One Bus Coupler b) Double Busbar, Two Bus Couplers

Figure 6-2.7: Two Feeders and Transformers, Three Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar Selection

9. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A SECOND BUS SECTION

There are situations where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits are normally selected on to zones of busbar
that are separated by two circuit breakers, except under busbar maintenance conditions where they will be on adjacent
zones of busbar. Again, this case is a requirement from a system reliability point of view when considering busbar
double zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the system. This will be discussed
under “Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Faults”.

As with all the previous cases, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be
maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can be even less interruptible than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall classification
of this system is a Planning Level 1 with both transformers under any busbar zone outage always remaining on
separate zones of busbar.

F1 F2

Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ B/S 2 Coupler ’B’
Busbar 2A Busbar 2B

B/S 1
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

T1 T2

Figure 6-2.8: Two Feeders and Transformers, Four Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar Selection

10. MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER FEEDER PAIRS

The busbar concepts can easily be extended to cater for larger numbers of transformer-feeder pairs. It is good design
and operating practice to have feeders and transformers positioned in such a manner

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
FEEDER
PAIR

FEEDER
PAIR

B/S 2
B/B 2A B/B 2B

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

B/S 1
B/B 1A B/B 1B

T1 T2 T3

Figure 6-2.9: Multiple Feeders and Transformers, Multiple Zone Arrangement, Double Busbar Selection

SLDG 6-3

BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF FAULTS

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to build the concept of a substation busbar system in much the same way as was done in
SLDG 6-2 by starting with the simplest of substation layouts and developing this through to the most complex of busbar
arrangements by referring in this case to the impact of electrical faults at various positions in the circuits and bus system.
The effects of Maintenance and how to design for availability and reliability based on maintenance was discussed in
SLDG 6-2 since these require one to consider isolator switching. In this chapter only the opening of circuit breakers due
to uncontrolled automated intervention will be considered.

The above explanation will ultimately lead to the classification of substations in terms of availability of electrical circuits
under fault conditions. Consequently, an understanding of what is meant by Planning Levels 1, 2 and 3 will then be
developed even further.

In order to understand the discussion below when certain terminology is used, some brief explanation is provided below.

1.1 Outboard

This means on the “line side”, “transformer side”, “capacitor bank side”, “reactor side”, i.e. not on the busbar side of.

1.2 Current Transformer Markings

The current transformer terminals are marked P1 and P2. The CT is always orientated in such a manner that the P1
terminal faces the circuit breaker and consequently the P2 terminal faces away from the breaker. This is due to the
manner in which a CT is constructed where a fault occurring on the P1 side is determined to be a Buszone fault. This
includes the so called End Zone fault. A fault on the P2 side of the CT, which includes a fault onto the head of the CT, is
determined to be a “line” fault, i.e. a fault that is outboard of the CT. (see Current Transformers SLDG 28-1 for in-depth
explanation)

F1(S)

Outboard Legend
P2
End Zone F1(P): Feeder 1 on the
P1 Primary (HV) Side

F1(S): Feeder 1 on the

T1 Secondary (MV) Side

T1: Transformer 1
P1 End Zone
P2

Outboard

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.1: Line Banked Transformer End Zone and Outboard Faults

1.3 Line Banked Transformer/Transformer-Feeder

A line banked transformer or sometimes referred to as a transformer-feeder is the case where a transmission or
distribution line terminates onto a transformer through some primary plant without first being connected to a portion of

busbar as illustrated in Figure 6-3.1. This is often done to save on unnecessary busbar infrastructure and expensive
Buszone protection.

1.4 Buszone and Buszone Faults

The buszone is that region the busbar and circuit layout enclosed between all P1 terminals. The buszone may itself be
comprised of sub-zones which are determined by the regions between all P1 terminals which include the CTs of bus
couplers and bus sections. The extent of the sub-zones depends on which circuits are selected to a particular zone.
Figure 6-3.2 illustrates a typical busbar layout with four sub-zones, Zone 1 (BB1A), Zone 2 (BB1B), Zone 3 (BB2A) and
Zone 4 (BB2B). Schemes may be extended to more than 4 zones.

Since F1(S) and T1(S) are selected onto BB1A, the buszone will include these two circuits. This is determined by the
isolator selected onto that zone of busbar by means of the isolator auxiliary contacts (see SLDG 26-5). In a similar
manner, BB2B will include F2(S) and T2(S). On the other hand, BB2A and BB1B have no additional circuits connected,
hence the buszone only include the bus couplers, bus sections and associated busbar, viz. BC’A’, BS1 and BB1B, and
BC’B’, BS2 and BB2A.

F1(S) F2(S)
End Zone
Coverage

P2 P2
P1 P1
P2 P1 P1 P2
BB2A Zone 2 Zone 4 BB2B
P2 P2
BS2
P1 P1
End Zone
Coverage P1 P2 P1 P1 P2 P1 End Zone
Coverage
P2 P2
Zone 1 Zone 3
BB1A BS1 BB1B

P1 P1
P2 P2
Buszone
T1 T2 Protection
End Zone
Coverage
P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.2: Buszone of a Busbar System

Any faults occurring within the said buszone regions will be cleared by the operation of the Buszone Protection. Any
faults occurring outboard of the CTs on the “line” circuits connected to the busbars will be cleared by the respective
circuit protection, e.g. feeders will be cleared by the feeder protection, transformers by transformer protection, shunt
capacitors by shunt capacitor protection and so on.

1.5 End Zone and End Zone Faults

The “end zone” is a term used to describe the conductor connected area between a circuit breaker and its corresponding
current transformer(s) as illustrated in Figure 6-3.1 and 6-3.2.

An end zone fault is therefore a fault that occurs within this region and can be due to a flashover, a current transformer
secondary core insulation failure, or a circuit breaker that fails to open when given the signal as a result of a stuck pole.
These will all result in a buszone fault.

A fault anywhere in the end zones of bus couplers and bus sections can result in more than one zone of busbar taken
out of circuit, resulting in the loss of multiple circuits.

1.6 Overlapping Current Transformers

Overlapping current transformers refer to the case were two sets of current transformers are employed in bus couplers
and bus sections. This is a philosophy that is used particularly at stations were fast circuit breaker tripping is essential for
system stability purposes and the protection of expensive plant such as generators. Buszone protection is inherently fast
acting and is therefore current policy to implement overlapping current transformers at all power stations.

P2 P1 P1 P2
BB2A Zone 2
P2
BS2
P1

P1 P2 P1 P1 P2
P2
BB1A Zone 1
BS1

Figure 6-3.3: Overlapping Current Transformers

2. A TRANSFORMER-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The simplest “transformation substation” arrangement comprises a line terminating onto a transformer of appropriate
transformer voltage ratio through some equipment. In this case, there is no busbar and is essentially a feed-in/feed-out
arrangement as illustrated in Figure 6-3.4. If any part of the system is removed due to a fault purposes, the supply to the
end customer will be lost (see Figure 6-3.5). The supply must therefore be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers.

F1(S)

P2
P1

P1
P2

F1(P)
Figure 6-3.4: Line Banked Transformer, No Busbar

Outboard of secondary CT Between secondary CT & Between primary CT & Outboard of primary CT
Fault Condition Transformer Differential
Line Fault CB End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault Line Fault

F1(S) and Remote F1(P) F1(P) and Remote F1(P)

Circuit Breakers F1(S) CB opens F1(P) CB opens F1(P) and F1(S) CBs open
CBs open CBs open

Supply Loss to F(S). F(S) Total Supply Loss. F(S) & Total Supply Loss Total Supply Loss F(S), T1
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S)
& T1 Out T1 Out F(S), T1 & F(P) Out & F(P) Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1

Diagram T1 T1 T1 T1 T1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 6-3.5: Fault Conditions on a Radial Feed

Availability Map: Single Transformer Feeder

F1(S) line

F1(P) line
F1(P) EZ
F1(S)/T1
BZ & EZ
Fault

T1 Diff
Condition

Fault
fault

fault

fault
Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X

T1(S) - X X X X

T1 - - X X X

F1(P) - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

3. A TRANSFORMER-BUSBAR-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The arrangement shown in Figure 6-3.6 is essentially still a Transformer-Feeder except that the transformer and the
feeder both terminate onto a zone of busbar, each through some equipment. As with the previous case, if any part is
removed from service due to a fault, the supply to the end customer is lost as illustrated in Figure 6-3.7. The supply
must therefore be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers

F1(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1
P2

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.6: Line Banked Transformer with a Busbar on the secondary Side of the Transformer, One Zone
of busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Outboard of Between secondary CT Busbar Between secondary CT Between primary CT & Outboard of primary
Fault secondary CT & CB & CB CB CT
Transformer Differential
Condition
Line Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault

Circuit F1(S) and T1(S) CBs T1(P) and T1(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote F1(P) T1(P) and Remote
F1(S) CB opens T1(P) CB opens F1(S), Ti(P) CB open
Breakers open open CBs open F1(P) CBs open

Supply Loss to F1(S) Total Supply Loss

Consequ Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss F1(S),
Supply Loss to F1(S) F1(S), T1 & F1(P)
ence F1(S), T1 & BB Out F1(S) & BB Out F1(S), BB & T1 Out F1(S), BB & T1 Out BB, T1 & F1(P) out
Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1

Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S)
T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P)

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.7: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Single Feeder

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Single Feeder

F1(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F1(P) line
F1(P) EZ
T1 BZ &
EZ fault

EZ fault
Busbar

T1 Diff
Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X X X

BB1A - X X X X X X

T1(S) - - - X X X X

T1 - - - X X X X

F1(P) - - - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

4. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER

A feeder may be added to the station due to a new client while the transformer capacity is sufficient. The
arrangement in Figure 6-3.8 starts to resemble what one would consider to be a conventional substation. Both
Feeders and the transformer terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment. Unlike the
previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed due to a fault, then only the applicable end customer will
loose supply. However, if any part of the system from the busbar towards the transformer is removed from service,
then both end customers will be affected.

In the second case where a line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose supply if
parts towards the line including the busbar are removed for maintenance purposes. If any of the transformers are
removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate
capacity.

The supply must therefore be interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall classification of this system is a
Planning Level 3.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2
P1 P1

Busbar

P1
P2

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.8: Two Feeders with a Single Transformer, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar selection

Outboard of secondary Outboard of secondary Between secondary Between secondary Busbar Between secondary
Fault CT CT CT & CB CT & CB CT & CB
Condition
Line Fault Line Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault

Circuit F1(S) and T1(P) CBs F1(S), F2(S) and T1(S) F1(P), F1(S) and F2(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens T1(S) CB opens
Breakers open CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) & F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and T1. F1(S),
& BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S), BB & T1 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 6-3.9: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders

A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders (Continued)
Between primary CT Outboard of primary
Fault Transformer & CB CT
Condition Differential Fault
End Zone Fault Line Fault
Circuit T1(P) and T1(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote T1(P) and Remote
Breakers open F1(P) CBs open F1(P) CBs open
Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss.
Consequence F1(S), F2(S), BB & T1 F1(P), F1(S), F2(S), F1(P), F1(S), F2(S),
Out BB & T1 Out BB & T1 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2
T1 T1 T1
P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 6-3.9: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and a Single Transformer

F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line
BB1A BZ

T1(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff
Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X X X X X X X

F2(S) - X X X X X X X X

Busbar - - X X X X X X X

T1(S) - - X X X X X X X

T1 - - - X - X X X X

F1(P) - - - - - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

5. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL TRANSFORMER

It may be the case that a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer supply. Again, the
arrangement is starting to resemble a conventional substation instead of a feeder. Both transformers and the feeder
terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment. As with the previous case where if the line
F1 is removed due to a line fault, then the end customer will loose supply.

In this case where the line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose supply if parts
towards the line including the busbar are removed due to a fault. If any of the transformers are removed from
service, supply could still be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply must therefore still be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall classification of this
system is a Planning Level 3 when considering the busbar and customer only. It is a planning level 2 in terms of the
in-feeds and transformers.

F1(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.10: Single Feeder with two Transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar selection

Outboard of F1(S) Between F1(S) Busbar Between T1(S) Between T2(S)

Fault secondary CT secondary CT & CB secondary CT & CB secondary CT & CB T1 Transformer
Condition Differential Fault
Line Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault

Circuit T1(S) and T2(S) CBs F1(S), T1(S) and F1(S), T2(S) and F1(S), T1(S) and T2(P) T1(P) and F1(S) CBs
F1(S) CB opens
Breakers open T2(S) CBs open T1(P) CBs open CBs open open
Supply Loss to F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S),
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to T1. T1
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S) and T1. F1(S), T1 & and T2. F1(S), T2 & BB
F1(S) & BB Out F1(S) & BB Out Out
BB Out Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram P2
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 6-3.11: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and a Single Feeder

Between T1(P) Between F2(P) CT & Outboard of T1(P) Outboard of t2(P) CT

Fault T2 Transformer primary CT & CB CB primary CT
Condition Differential Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote T2(S) and Remote F2(P) T1(S) and Remote T2(P) and Remote F2(P)
Breakers open F1(P) CBs open CBs open F1(P) CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to T2. T2 Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(P). Supply Loss to F2(P).
Consequence
Out F1(S) & T1 BB Out and T2. F2(S) & T2 Out F1(P) Out F2(P) Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

Figure 6-3.11: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and a Single Feeder (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with a Single Feeder and Two Transformers

F1(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(P) line

F1(S) line
BB1A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X - - - - - -

Busbar - X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - X X X X X - X - - X

T2(S) - X X X X - X - X - -

T1 - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - X - - -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - X X -

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

6. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER AND TRANSFORMER

Further development occurs when either a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer
supply in the first case of Figure 6-3.9, or a feeder is added to the station due to a new client, while the transformer
capacity is sufficient, as with the case in Figure 6-3.8. Both cases end up with the arrangement shown in Figure 6-
3.12. Both transformers and feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If the busbar is removed from service, then both end customers will be
without power.

If any one of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer
unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply therefore need not be as interruptible as the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some types
of factories. The overall classification of this system is, however, still a Planning Level 3 since there is only one
busbar.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)
Figure 6-3.12: Two Feeders and transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Condition

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT & Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &
Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar
CB CB CB CB
Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault
Fault

End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Breakers

T1(S), T2(S), F2(S) and F1(P), F2(P), F2(S) and F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(P) F1(S), F2(S), T2(P) and
F1(S) CB opens F1(S) CB opens
Circuit

F1(S) remote CBs open F1(S) remote CBs open and T2(S) CBs open and T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open
Consequence

Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S),
Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F1(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) & F2(S) & T1. F1(S), F2(S) & T2. F1(S),
& BB Out & BB Out BB Out F2(S), T1 & BB Out F2(S), T2 & BB Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
Diagram

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.13: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and Two Transformers

Between T1(P) CT &

Fault T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Between CT & CB Outboard of T1(P) CT Outboard of T2(P) CT
CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(P) and T1(S) CBs F2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and remote T2(S) and remote F2(P) F1(P) and remote F2(P) and remote F1(P)
Breakers open open F1(P) CBs open CBs open F1(P) CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to T1. T1 Supply Loss to T2. T2 Supply Loss to F1(P) & Supply Loss to F2(P) &
Consequence Supply Loss F1(P). Supply Loss F2(P).
Out Out T1. T1 & F1(P) Out T2. T1 & F2(P) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T1 T2 T1 T2
T2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

Figure 6-3.13: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and Two Transformers (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and Two Feeders
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X X X X X - - - - - -

F2(S) - X X X X X X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X X X X X X - X - - -

T2(S) - - X X X X X - X - X - -

T1 - - - X - X X X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

7. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION ADDED

The problem with the previous arrangement with respect to the loss of the busbar can be partly, but not completely,
overcome by introducing a circuit breaker into the busbar. Each transformer-feeder pair then terminates onto a different
zone of busbar, all circuits through some equipment. The busbar circuit breaker splits the busbar into two zones, so that
if a zone of busbar faults, only one zone is removed at a time. This will obviously affect the relevant transformer-feeder
pair.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be
maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1

Busbar Bus Section

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.14: Two Feeders, Two Transformers and a Bus Section, One zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar A Busbar B Between BS CT & CB
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), BS and T1(S) F2(S), BS and T2(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens
Breakers and T2(S) CBs open and T2(S) CBs open CBs open CBs open and T2(S) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S)
and & F2(S). F1(S), and & F2(S). F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). and F2(S). F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
F1(S) & BB”A” Out F2(S) & BB”B” Out
F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB”A” BB”B BB
)
Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.15: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section, Tow Zones of Busbar

Between T1(S) CT & Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT &

Fault Between T2(S) CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Outboard of T1(P) CT
CB CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault Differential Differential Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(P), BS and F1(S) T2(P), BS and F2(S) CBs T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(P) and Remote T2(P) and Remote T1(P) and Remote
Breakers CBs open open open open F1(P) CBs open F2(P) CBs open F1(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(P) & Supply Loss to F2(P)
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to T1(S) Supply Loss to T2(S)
Consequence and T1. F1(S), T1(S) & T1. F1(S), F1 & T1(P) & T2. F1(S), F2 & Supply Loss F1(P).
T2(S) & BB1B Out and T1(P). T1 Out and T2(P). T2 Out
BB1A Out Out T2(P) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB’A’ BB’B’ BB BB BB BB BB

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.15: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section, Tow Zones of Busbar (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Circuits
X
F1(S) X - X - X - X - - - - - - -
X
F2(S) - X - X - X - X - - - - - -
X
BB1A - - X - X - X - - - - - - -
X
BB1B - - - X - X - X - - - - - -
X
BS - - X X X X X X - - - - - -
X
T1(S) - - X - X - X - X X - - -
X
T2(S) - - - X - X - X - X X - -

T1 - - - - - - - X X - X - -

T2 - - - - - - - - X X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

8. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS COUPLER ADDED

In the previous arrangement where the busbar is split into two zone, the issue regarding the loss of the busbar can be
partly overcome by introducing a second busbar running parallel with the first, and coupling the two busbars with a circuit
breaker in much the same way, except that the direction of coupling is perpendicular to the last case. The two busbars
form the two zones and each transformer-feeder pair can be selected onto the same or different zones of busbar by
adding busbar selectable isolators. Busbar maintenance can now be carried out by selecting all circuits onto one bar,
and the other busbar removed from service. In the event of a busbar fault, the associated circuits will be lost temporarily.
By relinking the lost transformer and feeder onto the healthy busbar, supply can be restored fairly quickly. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 2.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1
Bus
Coupler ‘A’
Busbar 2

Busbar 1

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.16: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, Double Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1 Busbar 2 Between BC CT & CB
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BC’A’ and F1(S) T2(S), BC and F2(S) F1(S), BC and T1(S) F2(S), T2(S) and BC F1(S), F2(S), T1(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens
Breakers remote CBs open remote CBs open CBs open CBs open and T2(S) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S),
F2(S), T1(S) and
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). T2(S). F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
F1(S) & BB1 Out F2(S) & BB2 Out F1(S) & BB1 Out F2(S) & BB2 Out
F2(S), T1(S), T2(S),
BB1 & BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1

Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3:17: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler

Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT & Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT &
Fault T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Outboard of F1(P) CT
CB CB CB CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(S), BC and T1(P) F2(S), BC and T2(P) T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(S) and F1(P) T2(S) and F2(P)
F1(P) CB opens
Breakers CBs open CBs open open open Remote CBs open Remote CBs open

Supply Loss F1(S), Supply Loss F2(S), Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2 Supply Loss F1(P), Supply Loss F2(P),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(P)
T1(S) & T1. T2(S) & T2. T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out T1(P), T1(S) & T1. T2(P), T2(S) & T2.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1

Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3:17: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB2A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
BCA EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - X X - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - X X - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - X - X X - X - - - - - -

BC - - X X X X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - X X - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

T1(P) - - - - - - - X - X - X - X -

T2(P) - - - - - - - - X - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

9. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION AND BUS COUPLER ADDED

In the previous case, the consequence of loosing one zone of busbar due to a fault is that both pairs of transformer-
feeder circuits are then selected onto one zone of busbar. There are cases where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of
circuits always remain on separate zones even in the case of any one of the zones of busbar are lost because of a fault
and the pair of circuits need to be reselected onto a healthy zone of busbar. Again, this case is a requirement more from
a system reliability point of view when considering busbar zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits
being lost from the system if another zone of busbar faults.

Figure 6-3.18 (a) has the disadvantage that when the “middle” busbar zone is removed from service due to a faulty unit,
the bus system will be split in two, and the transformers may be unevenly loaded, perhaps even one being under-loaded
while the other overloaded. To obviate this situation, the busbar loop is closed with a second bus coupler. This then
holds the bus system together, regardless of which zone is lost due to a fault.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is tripped, then only the applicable end customer will loose
supply. If any of the transformers trip, supply will be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has
adequate capacity.

The supply therefore has a greater availability than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 1.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1
Bus Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘B’
Busbar 2 Busbar 2
Bus Section 2

Bus Section 1 Bus Section 1

Busbar 1B
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B
Busbar 1A

P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2

T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

a) One Bus Coupler, Open Loop b) Two Bus Couplers, Closed Loop

Figure 6-3.18: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, One Bus Section, Three Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar
Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BC and BS CBs T2(S) and BS CBs F1(S), T1(S) and BC F2(S), T2(S) and BC
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens BS CBs open
Breakers open open CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
and T1(S). F1(S), and T2(S). F2(S), No Supply Loss. BB1B
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), T1(S) and F2(S), T2(S) and BB2
Out
BB1A & T1(S) Out BB1B & T2(S) Out BB1A Out Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS BS BS BS BS
1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B
Diagram BB1A
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section

Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &

Fault Between BC CT & CB Between BS CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Between T1(P) CT
CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Differential Fault Differential Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F1(S), F2(S), T1(S),
Circuit F1(S), T1(S) and BC F1(S), T1(P), BC and F2(S), T2(P) and BC T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(S) and Remote
T2(S) and BS CBs
Breakers CBs open BS CBs open CBs open open open F1(P) CBs open
open

Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(P)
Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2
Consequence and F2(S). F1(S) & F1(S), BC, BS, BB1A and T1. F1(S), T1(P), and T2. F2(S), T2(P), and T1.
T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out
BB1A Out & BB1B Out T1(S) & BB1A Out BC, T2(S) & BB2 Out F1(P), T1 & T1(S) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS BS BS BS BS 1B
1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B
Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section (Continued)

Fault Between T2(P) CT Outboard of F1(P) CT Outboard of F2(P) CT

Condition End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T2(S) and Remote
F1(P) CB opens F2(P) CB opens
Breakers F2(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to F2(P)
Consequence and T2. Supply Loss of F1(P) Supply Loss of F2(P)
F2(P), T2 & T2(S) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS
1B 1B 1B
Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

BB2A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
BCA EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - X X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - X X - - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - X X X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - X - - X X - - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - X X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - X X - - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - X - X - - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

T1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - X - - - - -

T2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BCA and BS T2(S), BCA and BCB F1(S), T1(S), BCA and F2(S), T2(S), BCA and
F1(S) CB opens F1(S) CB opens BCB and BS CBs open
Breakers CBs open CBs open BS CBs open BCB CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
No Supply Loss. BCB,
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), T1(S), BB1A, T2(S), BB2, BCA & F1(S), T1(S), BCA, BS F2(S), T2(S), BCA,
BS and BB1B out.
BCA & BS Out BCB Out and BB1A out. BCB & BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Between BC’A’ CT & Between BC’B’ CT & Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &
Fault Between BS CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer
CB CB CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault Differential Fault Differential Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F1(S), T1(S), F2(S),
Circuit F2(S), T2(S), BCA and F1(S), T1(S), BCA and F1(S), T1(P), BCA and F2(S), T2(P), BCA and T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs
T2(S), BCB and BS1
Breakers BS CBs open BCB CBs open BS CBs open BCB CBs open open open
CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S)
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S)
and F2(S). F1(S), Supply Loss to T2
F2(S), T2(S), BCA, F1(S), T1(S), BCA, and T1. F1(S), and T2. F2(S), Supply Loss to T1.
Consequence T1(S), F2(S), T2(S),
BCB, BS, BB1B & BB2 BCB, BB1A & BB1B T1(S),BCA, BS & BB1A T2(S),BCA, BCB & BB2 T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out
BCA, BCB, BB1A &
Out Out Out Out
BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT & Outboard of secondary Outboard of secondary
Fault CB CB CT CT
Condition
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T1(P) and F1(P) T2(P) and F2(P)
F1(P) CB opens F2(P) CB opens
Breakers Remote CBs open Remote CBs open
Supply Loss to T1 and Supply Loss to T2 and
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(P) Supply Loss of F2(P)
F1(P). F1(P) & T1 Out F2(P). F2(P) & T2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q) (r)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
BCA EZ

BCB EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

BB2 BZ

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS2 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - X - X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - X X X - - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - X - X X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2 - - - X - - X X X - - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - X - X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - X X X - - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

10. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A SECOND BUS SECTION

There are also cases where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits are normally selected on to zones of busbar
that are separated by two circuit breakers at all times. Again, this case is a requirement from a system reliability point of
view when considering busbar double zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the
system.

As with all the previous cases, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is lost due to a fault, then only the applicable end
customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers trip, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer
unit, providing it has adequate capacity. This will be the case even with a double zone fault.

The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 1.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2
P1 P1
Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘B’
Busbar 2A Busbar 2B
Bus Section 2

Bus Section 1

Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.21: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, Two Bus Couplers, Two Bus Sections, Four Zones of Busbar,
Double Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2A
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
T1(S), BS1, BCA and T2(S), BS2, BCB and
Circuit F1(S) and Remote F2(S) and Remote F1(S), BS1, BCA and F2(S), BS2, BCB and BCA and BS2 CBs
F1(S) Remote CBs F1(S) Remote CBs
Breakers F1(S) CBs open F2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T2(S) CBs open open
open open
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
No Supply Loss. BCA,
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), BCA, BS1 & F1(S), BCB, BS2 & F1(S), BCA, BS1 & F2(S), BCB, BS1 &
BS2 & BB2A out
BB1A out BB1A out BB1A out BB2B out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections

Between BCA CT & Between BCB CT &

Fault Busbar 2B Between BS1 CT & Between BS2 CT & Between T1 CT & CB Between T2(S) CT &
CB CB
Condition Buszone Fault CB End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F2(S), T2(S), BS2,
Circuit F2(S), BS2, BCB and F1(S), BS1, BS2 and F2(S), BS1, BS2 and F1(S), BCA, BCB and F1(S), BCA, BS1 and F2(S), BCB, BS2 and
BCA and BCB CBs
Breakers T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T1(P) CBs open T2(P) CBs open
open
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
Consequence F1(S), BCB, BS2 & F1(S), BCA, BS1, BS2, F2(S), BCB, BS1, BS2, F1(S),BCA, BCB, BS1, F2(S),BCA, BCB, BS!, F1(S), BCA, BS1, F2(S), BCB, BS2, BB2B
BB2B out BB1A & BB2A out BB1B & BB2B out BB1A & BB1B out BB2A & BB2B out BB1A & T1 out & T2 out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections (Continued)

Between F1(P) CT & Between F2(P) CT &

Fault Transformer T1 Transformer T2 Outboard of F1(P) CT Outboard of F2(P) CT
CB CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault Line Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(P) and T1(S) CBs F2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and F1(P) T2(S) and F2(P) F1(P) and Remote F2(P) and Remote
Breakers open open Remote CBs open Remote CBs open F1(P) CBs open F2(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to T1 and Supply Loss to T2 and
Consequence Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2. F1(P). F1(P) and T1 F2(P). F2(P) and T2 Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
Out. Out.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

BB2A BZ

BB2B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
BCA EZ

BCB EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

BS2 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - - X - X - X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - - X - X - X - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - - X - X - X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - - X X - - - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - - - - X - X - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2B - - - X - - - X - X - X - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - - X - X - X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - - X - X - X - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

11. MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER FEEDER PAIRS

As before, the busbar concepts can easily be extended to cater for larger numbers of transformer feeder pairs. It is
good design and operating practice to have feeders and transformers positioned in such a manner

F1 F2 F3 F5 F4 F6
FEEDER
PAIR

FEEDER
PAIR

B/B 2B B/S 2
B/B 2A B/B 2C

B/C ‘A’ B/C’B’

B/S 1 B/B 1B
B/B 1A B/B 1C

T1 T2 T3

Figure 6-3.24: Busbar Configuration with Multiple Feeders and Transformers

Comparison of Unavailability Maps (Need to be rechecked)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Single Transformer Feeder Single Busbar System with a Single A Single Busbar Arrangement with A Single Busbar Arrangement with Two
Transformer and Single Feeder One Transformer and Two Feeders Transformers & One Feeder
BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ
line fault

line fault

line fault
line fault

line fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
EZ fault

EZ fault
F1(S)/T

T1 Diff

T1 Diff
F1(S)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
1 BZ &

Fault

Fault
T1 Diff

Fault
fault

fault

fault
F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
Fault

Condition

F1(S) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X X - - X X X - X X X X - X X X X
T1 - - X X X - - X X X - - X X X - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X -
Busbar System with Two A Single Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers and Two Feeders Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus
Section Coupler Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S) X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X - - X X X - - X X - - - X X X -
T1 - - X X - - - X X - - - X - - - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S) X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X -
T1 - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X

BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ
line fault

line fault

line fault
line fault

line fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
EZ fault

EZ fault
F1(S)/T

T1 Diff

T1 Diff
F1(S)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
1 BZ &

Fault

Fault
T1 Diff

Fault
fault

fault

fault
F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
Fault

Condition

F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Busbar System with Two A Single Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers and Two Feeders Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus
Section Coupler Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)

S.L.D.G. 6-4

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

1. GENERAL - VIEWPOINTS FOR THE CHOICE OF SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

Substations and switching stations have the task to guarantee the highest possible security of supply for all consumers
of the network. Faulty network sections should be disconnected as fast as possible and the supply renewed by change-
over switching. The switching layout of a station must therefore be matched to the network configuration.

In meshed networks that have a subordinated meshed network, the failure of a distribution station for example, does not
result in a supply interruption. For such stations a particularly large expenditure for the switching layout is not
necessary. On the other hand in pure radial networks, all load-side connected consumers would be simultaneously
interrupted if the feeder station breaks down. It is further to be considered whether the network has chiefly double or
single-line circuits. For the case of single-line circuits the security of the feeders must be particularly heeded, with the
possible installation of an auxiliary (bypass) busbar.

Further influencing factors for the switching layout selection are:

i) The possibility of network division e.g. to reduce the short circuit power.

ii) The sensitivity of the consumers to supply interruptions.

iii) The mutual influence of the consumers by voltage fluctuations (stations up to 33 kV)

iv) The number of the various high supply-voltages, regulated, unregulated - as well as somewhat higher voltages for
remote consumers (stations up to 33 kV)

The guidance given in this section cannot be exhaustive but gives a choice between several of the more commonly
encountered arrangements. The continuity of service under maintenance and fault conditions for switching
arrangements is categorized as demonstrated in SLDG 6-2 and SLDG 6-3. At this point therefore, it may be necessary
for the reader to visit SLDG 49-1 which discusses single line diagrams, particularly in the case where there is a need to
understand the symbols employed.

Figure 6-4.1 shows some commonly used switching arrangements. In a substation, flexibility can be achieved by the
introduction of sectionalizing of the busbars or by using different arrangements as discussed at length in SLDG 6-3.

More than one of the examples shown in Figure 6-4.1 may be used on the same site but at different voltage levels. This
approach has been exercised in the development of the 765 kV corridor between Gauteng and the Western Cape where
both breaker-and-a-half and double busbar selection philosophies have been used.

It should also be noted that the choice of isolator used (see S.L.D.G. 26-1) may influence the switching arrangement
chosen.

In Figure 6-4.1 earth-switches have been omitted for clarity.

a) Single Busbar Selection b) Single Busbar Selection

c) Single Busbar Selection
Busbar Sectionaliser
with Bypass

d) Double Busbar Selection e) Double Busbar Selection f) Double Busbar Selection

Single Breaker Double Breaker with Bypass Single
Breaker

g) Breaker-and-a-Half i) Extended Ring Busbar

h) Ring Busbar

Denotes connection to
transformer or feeder

Circuit Breaker

Isolator

k) 3-Switch Arrangement j) 3-Switch Arrangement

Figure 6-4.1: Typical Switching Arrangement

Considering the above influences on choice, the following provides suggestions regarding the application of the
individual switching arrangements shown in Figure 6-4.1.

1.1 Single Busbar Arrangements: (Figure 6-4.1 a), b) and c))

Single busbar arrangements are more commonly used for MV and HV substations.

Single busbar with a transfer busbar, and single busbar installations connected as a ring of substations, offers improved
flexibility but limited system security.

These arrangements have little security against busbar faults, little switching flexibility, and involve fairly extensive
outages for busbar and busbar disconnector maintenance.

1.1.1 Single Busbar (Single Busbar Selection)

See Figure 6-4.2. The earth-switches are included for cases where the fault levels are greater than or equal to 20 kA.

1.1.1.1 Features

i) Good overall view; therefore little danger of incorrect switching on part of operator

ii) Low cost (approximately 83 % referred to a 132 kV station in in-line arrangement with double busbar)

iii) Small operational flexibility; with buszone faults or station overhauls the complete station must be disconnected

iv) Disturbance localizing and additional possibilities of group operation and network division is achieved with busbar
sectionalizer (bus section isolator or circuit breaker)

1.1.1.2 Application

i) Points in the network for which an uninterrupted supply is not necessary

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

BB 1A BB 1B

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.2a: Single Busbar Arrangement (With Sectionalising Isolator)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

BB 1A BB 1B

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-3.2b: Single Busbar Arrangement (With Sectionalising Circuit Breaker)

The medium voltage network (Figure 6-4.2b, 22 kV) is expediently divided into island networks. In case of a meshing
and of the division of a 132 kV cable, high equalizing currents in the medium-voltage network, and thereby undesired
tripping, can occur.

1.1.2 Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar (Single busbar Selection with Bypass) (Figure 6-4.c)

B/B 1A B/B 1B

Bypass
B/B

Trfr 1 Fdr 1 B/S & B/C Fdr 2 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.3: Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar Arrangement

1.1.2.1 Features

i) The possibility of switching any circuit breaker without voltage and without disconnection of the relevant feeder-
branch. High security of supply

ii) Through-connection of feeder-branches without circuit breaker and without use of main busbar

iii) Slightly higher costs than for an additional busbar system (approximately 104 % referred to a 132 kV station in in-
line arrangement with double busbars)

iv) With multiple busbars, bus coupler circuit breaker can also serve as reserve circuit breaker

1.1.2.2 Range of Application

i) For network points in which a higher security of supply is required then in the case of single busbar selection, for
example, single-circuit lines are predominantly present.

ii) In connection with multiple busbars for localities with heavy air pollution, when cleaning would result in frequent
unwanted disconnections

1.1.2.3 Special Remarks

The current transformers in the transformer bays are expediently arranged between the transformer and the bypass
isolator TA (Feeder A) so that they remain in the current flow during bus coupler circuit breaker operation. In this way
the protection which is adjusted for the transformer can easily be changed over to the reserve circuit breaker. In
connection with the double busbar the auxiliary (bypass) busbar offers a large security against supply interruptions.
Almost all parts of the installation can, if necessary, be consequently switched without voltage and without interruptions
to the supply.

1.1.2.4 Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar for the Line Feeder-branches Only

In large transformer stations, although not common, it is occasionally necessary to additionally provide a complete
transformer branch for reserve purposes. In these cases, it is sufficient to co-ordinate the auxiliary (bypass) busbar with
the line feeder-branch. Moreover, in the case that the line feeder-branches all leave the busbar in the one direction,
smaller costs are involved than for an additional busbar system. In connection with a single busbar, this solution is
sometimes technically more advantageous than a double busbar.

1.2 Double and Triple Busbar Arrangements

The double busbar, double busbar with a transfer busbar or triple busbar arrangement is used for large substations
where security of supply is important. These are particularly suitable for highly inter-connected power networks in which
switching flexibility is important and multiple supply routes are available. They are also used for splitting networks that
are only connected in emergency cases.

Circuits in arrangement d) are lost during circuit breaker and instrument transformer maintenance and repairs. When a
by-pass facility is used as in arrangement C, permanent interconnection of the circuit can be maintained during most
maintenance work. It may also be possible to use the by-pass connection after a failure but the possible coincidence of
failure during maintenance should be considered.

1.2.1 Double Busbar (Double Busbar Selection) (Figure 6-4.1d)

See Figure 6-4.4.

1.2.1.1 Features

i) Freedom to choose desired switching connections and uninterrupted division of all feeder-branches into two groups
for disturbance localizing and network division

ii) A "loose coupling" between the two network halves makes possible the use of a lower rated feeder-branch circuit
breaker. Only the coupling circuit breaker is dimensioned for the full short-circuit capacity. On occurrence of a
disturbance, the coupling circuit breaker receives a tripping signal from a fast over-current relay and separates the
networks before the feeder-branch circuit breaker trips

iii) Maintenance of a busbar without supply interruption to the feeder-branches that are connected to the other busbar
during the maintenance time

iv) For maintenance on feeder-branch equipment the relevant feeder-branch must be disconnected. Should the
appropriate construction be provided, the coupling circuit breaker can be used in conjunction with the second busbar
as a temporary feeder-branch circuit breaker. For this purpose, the equipment is bridged by a stranded conductor.
Normally the remote end substation would have an alternative in-feed.

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 2

B/B 1

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.4: Double Busbar Selection

1.2.1.2 Applications

i) Extensive junction-points of the network where remote end substations can be supplied from another point, i.e. it
would have a second in-feed.

1.2.2 By-pass Isolator System

See Figure 6-4.5.

1.2.2.1 Features

A feeder-branch can remain in service during maintenance. The protection must be taken over by the bus coupler
circuit breaker. Load break in place of the by-pass isolators make possible the switching of idle lines and transformers

In connection with double busbar the coupling circuit breaker can serve as reserve circuit breaker

1.2.2.2 Application

Single busbars with bypass for medium and small installations can be relatively easily upgraded to double busbars with
bypass. Bypass on transformer circuits are only done in exceptional cases.

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 2

B/B 1

Trfr 1 Bus Section Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.5: Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

1.2.3 Triple busbar (Triple Busbar Selection)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 1B B/B 1C
B/B 1A B/B 1D

B/B 2B B/B 2C
B/B 2A B/B 2D

B/B 3B B/B 3C
B/B 3A B/B 3D

Trfr 1 Bus Section Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.6: Triple Busbar Selection

1.2.3.1 Features

i) Large operational flexibility

ii) Poor overall view and hence increased danger of incorrect switching on the part of the operator

iii) High costs (approximately 110 % of a 132 kV station in in-line arrangement with double busbar)

1.2.3.2 Applications

i) Only in exceptional cases in which continuous group operation with freedom to choose desired switching
connections of the feeder-branches is required. The third busbar system is then free for maintenance purposes.
These arrangements are applied in extensive network coupling points and installations of large power stations. The
arrangement makes no provision for bypassing the circuit breaker.

1.3 Double Circuit Breaker and 1½ Circuit Breaker Arrangement: (Figure 6-4.1 e) and g))

The double circuit breaker and 1½ circuit breaker arrangements are particularly suitable for substations handling large
amounts of power, such as those associated with generating stations, and for networks which comprise mainly radial
circuits with few mesh connections.

It should be noted that to cover all contingencies of switching, the circuit breakers and associated equipment in
arrangement g) (Breaker-and-a-Half) should be capable of handling the combined load current of two circuits.

1.3.1 Double circuit breaker system

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr or
Trfr

Figure 6-4.7: Double Busbar, Double Circuit Breaker System

1.3.1.1 Features

i) Very high security of supply for the whole installation

ii) Selective disconnection of busbar faults without supply interruptions in so far as the busbars are in parallel
operation

iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic re-closing the two circuit breakers must be synchronously switched

iv) Very high investment costs (approximately 160 % referred to a 132 kV station with double busbar in in-line
arrangement)

1.3.1.2 Application

i) Very important network junction points

1.3.2 Conventional 1 ½ Circuit Breaker System

BB Fdr 1 Fdr 2
Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 3 Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.8: Conventional 1½ Circuit Breaker System

BB Fdr 1 Fdr 2
Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 3 Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.9: Folded-In 1½ Circuit Breaker System

Fdr 1 BB Fdr 3 Fdr 5

Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 2 Trfr 1 Fdr 4 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.10: Folded-Out 1½ Circuit Breaker System

1.3.2.1 Features

i) One reserve circuit breaker is provided for each 2 feeder branches, hence 1½ circuit breaker

ii) Selective disconnection of faults in the station in so far as the busbars are operated in parallel (all circuit breakers
closed)

iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic re-closing the two circuit breakers must be synchronously switched

iv) Many circuit breakers and isolators must be rated for double the feeder-branch current

v) Costly construction and bad overall view, danger of incorrect switching on part of operator

vi) High investment costs (approximately 125 % referred to 132 kV station with double busbars in in-line arrangement)

1.3.2.2 Application

i) Network points with a high demand for security. This arrangement would therefore only be applied where security
of suppy can justify it, e.g. 765 kV and associated 400 kV systems.

1.4 Mesh Arrangements: Figure 6-4.1 h) and i)

The mesh arrangements are particularly suited to applications where maximum security against busbar faults and
minimum outage for maintenance is required.

It should be noted that equipment in the ring connections of the mesh must be capable of carrying the maximum load
current that may occur due to any switching contingency.

Additionally, mesh arrangements are not readily extensible.

1.4.1 Ring Busbar - See Figure 6-4.11

1.4.1.1 Features

i) Saving of a spare circuit breaker as opposed to the single busbar system with auxiliary (bypass) busbar, otherwise
same features

ii) When the current transformers are situated within the ring (usual arrangement), almost the entire installation is
covered by the protection range of the feeder-branches. Only the short line between the current transformer and
the pertinent circuit breaker lies outside the protection. However, for the case of a current transformer on each
side of the circuit breaker, an over-reaching protection is possible

iii) Features of multiple busbar systems cannot be attained (network division)

iv) With open ring and additional disconnection of a feeder-branch circuit breaker, other feeder-branches can
unwantingly lose supply voltage. For this reason, this system is limited to 4 branches or otherwise a multiple
polygon must be installed

v) Poor overall view of the construction and of the current flow

vi) The equipment in the ring must be rated to the higher ring current (approximately double the feeder-branch
current)

vii) Insertion of summation current transformers for determination of the feeder-branch currents. Synchronous
switching of 2 circuit breakers is necessary with or without automatic re-closing (increase of probability of circuit
breaker malfunction)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

Trfr 1 Trfr 2
Figure 6-4.11: Ring Busbar
Fdr 1 Fdr 2 Fdr 2

Trfr 1 Trfr 2 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.12: Ring Busbar

1.4.1.2 Application

i) Small installations and less frequently as an extended ring for large installations

1.5 Single and Three Switch Arrangements: Figure 6-4.1 j) and k)

The single and 3 switch arrangements have limited application and are mainly suited to a ring system of supply feeding
bulk supply points consisting of duplicate transformers or banks of transformers.

1.6 Draw-out Breaker System

The fact that most accidents in switching installations arise from faulty isolator switching led to the development of
installations without isolators (up to 132 kV).

B/B 1

B/B B/B 2

Fdr1 Fdr1

Figure 13: Draw-Out Breaker System

1.6.1 Features

i) Deletion of the isolators. Circuit breaker contains contacts and is mobile. Simple mechanical interlocks positively
prevent faulty travel of the circuit breaker.

ii) Smaller ground areas and space requirements (particularly important for indoor installations).

iii) Short interruption times on loss of equipment because of the available spare circuit breaker

iv) Largely limited to 132 kV

v) Double busbars require 2 circuit breakers per feeder-branch when it is required that a busbar change over be
remotely controlled. In this case high investment costs

1.6.2 Application

i) Primarily indoor installations with single busbars

1.7 Installation of Earth-switches

Fixed earth-switches are installed in stations where the system fault levels are very high, generally in excess of 20 kA
and portable earth-switches are not rated for these fault currents. In these cases, each point that can be isolated with
isolators, and on both sides of a circuit breaker, fixed earth-switch need to be installed for personnel safety.

Feeder

Figure 6-4.14: Installation of Earth-switches

1.7.1 Features

i) High safety for personnel

ii) Increased security of supply with interlocking against closing onto parts still earthed

iii) Shortening of the out-of-service time during maintenance and repair

iv) Increase of investment costs

1.7.2 Application

In networks with low-ohmic star point earthing and in particular for outdoor installations

1.7.3 Special Remarks

In networks with low-ohmic star points earthing (effectively earthed), high earth short circuit currents arise even with
single pole faults. This could lead to an earthing process where a movable earthing set of parts approach the point to
be earthed which is carrying voltage by mistake leads to an accident with fatal results. These points need fixed earth-
switches. Furthermore, disturbances in the installation are produced. This problem becomes particularly acute in
outdoor installations because no suitable voltage tester can be supplied that is suitable for installation under all
atmospheric conditions.

2. SERVICE CONTINUITY

When choosing a specific switching arrangement, one of the prime considerations should be the effect of the loss of
plant due to fault conditions or for maintenance. Such effects may include loss of Generating Plant, loss of transmission
and loss of supply to customers.

In all the examples given, if line or transformer faults or maintenance (of e.g. line isolator, instrument transformers or line
traps) are considered, continuity cannot be maintained on the effected circuits. Apart from these limitations, a measure
of service continuity can be maintained.

Reliability calculations for schemes are complex and the following information is given to allow a quantitative
assessment of the effects of repair or maintenance outage. An attempt in carrying out reliability assessments is given in
SLDG 8-3.

An assessment of the continuity that can be obtained from any example in Figure 6-4.1 has been categorized as follows
and shown in Table 6-4.1.

Category 1: No outage necessary within the substation for either maintenance or fault.
Note : Category 1 necessitates no system outage but does not necessarily
provide a secure supply for single faults, even if these are limited to busbar
and circuit breaker faults.
Category 2: Short outage (maximum approximately 4 hours) necessary to transfer the load to an
alternative circuit at the same or other station for maintenance or fault.
Category 3: Loss of circuit or section until the repair is completed
Category 4: Loss of substation.

In situations where a fault occurs when maintenance is in progress on other equipment, the above categories do not
apply. Under these conditions the probability of a split in the network can increase rapidly, especially in the polygonal
arrangements.

Table 6-4.1: Analysis of Service Continuity

Ref. Type of arrangement Service continuity category

Circuit Breaker area Busbar area
a) Single busbar 3 4
b) Single busbar with bus section circuit 3 3
breaker
c) Single busbar with transfer bar 2 4
(see Note 1)
d) Double busbar without by-pass 3 2
facilities. (see Note 2) (see Note 1)
e) Double busbar with double Circuit 1 or 2 1
Breaker
f) Double busbar with by-pass facilities. 2 2
(see Note 1)
g) Double busbar with 1½ Circuit Breaker 1 or 2 1
(see Note 1)
h) and i) Mesh 1 or 2 Not applicable
j) 3 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable
k) 1 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable

Note 1 : To achieve these stated categories, a bus coupler switch must be included.
Note 2 : Category 2 applies when facilities are provided to transfer the protection of a feeder bay to
the bus-coupler bay.
Note 3 : Category 1 applies for maintenance conditions. Category 2 applies for fault conditions.

3. CHOICE OF SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

In addition to the functions of a substation previously considered in this section choice of switching arrangements may
be influenced by:-

a) The level of skill and experience of operating staff

b) The future growth and development of the supply system

c) Economy in the early stages of development

d) The ease of facilitating future extensions

e) Duplication of circuits to give alternative supply routes

f) Amount of power to be transmitted

g) Strategic importance of the circuits

h) The service continuity of other significant parts of the network

j) The reliability both of the substation as a whole and the individual components within the substation

k) The standardization policy of the organisation

l) Maintenance requirements and techniques

m) National regulations (for example whether or not it is permissible to operate an isolator remotely to change a
particular switching arrangement without personal verification)

4. BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS EMPLOYED BY ESKOM FOR THE MAIN TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (MTS)

4.1. Double Busbar

In a double busbar system, the circuits can normally be selected via isolators to either busbar, shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.15. On load transfer from one busbar to the other is possible when a bus coupler forms part of the yard
arrangement.

BB1 BB2

Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

RWB BWR

Figure 6-4.15: Double Busbar Selection

The busbar phasing convention used by Eskom is shown in Figure 6-4.15, with the outer phases of the two bars being
the “Red” phase and the inner phases being the “Blue” phase.

Busbar 1 Busbar 2
R W B B W R

Figure 6-4.15: Busbar Phasing Convention

4.1.1 By-passes

For economic reasons, single-line radial supplies have become more popular. With this has come an increasing
demand for by-pass facilities which permit maintenance, particularly of the circuit breaker, to be carried out without the
need for a complete shut-down of the circuit. So called single busbar selection with by-pass is shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.16. The feeder is shown to be on bypass through the bus coupler, all other circuits in the station being
selected to the running bus (Busbar No. 1). If a fault occurs on the by-passed line, it must be detected, and clearance
should preferably be effected discriminately. To rely on the system back-up protection for these faults is inviting a major
shut-down and cannot be accepted at stations supplying large important loads with perhaps one or two single line
supplies to small customers.

To overcome this problem, various alternatives are possible, but the simplest solution is to position the current
transformers on the line side of the line and by-pass isolators so that the normal protection remains in service at all
times. All that is then necessary is for the trip circuit to be diverted to a suitable breaker, preferably a bus coupler.
Figure 6-4.16 shows the line on by-pass through the bus coupler so that operation of the line protection, which is
transferred to the bus coupler, trips the bus coupler breaker and so clears the fault.

B/B 1 B/B 2
Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

Figure 6-4.16: Single Busbar Selection with By-Pass

Busbars are by convention always labelled with the “By-pass” busbar as the “No. 2 Busbar” and the normal
“Running” busbar as the “No. 1 Busbar”, as illustrated in Figure 6-4.16.

Important lines may be provided with double busbar selection with by-pass in which case the same criteria for
labelling busbars as used in the previous example, still apply. This arrangement is shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.17.

PG. or In-line Isolator BB 1 BB 2

Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

Figure 6-4.17: Double Busbar Selection with By-Pass

4.1.2 Optimising the busbar configuration

In order to optimise the busbar arrangement, we consider first a double busbar scheme to which two feeders and two
transformers are connected (see Figure 6-4.18).

T1 T2

ZONE 2
B/B 1

B/B 2
ZONE 1

B/C F1 F2

Figure 6-4.18: A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement with 2 x Transformers and 2 x Feeders

The bays should typically be selected onto the busbars in the way illustrated in Figure 6-4.18, the isolators marked “•“
being closed, resulting in a feeder and a transformer pair selected onto a separate zone of busbar, so that in the event
of one zone faulting, the other zone would still be able to maintain supply. This arrangement therefore provides for a
single busbar contingency. The loss of the second busbar would obviously result in the loss of the station.

It is current policy that each transformer that is introduced to a busbar system, should be selected onto its “own” section,
or zone of busbar. The introduction of a third transformer to the above arrangement would therefore require a bus
section to be introduced, usually on Busbar No. 1. A second bus coupler is normally also introduced in order to
complete the circuit, and so prevent the splitting of the two busbar systems.

T1 T2 T3

ZONE 2 ZONE 3
B/B 2
B/S

ZONE 1
B/B 1A B/B 1B

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

(Future)

Figure 6-4.19: A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement with 3 x Transformers

Figures 6-4.18 and 6-4.19 are both arrangements with a “Planning Level 2” ranking i.e. there are as many zones of
busbar as there are transformers. This implies that a zone of busbar can be removed from service for maintenance
purposes by selecting all bays from the busbar to be maintained, to the adjacent busbar. This, however, results in two
transformers and all the related feeders to be selected onto a single busbar. A busbar fault on the zone with two
transformers in this case would probably result in the total loss of the station, as one transformer would not be able to
transform the required load.

4.1.3 Improving the Reliability of Supplies - Planning Level Ranking

Where it is absolutely necessary to ensure supplies to important customers e.g. petroleum (Sasol) and smelter (Alusaf)
industries, busbar arrangements which allow alternative busbar selections with transformers remaining on dedicated
sections of busbar, can be realized. This results in a station with a “Planning Level 1” ranking i.e. there is one section of
busbar more than there are transformers, i.e. there is one more zone of busbar than there are transformers or critical
feeders.

In the case of a two transformer station, three sections of busbar would be required (see Figure 6-4.20).

T1 T2

B/S
ZONE 2 ZONE 3
B/B 1A B/B 1B

ZONE 1
B/B 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.20: A Two Transformer Arrangement with a Planning Level 1 Ranking.

Transformer T2 and Feeder F2 can, for example, be selected either onto Busbar 1 or 2 and still result in an arrangement
where there is a circuit breaker between T1 and T2 i.e. they are still selected onto their own section of busbar. The
additional cost over and above a planning level 2 arrangement is that of a bus section and a second bus coupler (see
Figure 6-4.20).

A three transformer arrangement could have two possibilities.

4.1.3.1 Bus Sections in the Same Busbar.

T1 T2 T3

BS 1 BS 2
ZONE 1
ZONE ZONE 5
BB 1A BB 1C

ZONE
BB 2A BB 2C
BB 2B
ZONE 2 BS ZONE 4 BS
ISOL 1 ISOL 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.21: Bus Sections in the Same Busbar.

This arrangement is particularly used at power stations where Busbar 1 is the normal “running” busbar, and busbar 2,
the “by-pass” or “hospital” busbar.

To enable even greater flexibility, busbar isolators are included in the by-pass (hospital) busbar to be able to cut down
on the extent to which sections of busbar are removed for maintenance purposes, i.e. smaller sections can be removed.

4.1.3.2 Bus Sections in Opposite Busbars (Staggered Bus Sections)

T1 T2 T3

BS 1
ZONE 3 BS
ZONE 1 B/B 2B ISOL 1 ZONE 5
B/B 1A B/B 2C

B/B 2A B/B 1C
B/B 1B ZONE 6
ZONE 2 BS ZONE 4 BS 2
ISOL 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.22: Bus Sections In Opposite Busbars

This arrangement allows slightly greater flexibility than that shown in Figure 6-4.21 in that a variety of options of
selection of transformer / feeder pairs are available to the operator. Busbar 2 would, however, still remain as the bypass
busbar. Bus section isolators, as in the previous option, add additional flexibility when maintenance on busbars or
busbar associated equipment has to be carried out.

In both options 1 and 2, the removal of any one busbar from service for maintenance, still results in a transformer /
feeder pair being selected onto a separate section, or zone of busbar, with at least one circuit breaker separating it from
other pairs.

Both options 1 and 2 can be extended to cater for multiple transformer / feeder pairs, by adding bus sections.

4.1.4 3-Busbar arrangement (Double Busbar Selection with Bypass)

Prior to the invention of the pantograph isolator, it was necessary to employ a three busbar system to be able to obtain
double busbar selection with bypass on the more important substations viz. 400 kV. Two of the busbars were used as
normal running busbars, with the third busbar, named the “Transfer” busbar, installed to be able to carry out
maintenance on the feeder circuit breakers.

T1 T2 T3

B/S
ZONE 1 ZONE 2
B/B 1A B/B 1B

ZONE 3
B/B 2 B/B

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

TX
F1 F2 B/C F3
Figure 6-4.23: Three Busbar System

Selecting any one of the feeders onto the transfer busbar requires the transfer bus coupler (TX B/C) to brought into
service. The transfer bus coupler can be selected onto either B/B 1 or B/B 2 via the busbar isolators. This system is
cumbersome if the telecommunication equipment (line traps and capacitor voltage transformers) are in-board i.e. behind
the transfer isolator. The telecoms settings have to be continuously changed with the change in feeders that go onto
bypass. This leaves room for errors to arise and is therefore not used in the design of new substations.
Telecommunications equipment is now placed outboard of the bypass isolator. This arrangement is now used regularly
with tubular busbar substations, where the third busbar is integral to the design in order to realise a low profile
substation.

4.1.5 Hybrid 3-busbar arrangement

There may be instances where a “three busbar” system is required, especially where there are space and cost
constraints. In fact, this system is just a modified two busbar system with one busbar wrapping around the other (see
Figure 6-4.24). Acacia substation has a 400 kV busbar with a similar configuration.

T1 T2 T3

ZONE 1
B/B 1 (B/B 1A)

ZONE 2
B/S B/B 2

ZONE 3
B/B 3 (B/B 1B)

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

F1 F2 F3 F4

SAME DESTINATION
Figure 6-4.24: Hybrid 3-Busbar Arrangement

This in effect results in a “Planning Level 1” station.

The advantage of this arrangement is that two feeders to the same destination can be selected onto two different
busbars even though they are next to each other, even with one of the busbars out, i.e. to say, one effectively has a
Planning Level 1 substation. The requirement of line crossings or internal by-passes are negated, as would be the case
in a conventional arrangement, where it is necessary to have feeder bays either side of a bus section (see Figure 6-
4.25).

T1 T2

ZONE
B/B 2

ZONE 1 ZONE 3
B/B 1A B/B 1B
B/S

B/C ‘A’ INTERNAL F4 B/C ‘B’

BY-PASS
F1 F3 F2
SAME
DESTINATION

Figure 6-4.25: Conventional Positioning Of Lines to the Same Destination

In the case of Figure 6-4.24, the feeders to the same station can exit the station side by side and still be either side of
the bus section, while Figure 6-4.25 illustrates the conventional way of positioning two feeders to the same destination.

The disadvantage of the arrangement shown in Figure 11 is that it complicates the operation of the station.

5. SPECIAL BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS

5.1.1 Odd Numbers of Transformer or Critical Feeders

Cases have risen where odd numbers of transformers or critical feeders need to be so arranged so as to realise a
Planning Level 1 station, i.e. circuits to be on their own zone even when busbar maintenance needs to be done. The
conventional manner of arranging transformers would be as shown in Figure 6-4.26). In this arrangement, only
transformer T5 is selectable to a free zone (Zone 6) making the arrangement a sub-optimised one.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

BS 1 BS 3 Zone 5
BB 1A Zone 3
Zone 1 BB 1B BB 2C

BB 2A Zone 6
Zone 2 BB 1C
BB 2B
BS 2 Zone 4 BS 4

BC ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 BC ‘B’

Figure 6-4.26: Conventional Positioning of Bus Section (Only T5 Selectable onto Spare Zone)

The rearrangement of the bus sections as shown in Figure 6-4.27 allows all the transformers and feeders to be
selectable to the free zone. Zone 6 is the free zone. This is done by relinking of bays until the appropriate zone has no
circuits connected to it.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

BS 1 BS 3 Zone 5
BB 1A Zone 3
Zone 1 BB 1B BB 1C

BB 2A Zone 6
Zone 2 BB 2C
BB 2B
BS Zone 4 BS 4
(Fut)

BC ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 BC ‘B’
Figure 6-4.27: Conventional Positioning Of Bus Section (All Transformers Selectable onto Spare Zone)

5.1.2 Busbar Reactor Switchable to a Line

Some lines may under certain circumstances only require a line reactor for energisation but not for normal running
conditions, i.e. once energised it may be that voltage control is required on the busbar. Figure 6-4.28 provides a layout
that is a practical solution for these cases. The Busbar Reactor breaker is opened together with the isolators on both
sides of the breaker. The reactor transfer isolator is closed onto the Transfer Busbar and the transfer isolator of the
appropriate feeder is also closed onto the Transfer Busbar, e.g. Feeder 3. Feeder 3 circuit breaker is then closed and
the line becomes energised. Once Feeder 3 is energised, the Busbar Reactor and Transfer Bus Coupler breakers can
be closed again and the two transfer isolators opened. This is possible as the voltage on all zones of busbar are the
same and a minimal arc will be drawn.

T1 T2 T3

BS
Zone 1 Zone 2
BB 1A BB 1B

Zone 3
BB 2 BB 2

BC ‘A’ BC ‘B’

TX
BC F1 F2 F3

BB Reac /
SB Line Reac

Figure 6-4.28: Conventional Positioning Of Bus Section (All Transformers Selectable onto Spare Zone)

SLDG 7-1

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GRID PLANNING AND INTERCONNECTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Having introduced and dealt with various types of busbar arrangements, it would be expedient to look a bit further than
just a single substation, and consider the electrical grid comprising the interconnection of a number of facilities through
lines.

1.1. The Evolution of Interconnected Systems

Electricity grid interconnections have played a key role in the history of electric power systems. Most national and
regional power systems that exist today began many decades ago as isolated systems, often as a single generator in a
large city. As power systems expanded out from their urban cores, interconnections among neighbouring systems
became increasingly common. Groups of utilities began to form power pools, allowing them to trade electricity and
share capacity reserves. The first power pool in the United States was formed in the Connecticut Valley in 1925. As
transmission technologies improved, long distance interconnections developed, sometimes crossing national borders.
The first international interconnections in Europe came in 1906, when Switzerland built transmission links to France
and Italy. In Southern Africa, interconnections between South Africa and Botswana have existed for quite a number of
years. Interconnections from South Africa have expanded into Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho and
Namibia at 400 kV.

One of the great engineering achievements of the 19th century has been the evolution of large synchronous alternating
current (AC) power grids, in which all the interconnected systems maintain the same precise electrical frequency.
Today, the North American power system is composed of four giant synchronous systems, namely the Eastern,
Western, Texas, and Quebec interconnections. The Eastern interconnection by itself has been called the largest
machine in the world, consisting of thousands of generators, millions of kilometres of transmission and distribution
lines, and more than a billion different electrical loads. Despite this complexity, the network operates in synchronism as
a single system. So does the Western European interconnection, which reaches from the UK and Scandinavia to Italy
and Greece, embracing along the way much of Eastern Europe (for example, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, and the
Czech Republic). Synchronous interconnections among countries are expanding in Central and South America, North
and Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East.

At the same time that synchronous AC networks have reached the continental scale, the use of high voltage direct
current (HVDC) interconnections is also rapidly expanding as a result of technical progress over the last two decades.
HVDC permits the asynchronous interconnection of networks that operate at different frequencies, or are otherwise
incompatible, allowing them to exchange power without requiring the tight coordination of a synchronous network.
HVDC has other advantages as well, especially for transmitting large amounts of power over very long distances.
Fundamentals of both AC and DC interconnections are discussed below in Sections 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 of this Chapter.

1.2. General Potential Benefits of Grid Interconnections

There are a number of technical rationales for grid interconnections, many of which have economic components as well
technical rationales for grid interconnection that include:

1.2.1 Improving Reliability and Pooling Reserves

The amount of reserve capacity that must be built by individual networks to ensure reliable operation when supplies
are short can be reduced by sharing reserves within an interconnected network.

1.2.2 Reduced Investment in Generating Capacity

Individual systems can reduce their generating capacity requirement, or postpone the need to add new capacity, if they
are able to share the generating resources of an interconnected system.

1.2.3 Improving Load Factor and Increasing Load Diversity

Systems operate most economically when the level of power demand is steady over time, as opposed to having high
peaks. Poor load factor (LF) (the ratio of average to peak power demand) means that utilities must construct
generation capacity to meet peak requirements, but that this capacity sits idle much of the time. Systems can improve
poor load factors by interconnecting to other systems with different types of loads, or loads with different daily or
seasonal patterns that complement their own.

Average Power Demand

LF =
Peak Power Demand
1.2.4 Economies of Scale in New Construction

Unit costs of new generation and transmission capacity generally decline with increasing scale, up to a point. Sharing
resources in an interconnected system can allow the construction of larger facilities with lower unit costs.

1.2.5 Diversity of Generation Mix and Supply Security

Interconnections between systems that use different technologies and/or fuels to generate electricity provide greater
security in the event that one kind of generation becomes limited (e.g., hydroelectricity in a year with little rainfall).
Historically, this complementarity has been a strong incentive for interconnection between hydro-dominated systems
and thermal-dominated systems. A larger and more diverse generation mix also implies more diversity in the types of
forced outages that occur, improving reliability.

1.2.6 Economic Exchange

Interconnection allows the dispatch of the least costly generating units within the interconnected area, providing an
overall cost savings that can be divided among the component systems. Alternatively, it allows inexpensive power from
one system to be sold to systems with more expensive power.

1.2.7 Environmental Dispatch and New Plant Siting

Interconnections can allow generating units with lower environmental impacts to be used more, and units with higher
impacts to be used less. In areas where environmental and land use constraints limit the siting of power plants,
interconnections can allow new plant construction in less sensitive areas.

1.2.8 Coordination of Maintenance Schedules

Interconnections permit planned outages of generating and transmission facilities for maintenance to be coordinated so
that overall cost and reliability for the interconnected network is optimized.

Some costs and benefits of interconnections are difficult to quantify, but as a rough figure of merit it has been estimated
that interconnections in Western Europe has resulted in reduced capacity requirements of 7-10 percent.

1.3. Technical Complexities and Risks of Grid Interconnections

The fact that interconnections between power systems are increasingly common does not imply that they are as simple
as connecting a few wires. Interconnections obviously entail the expense of constructing and operating transmission
lines and substations, or in the case of HVDC, converter stations. Interconnections also entail other costs, technical
complexities, and risks. For AC interconnections especially, a power system interconnection is a kind of marriage,
because two systems become one in an important way when they operate in synchronism. To do this requires a high
degree of technical compatibility and operational coordination, which grows in cost and complexity with the scale and

inherent differences of the systems involved. To give just one example, when systems are interconnected, even if they
are otherwise fully compatible, fault currents (the current that flows during a short circuit) generally increase, requiring
the installation of higher capacity circuit breakers to maintain safety and reliability. To properly specify these and many
other technical changes required by interconnection requires extensive planning studies, computer modelling, and
exchange of data between the interconnected systems.

The difficulties of joint planning and operation of interconnected systems vary widely. As with marriages, from the
institutional and administrative standpoint, coupled systems may become a single entity, or they may keep entirely
separate accounts. Within the North American interconnections, for example, there are hundreds of electric utility
companies that are entirely separate commercial entities. Customers receive power from, and pay bills to, the utility
that serves their area, for example Consolidated Edison. They may do so without even knowing of the existence of the
Eastern interconnection. Yet all the utilities in the Eastern interconnection are in a technical marriage that dictates or
constrains key aspects of their technology choices and operating procedures.

Within countries, there are typically common technical standards for all utilities, which reduces the complexity of
interconnecting separate systems. In different countries, on the other hand, power systems may have evolved quite
separately, with very different standards and technologies, which adds an extra layer of technical complexity to
interconnections. Institutional and administrative features of power systems in different countries are also likely to differ
in many ways, and these differences invariably affect the technical and operational dimensions of an interconnection.
Issues ranging from power trading agreements to reliability standards, while expressed in technical terms, often must
be resolved within the realm of policy and political economy. As one expert on international interconnections has
remarked, “many technical, organizational, commercial and political problems have had to be solved to get large
networks linked by international interconnections to operate”11.

The greatest benefits of interconnection are usually derived from synchronous AC operation, but this can also entail
greater reliability risks. In any synchronous network, disturbances in one location are quickly felt in other locations.
After interconnecting, a system that used to be isolated from disturbances in a neighbouring system is now vulnerable
to those disturbances. As major blackouts in North America and Europe in 2003 demonstrated, large-scale
disturbances can propagate through interconnections and result in cascading outages, bringing down systems that had
previously been functioning normally. In addition, long-distance interconnections with long transmission lines have
potentially greater stability problems than is the case for shorter lines. Finally, many systems that have undergone
electricity liberalization in recent years have experienced large increases in transmission capacity utilization, reducing
reserve margins. Minimizing the likelihood that an interconnection will lead to such problems as voltage collapse,
dynamic and transient instability, or cascading outages due to propagated disturbances requires careful planning and
well-coordinated operation.

2. BASIC PLANNING AND DESIGN FEATURES

The basic design features of an interconnection include the following elements:-

• whether it is AC or DC

• if DC, whether it is single-pole or double-pole (+/-)

• transmission capacity (in MVA)

• transmission voltage (in kV)

• system components and overall design

• operating agreement

These features are dictated by the answers to the following questions:-

• Will the interconnected systems operate synchronously or asynchronously? To operate synchronously, at a

minimum the systems must have the same nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Even if frequencies are the same,
technical and operational differences can make synchronous operation too difficult or expensive to pursue. Many
synchronous networks with the same nominal frequency, including the four North American interconnections, have
only asynchronous DC connections between them.

• What are the magnitudes and directions of the anticipated power flows? The basic rationales for the interconnection
must be expressed quantitatively, using models that forecast the power flows through the interconnection among
constituent systems. The forecasts must be conducted on different time scales: diurnal, seasonal, annual, and
multi-year projections.

• What physical distance and terrain will the interconnection span? The peak power flows and the physical length of
the interconnection will influence the choice of AC or DC, the size of conductors, and requirements for other system
components, such as series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers. Terrain, geology, and land use
considerations (such as urban areas, environmentally sensitive areas) will determine whether overhead lines or
underground cables are used, the layout and design of substations or converter stations, EARTHing and lightning
protection schemes, and the most suitable kinds of support structures. Undersea transmission requires the use of
special cables that are quite different from terrestrial cables and overhead lines. Terrain and land use also dictate
construction and maintenance methods.

• What are the key technical and operating differences among the systems to be interconnected? These include
differences in the hardware, control systems, and procedures used for frequency regulation, voltage regulation, and
fault protection.

3. INTERCONNECTION ELEMENTS

A listing of the basic elements of an interconnection is provided below.

3.1 Technical Objectives

The ultimate objective of an interconnection, like the power systems it is part of, is to provide power to customers
economically, safely, reliably, efficiently, and with minimal environmental impact. Each of these aspects has one or
more quantitative measure, such as price per kilowatt-hour, number and lethality of accidents, frequency and duration
of service interruptions, generating plant heat rate, transmission and distribution losses, and emissions factors.
Interconnections are designed, and their individual components selected, with all of these objectives in mind, though
they may be optimized differently in different systems.

3.2 Transmission Lines

Transmission lines come in two basic varieties: overhead lines and underground (or undersea) cables. Overhead lines
are more common and generally less expensive than cables. The main design consideration for overhead lines is the
choice of conductor type and size, which must balance the need to minimize impedance (and the associated losses),
minimize cost, and minimize the weight that must be carried by support structures. Although copper is a better
conductor, it has been overtaken in recent years by aluminium, which is lighter, cheaper, and in abundant supply. The
most common variety of overhead conductors for high-capacity, long-distance transmission is stranded aluminium wire
reinforced with steel (known as ACSR, for “aluminium conductor steel reinforced”). Other design considerations for
overhead lines are the type of support structures (such as transmission towers and insulators) used, and the
configuration of conductors on the support structures, which affects the reactance of the conductors and the strength of
electromagnetic fields (EMFs) around the lines.

Underground cables are used where overhead conductors are inappropriate due to environmental or land use
considerations, such as in high-density urban areas or ecologically sensitive areas. Cables are insulated and are
typically routed through underground conduits, and often require cooling systems to dissipate heat. Cables may use

copper instead of aluminium, balancing the greater cost of copper against its superior conductivity and lower resistive
heating. Undersea cables are usually made of copper, and may be surrounded by oil or an oil-soaked medium, then
encased in insulating material to protect from corrosion. Undersea cables often have a coaxial structure, which has an
inherently high capacitive reactance; therefore undersea cables are usually DC, which is not affected by reactance.
2
Conductor cross-sections are typically measured in square millimetres (mm ) in the metric system. The capacity of a
conductor to carry current without exceeding thermal limits is called its ampacity, measured in amperes (A), and in kA
for large conductors.

3.3 Transmission Line Support Structures

There are many possible types of support structures for overhead transmission lines. In developed countries,
transmission lines are supported on structures made out of steel lattice, tubular steel, wood, and concrete. Of these,
steel lattice has the highest strength to weight ratio, and is the easiest to assemble in areas that are difficult to access.
Where aesthetics are an important factor, however, other materials are often used. The main function of support
structures is to keep the conductors from contacting trees or other objects, including people and animals; thus the
structures must be tall enough to do so even when the conductors sag due to high temperatures caused by resistive
heating. All things being equal, taller structures also minimize ground-level EMFs. Since overhead transmission lines
are not insulated, they are typically suspended from towers on strings of ceramic insulators, which are designed to
prevent flashover, or the leakage of current from the conductors to the tower, which would present a lethal prospect to
anyone touching the tower. AC transmission towers are usually designed to carry three conductors: the three phases of
AC power systems. Towers that hold these in an equilateral triangle shape (called a “delta”) keep the mutual
reactances of the three phases balanced; non-delta configurations often require that conductors be transposed, or
switch places, at regular intervals along the transmission path. Some towers carry more than one circuit, with three
phases per circuit; for example, a double-circuit tower will have six conductors. (The conductor for each phase may
also be subdivided into “bundles” of two or more conductors, which are physically close together.) DC transmission
towers carry two conductors per circuit. Figure 7-1-1 on the following page shows various options for transmission
tower design.

Figure 7-1-1: Common Configurations for Transmission Towers

3.4 Transformers and Substations

Transformers are used to change voltage levels in AC circuits, allowing transmission at high voltages to minimize
resistive losses, and low voltages at the customer end for safety. This ability, following the development of
transformers, led to the rapid adoption of AC systems over DC systems. The essential element of a transformer
consists of two coils of wire wrapped around an iron core. An alternating current in one coil produces a changing
electromagnetic field that induces a current in the other. The voltages on either side are in the same ratio as the
number of turns on each coil. For example, a transformer with a 10:1 “turns ratio” that is connected to a 13,2 kV supply
on its primary side, will have a voltage of 132 kV on its secondary side. Transformers step up the voltage from
generator to transmission system, and other transformers step it down, often in several stages, from transmission to
sub-transmission to primary distribution to secondary distribution, and finally to the end-user voltage, such as 220 V. At
the distribution level, transformers often have taps that can be used to change the turns ratio; this allows operators to
maintain customer voltage levels when system voltages change. Modern transformers are extremely efficient, typically
greater than 99%, but even small losses can produce a great deal of heat, which must be dissipated to prevent
damage to the equipment. Large transformers are cooled by circulating oil, which also functions as an electrical
insulator.

Large transformers are housed in substations, where sections of a transmission and distribution system operating at
different voltages are joined. Larger substations have a manned control room, while smaller substations often operate
automatically. In addition to transformers, important substation equipment includes switchgear, circuit breakers and
other protective equipment (see next section), and capacitor banks used to provide reactive power support.

3.5 Protection Systems (See Also SLDG 6-1)

Protection systems are an extremely important part of any power system. Their primary function is to detect and clear
faults, which are inadvertent electrical connections – that is, short circuits – between system components at different
voltages. When faults occur, very high currents can result, typically 2-10 times as high as normal load currents. Since
2
power is proportional to I , a great deal of energy can be delivered to unintended recipients in a very short time. The
goal of protection systems is to isolate and de-energize faults before they can harm personnel or cause serious
damage to equipment. Note that protection systems are designed to protect the power system itself, rather than end-
user equipment.

The key components of protection systems are circuit breakers, instrument transformers, and relays. Circuit breakers
are designed to interrupt a circuit in which high levels of current are flowing, typically within three voltage cycles (about
60 milliseconds in a 50 Hz system). To do this they must quench the electric arc that appears when the breaker
contacts are opened; this is usually accomplished by blowing a gas, such as compressed air or sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6) across the contacts. Since human operators generally could not respond to a fault in time to prevent damage,
circuit breakers are operated by automatic relays that sense faults or other undesirable system conditions. To
distinguish between normal operations and fault conditions, relays are connected to instrument transformers – voltage
transformers (VT) and current transformers (CT) – that reflect the voltages and currents of the equipment they are
connected to. Relays themselves can be either electromechanical or solid state devices.

Essential aspects of protection system design include determining the specifications and placement of protection
equipment, and also the correct timing and sequence of relay operations. Protection engineers must determine how
long an undesirable condition should be allowed to persist before opening a circuit breaker, and the order in which
circuit breakers must open to correctly isolate faults in different zones.

3.6 Communications, Monitoring, and Control Systems

Power system operations take place within geographically well-defined control areas, which traditionally corresponded
to a utility’s service territory. With market liberalization, individual utility control areas have sometimes been combined
into larger control areas under the jurisdiction of an independent system operator (ISO). In either case, system

operations are coordinated by a central control centre, the responsibility of which it is to keep the entire system running
safely and reliably. This entails continuously monitoring system conditions and deploying system resources as the
situation requires.

Traditionally, monitoring and control have been conducted semi-manually, with a heavy reliance on telephone
communications with plant operators and field personnel. Increasingly, these activities are automated. Supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems combine remote sensing of system conditions with remote control over
operations. For example, control center SCADA systems control key generators through automatic generator control
(AGC), and can change the topology of the transmission and distribution network by remotely opening or closing circuit
breakers. This monitoring and control is enabled by dedicated phone systems (often fibre-optic based), microwave
radio, and/or power line carrier signals.

4. TECHNICAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH AC GRID INTERCONNECTION

4.1. General Requirements for AC Interconnection

AC interconnection usually provides the greatest interconnection benefits, except in certain cases for which DC is the
preferred option (see Section 5.1). Synchronous interconnection of different systems is, however, technically
demanding. At a general level, the first requirement is that the systems share the same nominal frequency, either 50
Hz or 60 Hz. Then, they must regulate frequency so that they achieve and remain in synchronism (see Section 3.4,
below). They must also interconnect at a common voltage level. This is easier if the countries involved have agreed to
a common standard for transmission voltage, such as the 380 kV standard in Europe. It is still possible for countries
with different voltage schemes to interconnect by using transformers (if voltages are not very different,
autotransformers are often used, which have only a single winding and are less expensive than ordinary
transformers). Having to use an excessive number of transformers is, however, undesirable, since transformers are
costly, add impedance to the line, and may require lengthy repair after a fault, keeping the transmission inter-tie out of
operation for an extended period. Other, more specific technical issues are discussed in the remainder of this section.

Good engineering must be complemented by good cooperation among the interconnected systems. In both planning
and operation phases, this requires extensive data sharing, joint modelling, and clear communication.

4.2. Technical Issues for AC Interconnection

One way of thinking about the technical issues of AC interconnections is to group them into those associated with the
transmission interconnection itself, and those associated with operating the larger interconnected system.
Transmission issues are discussed in 4.3. Key issues include thermal limits, stability limits, and voltage regulation,
which are the main constraints on transmission line operation. Other transmission issues include loop and parallel path
flows, available transfer capacity, and FACTS technologies. System-wide issues are discussed in 4.4, including
frequency regulation, power quality, the coordination of planning and operations, political and institutional cooperation,
systems that are aging or in poor repair, and the operation of nuclear power plants. The implications of electricity
market liberalization for interconnected systems are also discussed.

4.3. Transmission Issues

4.3.1 Thermal Limits

The capacity of transmission lines, transformers, and other equipment is determined by temperature limits. If these
limits are exceeded, the equipment can be damaged or destroyed. Equipment ratings have traditionally been
conservative, and operators have stayed well below the rated limits, but increased power trading in liberalized markets
has created pressure for higher utilization. Instead of a single thermal limit, dynamic ratings are now often used. For
example, transmission lines can carry more current when heat is effectively dissipated, and thus will have a higher
rating on cold, windy days without direct sunlight.

When transmission lines heat up, the metal expands and the line sags. If the sag becomes too great, lines can come
into contact with surrounding objects, causing a fault. Excess sag can also cause the metal to lose tensile strength due
to annealing, after which it will not shrink back to its original length. Important transmission lines are often monitored by
a device called a “sagometer”, which measures the amount of sag, making system operators aware of dangerous sag
conditions.

4.3.2 Stability Limits

The stability limit of a transmission line is the maximum amount of power that can be transmitted for which the system
will remain synchronized if a disturbance occurs. The power flow through a transmission line is governed by the
difference in power angle between the sending and receiving sides:-

VR.VS.sinδ
P= =
XS

where:-

VR = Receiving end voltage

VS = Sending end voltage
δ = Power or transmission angle between the sending and receiving end
XS = Surge or characteristic impedance of the line

All other factors being equal, the power transmitted from the sending side to the receiving side increases as the
difference in power angle between the two points, called δ (delta), approaches 90°, and decreases as it approaches 0°.
However, the feedback mechanism that keeps generators in synchronism and returns them to synchronous operation if
they are disturbed becomes more tenuous as δ approaches 90°. The stability limit represents the value of the power
angle that allows the highest power transfer while maintaining stability; a typical maximum value of δ is around 45°.

In general, stability limits are more important than thermal limits for long transmission lines, while thermal limits are
more important for shorter lines. In South Africa, for example, thermal limits are more important in the Gauteng
interconnections, while stability limits play a larger role in the Western Cape interconnections.

4.3.3 Voltage Regulation

Utilities generally maintain system voltages within 5-10 percent of nominal values in order to avoid the risk of voltage
collapse, which can lead to a major interruption of service. Power system voltages are primarily governed by reactive
power flows. Voltages along a transmission link are a function of the physical length of the circuit, the impedance per
unit length, and the flow of real power: the higher the current and the greater the reactance, the larger the voltage drop
(if the reactance is predominantly inductive) or gain (if capacitive). Voltage collapse can be triggered when reactive
demand is high and systems are operating near their stability limits, then undergo a disturbance that triggers a quick
downward spiral. To maintain voltages along long AC transmission lines, reactive compensation of various kinds can
be employed, such as series and shunt capacitors, and shunt reactors. (See section on FACTS, below).

System operators also maintain voltage levels in order to protect end-use equipment (for example, low voltages cause
motor currents to increase, and higher currents can cause thermal damage). Utilities are usually obliged to provide
power to customers within prescribed voltage tolerances. Devices called tap-changing transformers in the local
distribution system are used to ensure that customer voltages are maintained even when system voltages change
substantially. Note, however, that the power quality experienced by the customer is generally more affected by local
conditions in the distribution system, such as switching, lightning strikes, and the loads of other customers, than by
conditions in the transmission system. Protecting sensitive electronic end-use equipment is the responsibility of the
customer rather than the utility.

4.3.4 Loop and Parallel Path Flows

In power systems, power flows do not necessarily follow a specified transmission path – for example, from seller in
system A to buyer in system B - but divide themselves among various connected transmission paths according to the
voltage levels and impedances of the path. To put it another way, power flows conform to physical laws rather than
economic agreements. In some cases, a power transaction can take quite unwanted paths, resulting in line losses and
possibly overloading lines of neighbours having nothing to do economically with the transaction. In general, these
phenomena are referred to as circulating power, loop flows, and parallel path flows. What is important for the reliability
of an interconnected system is that operators know the sources and destinations of all transactions and where the
power will flow, and are able to calculate the resulting reliability risks (see section on power flow modelling, below).

4.3.5 Available Transmission Capacity (ATC)

An important measure of transmission capacity is transmission transfer capability (TTC), which is the maximum power
flow that a line can accommodate at any given time and still be able to survive the loss of a major generator or
transmission link elsewhere in the system. Available transmission capacity (ATC) is the TTC of a line minus the amount
of capacity already committed to other uses on that line. ATC is thus the measure of how much power can be safely
transmitted over a transmission line at a given time while ensuring overall system reliability.

4.3.6 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) refers to a number of different technologies based on power electronics
and advanced control technologies, which are used to optimize power flows and increase grid stability18. FACTS
equipment is expensive, but it can pay for itself by directing power flows with precision, eliminating loop flows, and
relieving transmission bottlenecks without requiring that new lines be built. It can also improve frequency and voltage
stability, decrease transmission losses and voltage drops, and improve power quality. FACTS equipment includes
static compensators, static VAR compensators, thyristor-controlled series capacitors, phase-shifting transformers,
interphase power controllers, universal power flow controllers, and dynamic voltage restorers. With FACTS, AC
transmission over distances that were not previously possible due to stability limits has become possible. Figure 7-1.2
shows applications for different FACTS technologies. FACTS devices have been used extensively in the North
American and European interconnections, and increasingly in developing regions, the Brazil north-south
interconnection, and other interconnections in Latin America, Africa, and South Asia.

Issue Device Device

Steady-state Voltage Control MSC Stepwise, infrequent control only
SVC Continuous control inherent
SC Continuous control inherent
Dynamic and Post-contingency SVC Compact design
Voltage Control STATCOM
Improvement of Steady-state Load PST Easily expandable rating
Sharing IPC Very low losses
SC
Post-contingency Load Sharing PST Faster
TCSC
Transient Stability Improvement SC Inherently self-regulating
SVC Compact design
STATCOM
Issue Device Device
Power Oscillation Damping SVC Location critical
TCSC Insensitive to location and load type

Power Quality Improvement SVC Voltage fluctuation mitigation

STATCOM Flicker mitigation
DVR Voltage sag mitigation
Terminology:
MSC Mechanically-switched Capacitor*
SVC Static Var Compensator
SC Series Capacitor*
STATCOM Static Compensator
PST Phase-shifting Transformer
IPC Interphase Power Controller
TCSC Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
* Not strictly FACTS devices, but closely related to its application

Figure 7-1.2: Applications of FACTS Technologies

4.3.7 Transmission Upgrades

If existing transmission facilities are to be used in the interconnection but are not adequate to transmit the expected
volume of power, they can be upgraded either by adding additional lines in parallel or increasing the transmission
voltage. If these options are not available, FACTS or HVDC solutions can be explored.

4.4. Systems Issues

Key technical systems issues that must be addressed in planning and implementing a grid interconnection include
frequency regulation, coordination of operations, interconnections of power systems with weak grids, and aspects of
interconnection that are associated with electricity market liberalization.

4.4.1 Frequency Regulation

Controlling frequency in a synchronous network is ultimately an issue of precisely matching generation to load. This
load-matching occurs on several time scales. System planners and operators plan generation from hours to months in
advance, coordinating the dispatch of generating units and power exchanges with other systems based on factors such
as historical load patterns, weather predictions, maintenance schedules, and unplanned outages. At the scale of
minutes to seconds, frequency is maintained by Automatic Generator Control (AGC), which precisely controls the real
and reactive power output of certain generators that are able to respond rapidly to changes in load. Hydroelectric and
gas turbine units are generally used for regulation and load following; nuclear plants and large coal-fired plants can be
damaged by rapid changes of output and are not used in this function.

At the instantaneous time scale, frequency synchronization is a self-regulating phenomenon. When loads suddenly
increase, generators slow down slightly, giving up some of their mechanical energy of rotation to supply the additional
electrical energy required; when loads suddenly decrease, generators speed up. Through feedback among the different
generators in the system, synchronism is maintained, at a frequency slightly higher or lower than nominal. When the
control center computers sense these frequency movements, AGCs are notified to increase or decrease generator
output to the amount necessary to balance load and return frequency to nominal levels. System operators also have a
variety of off-line reserves or “ancillary services” available upon need to assist in frequency regulation and other
aspects of reliable system operation. The theory of parallel operation of generators in large networks, once a daunting
engineering problem, was established in the 1930s. Modern networks seldom deviate from nominal frequency by more
than 0.1 Hz, and generally operate within 0.01 Hz of nominal. In an interconnected system, except where DC links are
used, frequency synchronization must be accomplished through the means above, jointly administered across the
interconnected systems.

4.4.2 Coordinating Operations

The basic geographical unit of a power system is the control area, which typically has a single control center
responsible for monitoring system conditions and scheduling the dispatch of all generation. In interconnected systems,
transmission lines to neighbouring control areas are metered and the incoming and outgoing power flows are
scheduled and continuously monitored. A continuous record of the balance of load, generation, and exchanges with
other control areas called the Area Control Error (ACE) is used to plan real-time corrections to maintain load-generation
balance.

Interconnections create a number of coordination challenges, both institutional and technical. For example, reliability
standards and constraints may differ, and there may be differences in regulation and control schemes and
technologies. It is important for the operators and planners of interconnected systems to be aware of the conditions and
practices in their neighbouring control areas. Good communication between different system operators is important for
agreeing on and coordinating interchange schedules, transmission loading, maintenance schedules, procedures for
fault clearing, and emergency protocols.

As interconnected systems expand to encompass large geographical scales, technology is striving to keep up with the
associated complexities and risks. Some important trends in grid technologies related to the problems of maintaining
reliability in large AC systems include:-

4.4.2.1 Faster physical control over the system, for example FACTS technologies with solid state controls that allow
rapid adjustment of reactive power flows.

4.4.2.2 Improved real-time monitoring ability, for example the development of wide area monitoring systems (WAMS).

4.4.2.3 Faster analytical capability to complement improved monitoring.

4.4.2.4 Improved communications.

4.4.3 Interconnection of Power Systems with Weak Grids

Not all interconnections take place between power systems in top technical condition. In the developing world, many
power systems bear the marks of age, poor repair, and insufficient investment, ranging from corroded conductors and
deteriorating insulation to leaking transformers, worn out switchgear, and a variety of inoperable equipment. Equipment
is often obsolete, and operations that are automated elsewhere may be carried out manually. Systems in poor repair
generally perform poorly, have serious reliability problems, and often fail to comply with safety or environmental
standards. As one scholar described the difficulties of interconnection among sparse, poorly maintained systems:

“The vastness of the area and the low power consumption density in most African countries makes the operation of
the interconnection difficult from an operational point. Many of the loads are connected to spurs off a grid that has a
low level of interconnectivity. In addition, most of the networks have suffered from a lack of maintenance due to a
shortage of funds. This has dramatically reduced the reliability of the system and outages frequently occur in many
places. The combination of these factors has forced industries to provide their own generating facilities in the form
of diesel power. These plants then operate in island mode and will often also provide power to towns and villages in
the immediate vicinity of the plant. Some utilities are discouraging this practice, but need to convince these clients
to connect to a grid that may not be that reliable in the first place, particularly in areas connected to spurs.”

Interconnection can improve such systems, by providing emergency reserves and more reliable supplies. However,
careful planning must ensure that the interconnection doesn’t lead to additional stresses elsewhere in the
interconnected system.

Countries with weak or isolated grids are usually poor candidates for siting nuclear power plants (NPP). NPPs have
much more stringent requirements regarding grid stability than do fossil fuel thermal plants, for two reasons. First, the
auxiliary systems in a NPP are much more sensitive to power conditions than such systems at other plants because of

the potential consequences – namely, that a major failure could lead to a nuclear accident. Second, NPPs have large
amounts of decay heat to remove long after the chain reaction is shut down, and require power to operate cooling
water pumps during this extended period. With weak grids, large variations in voltage and frequency will trip a NPP off-
line; worse, the sudden loss of a large power plant start a cascading failure that collapses the grid altogether. With
interconnection to other grids, however, siting a NPP in a country with a weak or isolated grid becomes a plausible
option. The interconnection can help to stabilize the weak grid, and it can also provide access to an independent back-
up grid connection, which is a safety requirement for NPPs.

4.4.4 Interconnections and Electricity Market Liberalization

Electricity market liberalization presents a combination of opportunities, challenges, and risks for interconnection
projects. From the economic standpoint, the opportunity of greater access to lower-cost supplies is balanced against
the challenge of operating competitive markets and the risk of market breakdowns of the type that occurred in
California in 2000-2001. From the technical standpoint, the focus is on the impact of liberalization on reliability. Some of
the main concerns that have been raised include:-

• Increased or excessive utilization of transmission capacity, reducing reliability margins such as what is prevalent in
South Africa.

• Reduced information exchange among system operators due to proprietary concerns in a competitive environment

• Reduced investment in reliability as companies cut costs due to competitive pressures, a concern for transmission
especially as generation and distribution are liberalized

• Increased complexity in planning and operations as the number of players and transactions increases, and dispatch is
based on changing market prices

• The intentional creation of congestion, or the appearance of congestion, on transmission lines to drive up prices, as
done by Enron and others during the California crisis

• Transaction costs associated with replacing experienced organizations and procedures with new ones as ISOs and
TRANSCOs replace integrated utility control areas

Requirements for successful interconnection operation in a liberalized, more market-driven electricity sector
environment include:-

• Make knowledge of all transactions available to system operators

• Improve cooperation between network managers of different countries

• Improve incentives for investing in infrastructure

• Clearly define the rights and obligations of all parties

• Monitor behaviour and rigorously enforce rules

5. TECHNICAL ISSUES RELATED TO DC INTERCONNECTIONS

5.1. Why Use HVDC

The first electrical transmission systems built in the 1880s were DC. However, because DC could not be readily
transformed to higher voltages for long distance transmission, AC systems quickly became the standard. It was many
years before technological development again made DC competitive for some applications. The first commercial use of
modern HVDC transmission was in Sweden in 1954. It has been since the 1980s, however, when high-voltage solid
state converters were developed to replace mercury arc converters that the use of HVDC transmission in
interconnection projects has taken off. While still expensive, costs of converter stations have been steadily falling, and
HVDC must be considered as an option for many interconnection projects.

HVDC is used in interconnection projects in three principal applications:

5.1.1 Transmitting Large Amounts of Power over Very Long Distances

Unlike long-distance AC transmission, HVDC transmission over long distances has no inherent stability limit. Also,
even within AC stability limits (which can be extended through the use of FACTS or other reactive compensation),
HVDC can overtake AC on cost grounds alone. This is because HVDC carries more power for a given conductor size,
and only requires two conductors while AC transmission requires three. Thus even though converter stations are very
expensive, the cost per kilometre of DC transmission lines is lower. Generally, for distances above about 600 km,
HVDC transmission is less expensive to build and operate than AC. The relationship between costs of AC and DC
transmission lines versus the distance that power must be transmitted is illustrated in Figure 2-3. The dashed lines in
this figure illustrate only terminal (converter station for DC, substation for AC) and line costs; the solid lines show that
HVDC economics are improved when consideration of the relative line losses of the two technologies are included.

Total AC Cost Total DC Cost

Losses

DC Line Cost
Cost

AC Line
DC Terminal Cost

AC Terminal Cost

Distance

Figure 7-1.3: The Effect of Transmission Distance On AC and DC Transmission Line Costs

Figure 7-1-4 shows the comparison of AC and DC cost curves for an illustrative case. (Note: this figure is for illustrative
purposes only.) In this example, for a 2000 MW line, AC is less expensive below 700 kilometres, and DC is less
expensive above 700 km.

Figure 7-1.4: AC and DC Line Costs for 2000 MW Transmission Line

5.1.2 Transmitting Power Underwater.

HVDC is preferred for undersea transmission. Undersea cables have a coaxial structure in order to minimize space
requirements, but coaxial cables have a high capacitance. This presents a high reactive impedance to AC
transmission, but DC is unaffected by capacitance, and can therefore be used for high capacity, long-distance
undersea cables.

5.1.3 Asynchronous Interconnections.

HVDC is a viable alternative when synchronous AC connections are difficult or impossible due to the use of different
system frequencies in the systems to be interconnected or other important system differences. As one expert has
remarked, “the advent of DC connections has reduced the number of ‘islands’ that must consider themselves
electrically isolated.” DC ties between different AC systems deliver some of the benefits of interconnection while
avoiding many of the technical problems of synchronous operation. There are two general types of asynchronous
interconnection:

5.1.3.1 HVDC transmission over some distance, between two converter stations connected at either end to an AC
system.

5.1.3.2 HVDC “back-to-back” interconnection to AC systems on either side, without any intervening transmission. Back-
to-back connections have sometimes served as a stepping stone to a later full synchronous interconnection.

In addition to the three applications above, there are other reasons HVDC interconnections are used. A key one is that
HVDC carries more power for a given conductor size. Because of this, in situations where existing transmission
capacity is constrained, HVDC is an alternative to an AC transmission upgrade. Conversely, to provide a given
transmission capacity, HVDC lines, towers, and rights-of-way can be smaller than a comparable AC system, reducing
the line’s environmental footprint. Another major advantage is that the solid-state controls of HVDC systems offer
complete control over the direction of power flow, without unpredictable loop flows. The direction of flow can be
reversed, and operating voltages can be reduced if necessary. The track record of HVDC indicates high reliability and
availability, and the advantage that in a bipolar system one pole can operate if the other pole is not operational due to

maintenance or an outage. Also, HVDC does not increase fault currents in the network it is connected to, so new circuit
breakers are not required in the rest of the system. HVDC systems, however, are difficult to operate with more than
two, or at most three, terminal connections to AC transmission systems, so that HVDC systems are not an optimal
choice if power is to be supplied to several intermediate locations along a power line route.

5.2. Technical Considerations with HVDC systems

5.2.1 Components of an HVDC System

The main components of an HVDC system are the transmission line and the converter stations at either end of the
interconnection. The heart of the converter station is the converters themselves, which are composed of high-voltage
solid-state “valves” that perform the AC to DC and DC to AC conversions. The valves are air-insulated, water-cooled,
and controlled by optical signals from fibre optic devices (since the valves operate at extremely high voltage and any
physical connection to a grounded object, such a wire leading back to a control room, would immediately become a
short-circuit path). Converter stations also include transformers to convert to and from the AC transmission voltage to
which the DC link is attached. Finally, converter stations include filters on both the AC and DC sides.

Figure 7-1.5: Schematic of a HVDC Converter Station

Overhead HVDC transmission lines can usually be easily identified because they have two conductors per circuit,
rather than three as in the AC case. Normally these lines are bipolar, meaning that the two conductors have opposite
polarity (e.g., +/- 600 kV). DC conductors are made from the same materials as AC conductors. Cables used for
undersea transmission come in two varieties, solid and oil-filled.

5.2.2 Choice of Converter Technology

An important issue in HVDC systems is the choice of converter technology. (Note that AC to DC conversion is often
called rectification, and DC to AC conversion is often called inversion. However, the term conversion is applied to both
operations.) There are three types of converters:

5.2.2.1 Natural commutated converters are the most common variety. They use solid-state device called thyristors,
which are connected in series to form valves, which operate at the frequency of the AC grid, either 50 or 60
Hz.

5.2.2.2 Capacitor commutated converters, which have capacitors inserted in series between the valves and
transformers. They improve the performance of converters connected to weak networks.

5.2.2.3 Forced commutation converters, which use rapidly switchable solid-state devices. One variety is the voltage
source converter (VSC), composed of high-voltage transistors called IGBTs. The VSC performs conversion at
very high frequencies, using a method called pulse-width modulation. This gives the VSC a very high degree
of control over the incoming and outgoing waveform, allowing it to change power angles, control both real and
reactive power, and maintain high power quality.

Long Long Distance Interconnections Windmill Feed of

Distance Transmission of Connection to Small
Transmission Over Sea Asynchronous Network Isolated
Over Land Networks Loads
Natural Commutated
X X
HVDC with OH Lines
Natural Commutated
X X
HVDC with Sea Cables
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) in X
Back-to-Back
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) with X X
OH Lines
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) with X X
Sea Cables
VSC Converters in
X X
Back-to-Back
VSC Converters with
X X X X X
Land and Sea Cables

Figure 7-1.6 Shows the Suitability of the Different Converter Technologies for Various Applications

5.2.3 Proximity to Parallel AC Lines

Parallel operation of high-voltage AC and DC lines in close proximity can create control problems. This must be
considered in any siting decisions.

5.2.4 Reactive Power Consumption

Natural commutated converters consume a substantial amount of reactive power in the conversion process, and may
require reactive power compensation on the AC side. VSCs by their nature do not consume reactive power.

5.2.5 Harmonics

The process for converting AC to DC power, and vice versa, involves rapid switching, which generates various
harmonics that can reduce AC power quality and interfere with telecommunications facilities. AC filters are needed
especially to eliminate harmonics of order 11, 13, 23, and 25; the amount of filtering necessary depends on the kind of
converter technology employed.

5.2.6 Operation and Maintenance

Because of the high voltage environment associated with them, HVDC systems are designed for remote operation. A
relatively few people can operate HVDC links from a central location. The maintenance requirements for HVDC
transmission lines are comparable to those for high voltage AC lines. Turnkey systems, where a supplier builds an
HVDC system, then turns it over to a line operator, are common, and the supplier should provide the necessary training
and support to utility personnel. One week of maintenance per year is the typical anticipated outage time for HVDC
systems.

5.3. HVDC Projects Worldwide

The highest capacity HVDC interconnection in the world at present is a bipolar +/- 600 kV line transmitting 6300 MW of
power from the Itaipu dam on the Brazilian-Paraguayan border into Brazil over a distance of 800 km. HVDC was
selected at the technology for this transmission project for two reasons:-

5.3.1 the great distance between the dam and demand centres, and

5.3.2 because the dam generates power at 50 Hz, while Brazil has a 60 Hz power system. The longest HVDC link
currently operating is the 975 km line carrying power from China’s Three Gorges Dam. China also has the
HVDC link with the highest power per pole, at 1650 MW. Figure 7-1.7 on the next following page shows the
location of major HVDC projects worldwide.

Figure 7-1.7: HVDC projects worldwide. Lighter boxes are 50 Hz power systems, darker boxes are 60 Hz power
systems31

6. PLANNING AND MODELLING OF INTERCONNECTION TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

6.1. Planning Steps

There are typically a number of distinct stages in the technical design of an interconnection project (although some of
these stages may be combined or their order changed). These stages include:

6.1.1 Preliminary electricity supply and demand estimates, usually based on resource planning and regional
market pricing simulations. Project owners make quantitative estimates of time-dependent electricity supply and
demand and potential magnitudes of power exchanges between the systems to be interconnected.

6.1.2 Technical specification. Project owners provide potential designers/ contractors with general specifications,
including the amount and direction of power to be transmitted, temporary overload levels, voltage levels,
distance and terrain, and environmental requirements. Details on the technical status and operations of the
different systems must also be provided.

6.1.3 Conceptual design. Potential project designers/contractors provide project owners with a conceptual design for
the interconnection, including the preliminary determination of AC or DC interconnection, overhead lines or
cable, conductors, support structures, transformers, reactive compensation, substation location and design. For
DC systems, conceptual design will also include commutation method and filtering.

6.1.4 Tendering. Potential designers/contractors tender offers to design and/or build the interconnection infrastructure
to project owners, followed by review, negotiation, and approval

6.1.5 Final design. After approval of design/selection of contractors, the project design is finalized. Often, tendering
and final design are an interactive process between designer/contractors and the project owners, sometimes
also involving other interested parties.

6.2. Modelling Requirements for Transmission Interconnections

During the project planning process, the design of the technical and operating parameters of an interconnection
requires extensive computer modelling to ensure that the interconnection and the systems it connects provide reliable
and economical service. The types of modelling required include the following:

6.2.1 Power Flow Modelling

The most important single class of tools in power system engineering is that of power flow models, also called load
flow models. These models are used to compute voltage magnitudes, phase angles, and flows of real and reactive
power through all branches of a synchronous network under steady-state conditions. Power flow models account for
loop flows, and make it possible to understand how much power will actually flow on transmission lines under a given
set of circumstances. Modellers vary the initial conditions – for instance, adding a proposed new generator to the
network – and determine the impact on power flows throughout the system.

A standard reliability requirement is that utilities meet the “N-1” criterion, meaning that the system is able to continue
to supply all loads despite the loss of a large generator or the outage of large transmission line. These
“contingencies” are modelled with a power flow model, and if the model results indicate a problem, planners and
operators must address it, typically by adding new generation and/or transmission capacity, or by changing operational
procedures.

To run power flow models requires that each busbar and line in the system be thoroughly described, requiring a great
deal of input data. The real and reactive power consumption at each load bus, the impedance of each line and
transformer, and the generating capacity of all generators must be known.

Power flow models are used by the utilities to calculate a power transfer distribution factor (PTDF) for individual power
transfers. The PTDF shows the incremental impact of a power transfer from a seller to a buyer on all transmission
lines, as a percentage of their transfer capacity. If a line is overloaded, transactions that have PTDF values greater
than 5 percent on the overloaded line can be curtailed.

6.2.2 Optimal Power Flow (OPF) Modelling

Optimal power flow models take the outputs of power flow models and analyze them according to user-defined
objective functions, such as least cost or minimization of transmission loading. Where the ordinary power flow model
provides only engineering information – voltage, power, and phase angle, for example – OPF models assist operators
in ranking alternatives according to economic and other criteria.

6.2.3 Short Circuit (Fault Level) Modelling

Short-circuit models are used to compute fault currents for various kinds of short circuits (phase-to-phase and phase-
to-earth). The results of short-circuit models are used to determine the required specifications for protection equipment
such as circuit breakers and relays, and to determine the proper settings for relays to clear faults.

6.2.4 Dynamic Stability Modelling

Dynamic stability models are used to determine whether the synchronous machines in a power system – namely the
generators and motors - will remain in synchronism in the case of a disturbance, for example the loss of a generator or
transmission line, a fault, or a sudden increase in demand. The models work by calculating the angular swings of
synchronous machines during a disturbance, and determining whether they will remain within an envelope of stable
operation.

6.2.5 Transient Modelling

Transient models are used to compute the magnitude of transient voltages and current spikes due to sources such as
lightning and circuit switching. The model results are used to specify the insulation (BIL) requirements for lines and
transformers, to determine grounding schemes, and to determine surge arrester specifications.

6.3. Data Requirements for Planning

Exchange of data between the owners/operators of the systems to be interconnected regarding the technical
characteristics and requirements of their respective systems is essential from the outset of an interconnection project.
The need for transparency and for the development of mutual understanding cannot be overemphasized. An example
of the kinds of technical data that are typically exchanged in an interconnection project can be seen in Table 7-1.1.

Table 7-1.1: Sample of Technical Data Requirements for Interconnection

Overhead Transmission Line Nominal Voltage (kV)

Length (km)
Route Map (including transposition locations)
Plan and profile drawings
Electric single line diagram showing transmission line and any other associated
devices required for switching, reactive compensation, protection and control and
communication and the interface to the generator or end-user
Nominal power transfer rating
Conductor type and size
Overhead earth-wire type and size
Configuration of conductors and overhead earth-wires on tower )including diagram
showing phase spacing and clearances to earth)
Positive sequence R1, X1,B1 (ohms/km)
Zero sequence R0, X0 (ohms/km)
Description of protection provided
Description of communication systems

Table 7-1.1: Sample of Technical Data Requirements for Interconnection (Continued)

Reactive Compensation Devices Connection location
(if applicable) Type, make, model
Configuration
Rated voltage (kV)
Size (MVAr)
Switching device: Type, make, model, interrupting capacity, continuous current
rating, tripping and closing times and any switching restrictions
Criteria for automatic switching
Description of protection provided
Intermediate or Terminal Electrical single line diagram
substation Circuit breakers, model, type, interrupting capacity, continuous current ratings,
tripping and closing times
Description of all protection
Transformer Type, make, model
MVA rating - Normal
MVA rating - Emergency

Voltage rating of each winding

Connection configuration of each winding
Saturation characteristics
Tap-changer nominal tap, tap step size and tap range
Positive sequence impedance on own base (pu) at nominal tap for each winding
Zero sequence impedance on own base (pu) at nominal tap for each winding
Circuit breakers: type, make, model, interrupting capacity, continuous current
rating, tripping and closing times
Surge arresters: type, model and rating
Description of protection and control provided including block diagrams and
schematic diagrams
List of protection and control settings
Description of interface provided for remote control and monitoring
Description of facilities for metering
Description of communication systems provided

The data given above forms the basis on which the design of a substation or HV yard is performed.

6.4 Software Tools

Table 7-1.2 lists several examples of common software packages used for modelling power flow, optimal power flow
(OPF), dynamic stability, available transfer capacity (ATC), and fault analysis. The table also includes examples of
software used for integrated economic and resource planning, and SCADA software. Please note that this table by no
means presents an exhaustive list of the software available to address these needs, nor do UN-DESA or the authors
make any claims or recommendations regarding these software tools—the table presents examples for reference only.

Table 7-1.2: Power System Simulation Software

Company Software Function

PowerWorld Corporation PowerWorld Simulator Power flow, OFP, transfer capacity
General Electric PSLF Power flow, dynamic simulation, fault analysis
Siemens PSS/E Power flow, OPF, dynamic simulation, fault analysis,
transfer capacity, pricing
ABB SIMPOW Power flow, dynamic simulation, fault analysis
General Electric MARS Interconnected system reliability
ABB Network Manager SCADA software
General Electric XA/21 SCADA software
LCG Consulting UPLAN Integrated planning, market price simulation
Global Energy Decisions ProSym Integrated planning, market price simulation
OLADE and IADB SUPER Generation and interconnection planning
ICF Consulting IPM Integrated planning, market price simulation
Operation Technology, Inc ETAP Integrated analysis tool for design, maintenance, and
operation of electric power systems; includes modules
for HVDC and many other functions

• An example of a software tool for Power Flow modelling with graphic interface features: the PSS/E Simulator Figure
7-1.8 shows a “screen shot” of a PSS/E simulation of a small part of the South African and Zimbabwean network with
busbars containing both load and generation. The display can indicate the percentage of transmission capacity of each
transmission link that is in use under the given scenario. The visual interface helps operators and planning understand
the impact of adding or removing generators and transmission lines, or of large changes in real or reactive power
consumption by loads.

Fig. 7-1.8: Power-World Display of Transmission Loading on Small 9-Bus System

Figure 7-1.9 shows another graphic picture of the Southern African Interconnected Power Grid. This figure shows the
Power Transfer Distribution for a proposed power transfer in the northern part of the proposed grid. It illustrates the
importance of parallel path flows in loading transmission lines far from the nominal sender and receiver.

Figure 7-1.9: Southern African Grid

7. SUMMARY OF TECHNICAL ISSUES IN GRID INTERCONNECTION

Several basic technical issues must be addressed early in the planning process for a grid interconnection. Will the
interconnected systems operate synchronously or asynchronously? What are the magnitudes and directions of the
anticipated power flows? What physical distance and terrain will the interconnection span? What are the key technical
and operating differences among the systems to be interconnected?

For AC interconnections, key design and operating issues relate to the constraints on transmission capacity, which
include thermal limits, stability limits, and voltage regulation. Where there are liberalized electricity markets, these
constraints become more severe as systems are operated closer to capacity. FACTS and HVDC options should be
considered as alternatives or complements to traditional transmission upgrades. Simulation software is an essential
tool for planning and operating an interconnection. For modelling to be effective, however, extensive technical data
must first be gathered and shared between systems, and personnel must be trained. Grid interconnections require a
careful calculation of costs, benefits, and risks. Technical planning of a grid interconnection should be coordinated with
economic, organizational, legal, and political aspects of a potential interconnection project from the outset of project
consideration.

8. RESOURCES FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS

8.1 J. Glover and M. Sarma (2002), Power System Analysis and Design, 3rd edition. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.

8.2 W. Stevenson (1982), Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th edition.

8.3 A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans (2003), Electric Machinery, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

8.4 J. Casazza and G. Loehr (1999), The Evolution of Electric Power Transmission Under Deregulation. IEEE,
Piscataway, NJ.

8.5 North American Reliability Council (1995), Transmission Transfer Capability: A Reference Document for Calculating
and Reporting the Electric Power Transfer Capability of Interconnected Systems.

8.6 T. Hughes (1983), Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, MD.

8.7 R. Rudervall, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Systems
Technology Review Paper”. Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf.

8.8 R. Grunbaum, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “Improving the efficiency and quality of AC transmission systems”.
Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/efficiency_abb.pdf.

8.9 T. Overbye (2004), “Power System Simulation: Understanding Small- and Large-System Operations”. IEEE Power
and Energy, Jan/Feb 2004

8.10 E. Ewald and D. Angland (2004), “Regional Integration of Electric Power Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, April 1964.

8.11 H. Happ (1973), “Power Pools and Superpools”. IEEE Spectrum, March 1973

8.12 K. Hicks (1967), “Disaster Control Coordination for Large Interconnected Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, November
1967.

8.13 R. Rincliffe (1967), “Planning and Operation of a Large Power Pool”. IEEE Spectrum, January 1967.

8.14 E. Lerner (2003), “What’s Wrong with the Electric Grid?”. The Industrial Physicist, October/November 2003.

8.15 A. Edris (2003), “FACTS Technology Development: An Update”. IEEE Power Engineering Review, March 2000.

8.16 General Electric Company and Electric Power Research Institute (1982), Transmission Line Reference Book –
345kV and Above, 2nd edition. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA.

8.17 J. Blackburn (1998), Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.

S.L.D.G. 7 - 2

GENERAL SYSTEM PLANNING DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DESIGN OF A SUBSTATION

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission network has two main constituent elements:-

a) Circuits that enable power transmission.

b) Substations that enable the interconnection of these circuits and the transformation between networks of different
voltages.

1.1 Functions of the Network

The transmission network performs three different functions:-

a) The transmission of electric power from generating stations (or other networks) to load centres.

b) The interconnection function that improves security of supply and allows a reduction in generation costs.

c) The supply function which consists of supplying the electric power to sub-transmission or distribution transformers
and in some cases to customers directly connected to the transmission network.

1.2 Functions of the Substation

These three functions of the transmission network are fulfilled through different types of substations listed below:-

a) Substations attached to Power Stations (Power Station High Voltage Yards)

b) Interconnection substations

c) Step-down (EHV / HV, EHV / MV, HV / MV) substations

A single substation may perform more than one of these functions.

1.3 Structure of a Substation.

Substations generally comprise the following:-

a) Switchgear.

b) Power Transformers.

c) Control Gear

1.4 System Requirements

Some of these parameters are common for all the substations that perform the same functions whereas others are
specific to each substation.

Standardised parameters are established jointly by system planners and transmission departments by means of
system studies, and economic considerations. Particular economic benefits are derived from specifying the technical
stages to allow the use of standardised HV equipment with identical characteristics (such as short-circuit (fault) current
level, maximum current carrying capacity of HV equipment, characteristics of transformers, insulation level (BIL) and
compensating devices).

The location of a substation at a particular site will give rise to system requirements peculiar to this station:-

a) General location requirements

b) Extent of the substation

c) Required availability of circuits

d) Main connections scheme

e) Current rating

f) Fault current level

g) Neutral point earthing

h) Fault elimination rapidity with respect to system stability

i) Future extensions

j) Control and needs of personnel

k) Equipment characteristics

2. PARAMETERS DETERMINED BY THE NETWORK

System planners seek to optimise the parameters that apply to the complete transmission system. They proceed to
network studies that involve mainly, insulation co-ordination, transient stability, short-circuit level and load flow.

2.1 Main Equipment Parameters

a) The maximum short circuit current rating of the substations’ equipment (Busbars, Isolators, Circuit Breakers,
Current Transformers), including its supporting structures.

b) The maximum load current passing through the components of a substation (which is related to the maximum
current carrying capacity of the lines and underground cables).

c) The transformer numbers, sizes and impedances as well as the mode of voltage control required, i.e. operating
mode of tap changing, regulation range, its phase shifting characteristics and number of taps.

2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System Stability

Transient stability characterises the dynamic behaviour of a generator in the case of large oscillations following a
major disturbance

In order to comply with the requirements of the Network (system stability), or the specifications of particular utilities,
specified fault clearance times must not be exceeded.

Fault clearing time limits and the re-closing conditions, may influence the choice of circuit breaker and other
switchgear, and also the dimensioning of the earthing grid and the mechanical strength of the equipment.

3. PLANNING OF A SUBSTATION

The starting point for a substation design procedure is as follows:-

a) The need for a new substation is approved.

b) The range of its duties, loadings and general location are known.

3.1 General Location

For the location of a new substation in the network several alternatives usually exist, the total costs of which should be
calculated. The following should be included:-

a) The losses in power transmission and transformation.

b) The costs of telecontrol and communications.

c) Preliminary study of reliability and busbar schemes.

d) Fault current and load flow calculations.

The building cost of new transmission lines and the reinforcement of old ones are often of the same order as that of
the substation and often much greater. Thus, it is worth examining various alternatives with system planners.

Nowadays it is not easy to get new line corridors, and their availability alone may determine the location of the
substation. Along with the automation of substations the costs of tele-control and telecommunications grow, but they
do not have a decisive effect from the point of view of location.

3.2 Extent of the Substation

It is very important to reserve sufficient space for the future and sophisticated network planning is needed to estimate
the necessary reserve space. If no better prognosis exists, 100 % reserve of outgoing feeders may be used as an
estimate. The space required depends essentially on the function of the substation.

It is important to define the number and the size of the main transformers at the final stage. The initial peak load of a
power transformer is dependent upon a number of factors such as the network configuration, standby-philosophy and
rate of load growth. An initial estimate would be in the range of 30 - 70 %.

In the case of GIS switchgear it is usual to reserve space for a number of spare bays and also to make allowance for
the future extension of the control building.

The outgoing line corridors should be planned so that there are a minimum number of crossings between different
overhead lines.

3.3 Busbar Scheme (See also SLDG 8)

3.3.1 Operational Flexibility (See also SLDG 8-1)

In order to take into account both production and consumer risks and contingent faults in system components the
circuits between two substations are often doubled, so that power transfer is shared, for instance between two
separate overhead line circuits. In some instances this is also necessary to limit the power due to a fault. These
requirements lead to the installation of a proportionally greater number of busbars and sections in the substation when
the number of outgoing feeders is large.

3.3.2 System Security (See also SLDG 8-1)

Careful selection of the electrical schematic arrangement - primary connections and protection scheme - and the
detailed construction layout should enable these criteria to be optimized.

3.3.3 Reliability and Availability (See also SLDG 8-2)

based on an older generation of apparatus and the likelihood of a severe outage occurring during the life-time of the
substation is quite small.

Not only the primary equipment but also the secondary equipment, e.g. the location and number of instrument
transformers and the arrangement of the secondary circuits can have a great influence on the over-all reliability
performance. For the looped substation schemes in particular, special attention has to be paid to the secondary wiring
and cabling.

3.3.4 Substation Control

The proposed scheme and layout must allow simple and efficient performance of the usual operational steps, changes
of section and planned outage for maintenance or extension.

3.4 Fault Current Levels

Fault current dimensioning depends on the neighbouring network and the size and short-circuit impedance of the main
transformers. System planning usually defines the following fault current ratings for a new substation:-

a) Maximum three-phase effective short-circuit current for the lines and the substation for the foreseeable future.

b) Duration of the effective short-circuit current.

c) Peak short-circuit current.

d) Maximum earth fault current and corresponding time.

e) Maximum current through the neutral point of the main transformer.

f) Minimum short-circuit (fault) current (for protection).

g) Minimum earth fault current (for protection).

3.5 Neutral Point Earthing

The transmission networks may be:-

a) Effectively earthed (earthing factor 1,4).

b) Non-effectively earthed (earthing factor e.g. 1,7). e.g. resistance earthed or resonant earthed.

c) Isolated.

In the first case earth current may be 60 to 120 % of the short-circuit current. If the conductivity of the soil is poor (for
example on the average 2 000 ohm-m), special attention has to be paid to the magnitude of station potential during an
earth fault. In this case it is possible to limit the earth-fault current and dimension the insulation level of the three-
phase transformer neutral point correspondingly. Alternatively the potential rise of the earthing grid may be limited by
ensuring that the earth wires of outgoing overhead lines have cross sectional areas equivalent to those of the phase
cables.

3.6 Future Extensions

Extension work such as building of new bays, dismantling and reconstruction of bays, extension of the set of busbars
may rather difficult and expensive, if there has been no previous planning for them.

3.7 Control In General

a) Manually operated isolators.

b) Motor operated isolators.

c) Presence of earthing switches.

d) Control via local control board.

e) Control via local computer terminal.

f) Degree of substation automation, sequence control.

g) Remote control from the National or Regional control centre.

h) Regulations.

i) Station manned / unmanned.

The need for telecontrol and telecommunication links depends on the needs of the automation, remote control, data
transmission and operation of the network. A substation is often also a nodal point of a data transmission network.

Probable future development: Remote control substations automation is increasing; substations are designed as
unmanned; maintenance is managed by the resources concentrated in control centres. Whether the substation is
manned or unmanned may depend on the importance of the station in the grid.

In accordance with system planning requirements, load shedding, network sectioning, voltage regulation and load
distribution regulation devices may be placed on the substation.

3.8 Protection in General

The substation has to be constructed so that all possible faults can be eliminated:-

a) Selectively.

b) So that the fault current rating of the lines and equipment is not exceeded.

c) So that no danger is caused to personnel and the requirements of safety codes are fulfilled.

d) Within such a time that stability of the network is maintained.

e) In such a way that load and production are held in balance.

For every protection item back-up protection is usually provided and important main protection is duplicated.

Protection systems can be divided into the following groups according to the protected item (See also SLDG 6-1):-

a) Line protection.

b) Transformer protection.

c) Busbar protection (bus zone protection).

d) Breaker failure protection.

e) Compensating equipment protection.

OR according to the type of the protection:-

a) Short-circuit protection.

b) Earth-fault protection.

c) Sub-harmonic protection

d) Overload protection

e) Over-voltage protection.

f) Anti-failure automation (load shedding, auto-re-closing, network sectionalisation and splitting of the network.

SLDG 8-1

IMPACT OF BUSBAR LAYOUTS ON CONTINGENCIES

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission system is susceptible to facilities being removed from service for circumstances such as equipment
failure, weather-related damages, and accidents. Adequacy planning therefore entails identifying the reinforcements
required to allow the transmission system to operate under system normal conditions and most single contingency (N-
1) scenarios for the majority of substations. For a few strategically located interconnecting substations that may be
regarded as critical nodes in the network, as well as all power stations connected to the grid, double contingency (N-2
or (N-1) -1) scenario planning is more appropriate.

From the “time” perspective one can distinguish four dimensions of reliability of electricity supply:

1.1 System Security

Security is the readiness of existing and functioning generation and network capacity to respond in real time when they
are needed to meet the actual demand. This is a short-term issue. Caring for system security is the main function of the
System Operator, who sets at every moment the most adequate reserve margins for generation and network.

1.2 System Firmness

Firmness is the provision of the generation and network availability that partly results from operation planning activities
of the already installed capacity. This is a short to mid-term issue. Firmness depends on the short and medium term
management of generator and network maintenance, fuel supply contracts, reservoir management, start-up schedules,
etc. A flawed management of firmness may result in poor system security, even if there is abundant installed capacity
of generation and network.

1.3 System Adequacy

Adequacy means the existence of enough available capacity of generation and network, both installed and/or expected
to be installed, to meet demand. This is a long-term issue.

1.4 Strategic Energy Policy

Strategic Energy Policy is concerned the long-term availability of energy resources and infrastructures: long-term
diversification of the fuel provision and the technology mix of generation, geopolitical considerations, future price
evolution of fuels, potential environmental constraints, expected development of interconnections, etc. This is a long to
very long term issue.

2. STATE OF THE SYSTEM

2.1 System Normal

System normal refers to the state of the transmission system under which all existing transmission network elements
are available for service. Under system normal conditions, the transmission system must be designed to ensure:

2.1.1 Adequate voltage is provided to all customers, as defined within the Grid Code and any subsequent revisions.

2.1.2 All transmission lines operating between 220 kV and 800 kV do not exceed their respective seasonal normal
ratings.

2.1.3 All transmission system transformers (6,6 kV and above on the low side) are within their respective zero percent
loss of life, twenty-four hour continuous ratings.

An extended outage of a single generating unit or a single Bulk Power transformer (132 kV and above on the low side)
is also considered to be a system normal state.

2.2 Single Contingency

Single contingency refers to the state of the transmission system when one element is removed from service from the
system normal state. A transmission element can consist of a transmission line, a transformer, a generator, a double
circuit transmission tower, a busbar, a capacitor bank, or a static VAR compensator. A double circuit transmission
tower outage should be considered as a single contingency if multiple circuit towers are used for more than station
entrance and/or exit purposes and exceed more than five towers in length. Multiple contingency outages that could
result in the widespread loss of load such as the loss of a busbar may also be considered for the primary purpose of
identifying their impact on the transmission system.

Under single contingency conditions, the transmission system must be designed to ensure:

2.2.1 Adequate voltage is provided to all customers, as defined in the Grid Code

2.2.2 All transmission lines operating between 220 kV and 800 kV do not exceed their respective seasonal Long Term
Emergency (LTE) or Short Term Emergency (STE) ratings.

2.2.3 Transmission system transformers (6,6 kV and above on the low side) must not exceed their respective seasonal
LTE or STE ratings.

It should be noted that all LTE ratings are based on a duration of 4 hours and STE ratings are based on a duration of
15 minutes. Generally, the LTE rating will be used as the limiting rating to identify thermally limited facilities.

When the contingency is in addition to a generating unit or Bulk Power transformer being out of service, potential
solutions could include voltage reduction, load transfers, interruptible load curtailment, public appeals such as what is
currently done on television, voluntary load curtailment, and/or load shedding.

2.3 Double Contingency

Eskom Transmission is legally required to plan, operate, and maintain its transmission system in accordance with its
Transmission Licence issued by the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA). One of the conditions of the
Licence is compliance with the South African Grid Code (Grid Code), the regulatory document published by NERSA.
The System Operation Code section of the Grid Code governs the operation of the system. The Network Code section
of the Grid Code governs connections of customers to the transmission system, the planning and development of the
transmission system, technical limits to be adhered to, and the criteria to which all capital investments made by
transmission licensees must conform.

The system is operated as prescribed in clause 2.1.2.(1) of the System Operation Code which states “The System
Operator shall operate the IPS as far as practical so that instability, uncontrolled separation or cascading
outages do not occur as a result of the most severe double contingency. Multiple outages of a credible nature
shall be examined and, whenever practical, the System Operator shall operate the IPS to protect it against
instability, uncontrolled separation and cascading outages.”.

Traditionally contingency analysis is only performed for single contingency (N-1) outage. However, after several major
blackouts in industrial countries, a conservative approach of taking N-2 outages into contingency analysis has been
adopted by many utilities. The number of combinations of N-2 outages increases dramatically as the number of circuits
considered increases.

2.4 Multiple Contingency

Multiple contingencies occur when two or more transmission lines, or transformers, or generators, or a combination of
these are put out of service at the same time. In analysis of these types of contingencies, distribution factors are used.
The first contingency distribution factors can be combined in a manner that allows the calculation of double
contingencies.

3. VOLTAGE STABILITY

In any electricity transmission system, a stable condition must be assured, but power systems are currently more
complex and heavily loaded, which means that voltage collapse is becoming an increasingly serious problem. It is
possible that, under specific conditions, the system can be placed on a state in which it may not be possible to maintain
the voltage levels within secure limits in one or more of the network busbars. Besides economic and environmental
concerns, there may be a limit to the construction of new transmission lines and generation capacity, thus increasing
the stress on the operating conditions and consequently placing the system closer to its stability limits. Voltage
collapse can be defined as instability of heavily loaded electric power systems that lead to declining voltages and
blackout, which has severe security repercussions and jeopardizes the essential service to final customers.

System instability can occur if one or more grid elements disconnect by tripping (a contingency), the load increases
suddenly or the geographical profile of the generation dispatch is abnormal. In case of instability, the System Operator
must act in the electrical grid elements nearest to the area (or busbar) where the problem lies, taking suitable control
measures in order to bring the system back to a secure operating condition. The control measures to be applied in a
voltage collapse situation are:

3.1 To connect capacitor banks;

3.2 To change the generators’ excitation in order to achieve more reactive power injection;

3.3 To change the transformer and autotransformer taps position;

3.4 To transfer load to other delivery points through the distribution network;

3.5 To execute load shedding (this is the last action to be applied when reactive power resources are insufficient).

In real time operation it is important for the System Operator to have voltage stability indicators that allow him to react
in advance and prevent voltage collapse blackouts. These indicators must be presented for the:

a) N Security Criteria – current network where all the grid elements are connected;

b) N-1 and N-2 Security Criteria – considering contingencies where one or two grid elements are disconnected in a
non-planned way.

The EMS (Energy Management System) software, which many TSO’s (Transmission System Operators) use as a
complement of SCADA, allows the operator to check the security principles applied for system operation (N, N-1 and
N-2 Security Criteria). Contingency Analysis results can reveal that the network is near an unstable voltage point when
the critical contingency (e.g. the trip of a line that can lead to voltage collapse) does not converge, giving the System
Operator the information that instability may be imminent (without the necessary details). Contingency Analysis
Applications (as part of EMS) are designed with simplified algorithms in order to carry out dozens of contingencies in
just a few seconds, which is not a suitable tool to deal with this problem. Moreover, the load flow algorithms are easily
unstable near the “non-convergence point” of voltage collapse.

58
57
56
55

System Voltage (kV)

54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
392 396 400 404 408 412 416 420 424 428
Apparent Power Consumption (MVA)

Figure 8-1.1: System Voltage Curve for a Substation

When analyzing the transmission system, voltage is one of the most critical parameters that must be considered. Sub-
marginal voltages can result in damage to utility and customer equipment, and decrease the reactive power supply
capability of switched capacitors. The transmission system must be designed to maintain steady state voltages
between 90% and 110% of nominal for service to regulated transmission and distribution facilities at voltages less than
400 kV, and between 95% and 105% of nominal for service to regulated transmission facilities at voltages greater than
or equal to 400 kV during system normal and most single contingency conditions. Transmission system voltages may
be allowed to deviate outside the above ranges if it can be determined that the voltage provided to affected customers
is acceptable.

4. EQUIPMENT RATINGS

To maintain a reliable and enduring transmission system, equipment must be sized and operated according to
manufacturer’s specifications, industry and national standards, and Company guidelines. These guidelines specify
everything from maximum operating temperatures, to energy dissipation, to mechanical operation times.

Substation equipment and transmission lines are designed to accommodate specific ratings when operating under
normal or emergency conditions. A transformer’s “Normal” rating is intended to protect the unit from premature aging
caused by excessive heating. The seasonal LTE rating specifies the amount of load the transformer can potentially
carry for up to 4 hours while suffering no more than a 0.25% loss of life. The seasonal STE rating allows the
transformer to operate at two times its nameplate rating for no longer than 15 minutes. Most overhead transmission
lines and substation equipment also have seasonal normal, LTE, and STE ratings. The ratings for transmission circuits
and transformers are based on the most limiting element in the path.

The transmission line engineering group is responsible for providing thermal ratings for overhead transmission lines
and conductors.

5. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

Thermal ratings for all of the Bulk Power System overhead transmission lines are based on the IEEE Standard 738-
1993. The following criteria and assumptions are used to establish the ratings for Bulk Power System overhead
transmission lines:

6.1 A 40-year life is assumed for each line.

6.2 A maximum ambient temperature of 35°C, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30°C is used for
summer.

6.3 A maximum ambient temperature of 10°C, with an average daily maximum temperature of 5°C is used for winter.

6.4 An ambient wind speed of 0,9144 m/s is used for summer and winter.

6.5 All LTE ratings are established assuming a maximum time period of 4 hours but totalling not more than 300 hours
over the life of the line.

6.6 All STE ratings are established assuming a maximum time period of 15 minutes but totalling not more than 12.5
hours over the life of the line. A normal preload is also used in establishing the STE rating.

The Eskom Power Grid has been designed with the “N-1” principal in mind, meaning that it is built to survive at least
one failure. The redundant design is such that if a power asset such as a transmission line or generator were to fail the
power would be routed from elsewhere without causing major blackouts. However, infrastructure that resists single
points of random failure such a zone of busbar, may not survive.

Consider two redundant power lines, designed to handle the extra load if one or the other goes down, but selected to
the same busbar due to a maintenance activity. A fault on the busbar onto which these two feeders are selected would
result in both feeders being lost from service.

Perfect security is ideal but in reality security administrators are usually faced with budget constraints and end up trying
to balance cost and security. This kind of manual security planning for a network the size of the Power Grid can easily
become intractable and is actually a hard problem. One should however recognize the importance of spending more
capital on securing assets that are more critical such as the power corridor to the Western Cape.

A power system is typically depicted as a drawing in one-line network diagrams where nodes are busbars and edges
are branches. Branches can be either of type transmission lines or transformers, through which electrical energy is
transmitted to supply customers.

In any electric network, current and voltage are governed by Kirchhoff's current and voltage law and the current flow
through the branches is governed by a generalization of Ohm's resistive law. Therefore there is a current limit on each
line. If one line is not operational due to some contingency, the current flow will take a different path in the network.
This may cause a