Bonding

Syllabus

 4.1 Ionic bonding and structure

o Understand that atoms of different elements can form positive or negative
ions.
o Define the formation of ions in terms of the loss or gain of electrons.
o Describe the nature of ionic bonding in terms of the electrostatic attraction
between positive and negative ions.
o Explain the meaning of the formula of an ionic compound as the ratio of the
ions present in a formula unit.
o Write the formulae of ionic compounds from the identity of the ions involved,
including polyatomic ions.
o Discuss the nature of the ionic lattice, including the idea of each ion being
surrounded by nearest neighbours of opposite charge.
o Explain the characteristic properties of ionic compounds.
 4.2 Covalent bonding
o Describe a covalent bond in terms of the electrostatic attraction between the
nuclei of the atoms involved and shared pairs of bonding electrons.
o Outline that covalent bonding involves atoms gaining a noble gas arrangement
of eight electrons in their outer shell by sharing electrons.
o Describe the formation of multiple covalent bonds in certain molecules.
o Explain the concept of polar and non-polar covalent bonds, which depend on
the difference in electronegativity between the bonding atoms.
 4.3 Covalent structures
o Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently
bonded species.
o The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a
total of 8 electrons.
o Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with incomplete
octets of electrons.
o Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a
double bond in a molecule.
o Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according
to VSEPR theory.
o Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures.
 4.4 Intermolecular forces
o Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces
and hydrogen bonding.
o The relative strengths of these interactions
areLondon (dispersion) forces<dipole-dipole forces<hydrogen bo
ndsLondon (dispersion) forces<dipole-dipole forces<hydrogen b
onds
 4.5 Metallic bonding
 o A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions
and delocalised electrons.
o The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the
radius of the metal ion.
o Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties.

Ionic compounds
 Ionic bond: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely-charged ions.
 Formed due to elements having a large difference in electronegativity.
 Ionic compounds are arranged in a three-dimensional crystalline structure, known
as an ionic lattice.
 The term coordination number is used to signify the number of ions that surround
a given ion in an ionic lattice.
o For example, the ionic compound NaClNaCl, the coordination number
of NaNa is 6, because for any given NaNa ion, there are always 6 ClCl ions
surrounding it. Likewise, for ClCl, the coordination is also 6, meaning that
for each ClCl ion, there are always 6 NaNa atoms surrounding it.
The strength of the force between the ions is known as lattice enthalpy and
depends upon the size of the ion and its charge.
 Charge density: the charge per unit volume of an ionic compound.

Melting and boiling point

 Ionic compounds tend to have very high melting and boiling points, mainly due to
the fact that the electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions is very
strong and requires high amounts of energy to break.
 The two factors that determine the melting point of an ionic compound are the ionic
radius and the charge on the ion.
o As ionic radius ↑↑, melting point decreases, and as ionic radius ↓↓, melting
point increases.
o As charge on the ion ↑↑, melting point increases, and as charge on the
ion ↓↓, melting point decreases.
 Ionic compounds also tend to have low volatility due to the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction.

Solubility

 Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents such as water.

 Since water is polar and has a certain separation of charges in its structure, when
an ionic compound is placed in water, the ions are attracted to the charged water
molecules and so the ions dissociate in water, and the lattice breaks down.
  Consequently, the ions get surrounded by water molecules, which is known
as hydration, and the solid is said to be dissolved.
 Since non-polar solvents do not have any separation of charges, ionic compounds
are not soluble in them.

Electrical conductivity

 Electrical conductivity depends upon the fact that ions are able to carry a charge.
 Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity in solid state because the ions
are firmly held in the lattice and are unable to move, and therefore cannot carry
charges.
 However, in aqueous or molten state, ionic compounds are able to conduct
electricity due to prescence of free ions that are able to move and carry charges.

Brittleness

 Ionic compounds are usually brittle, meaning the crystals tend to shatter when force
is applied.
 This is attributed to the fact that when force is applied, ions of the same charge get
moved next to each other in the structure and so the repulsive forces exerted by the
ions causes the lattice to split.

Ionic character

 The ionic character of any element is determined by the difference in

electronegativity between the atoms in the compound.
o If electronegativity difference ↑↑, then ionic character ↑↑
o If electronegativity difference ↓↓, then ionic character ↓↓

Polyatomic ions

 An ionic compound containing polyatomic ions has 2 types of

bonding, ionic and covalent.
 The atoms in the polyatomic ions are covalently bonded, whereas the polyatomic
ion itself and the other ion are ionically bonded.
 Example: KNO3KNO3, where the NN and OO are covalently bonded but
the K+K+ and the NO3−NO3− are ionically bonded.

Covalent compounds
Covalent Compounds
Giant covalent
Molecular covalent
Diamond
Graphite
Silica
Fulerene
Simple molecular covalent
Polar
Non-polar
Dative covalent/coordinate compound

Covalent bonding

 Covalent bond: electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively charged

nucleus and the shared pair of electrons.
 Usually occurs between non-metals.
 There are 3 types covalent bonds: single, double and triple bonds.
 Bond length: measure of the distance between two covalently bonded nuclei.
Expressed in picometres (pmpm).
 Bond strength: a measure of the energy required to break a covalent
bond. Measured in kJ/mol.kJ/mol.
 Bond length and bond strength have an inverse relationship.
o As you go from single bonds to double bonds to triple bonds, bond
length ↓↓ and bond strength ↑↑.
o Longer bonds are weaker than shorter bonds because as bond length
increases, the distance of the shared pair of electrons from the nucleus
increases, which reduces the bond strength.

Lewis Dot Structure

 Central atom must be of large size, or least electronegative, or least in number.

  Oxygen, sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen, silicon, carbon, chlorine, iodine can all
be central atoms.
 The octet of the corner must be fulfilled first.
 central atom can have 8 or more electrons(if expanded octet), but corner atoms
can only have 8.
 central atom tries to remain in maximum co-valency so it makes the maximum
number of covalent bonds it can form.
 if there is a positive charge it is always on the central atom while every negative
charge is on the corner atoms.

Coordinate covalent bonds

 Coordinate covalent bonds differ from normal covalent bonds in the way that in a
coordinate bond, both the shared electrons are provided by the one of the atoms.

Electron deficiency

 Coordinate covalent bonds also occur when one of the atoms in the molecule
is electron-deficient, meaning that it has less electrons in its valence shell and has
an incomplete octet. It does not satisfy the octet rule. The elements that do not
satisfy the octet rule are HH, HeHe, BB, and BeBe.
 This means that the atom has the tendency to accept an electron pair from a
molecule with a lone pair.

Bond Order

 The bond order is the number of bonds between 2 atoms.

 Single bonds have a bond order of 1, double bonds have a bond order of 2, and
triple bonds have a bond order of 3.
  Bond order for a molecule can be calculated by:
Bond order=sum of individual bond ordersnumber of bonding groupsB
ond order=number of bonding groupssum of individual bond orders

Octet Rule

 Octet rule: the octet rule states that the most stable arrangement for an atom to
have in its outermost shell is 8 electrons.

Incomplete octets

 Atoms that have less than 8 electrons in their outermost shell are said to by electron-
deficient.
 For example, Boron(�B) has 3 valence electrons and there is no possibility of it
getting 8 electrons in the valence shell just by sharing, so it is remains stable with 6
electrons.
 Other atoms may have to form coordinate covalent bonds in order to staisfy
the octet rule.

Expanded octets

 Other atoms, such as those from Period 3, can have expanded octets and have more
than 8 electrons in their valence shells.
 Such molecules can have upto 18 valence electrons.

VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)

Theory

 Electron domains consist of single, double, or triple bonds and lone pairs.
o 1 single bond is considered to be 1 electron domain, 1 double bond is
considered to be 1 electron domain, and so on.
 There is repulsion between electron domains.
 The total amount of electron domains around the central atom of the molecule
determines the geometrical arrangement, or the electron domain geometry.
 The molecule’s shape is determined by the bond angle between the atoms bonded
to the central atom.
 Lone pairs have a higher concentration of charge as they are not shared between
atoms, and therefore their forces of repulsion are greater.
 Bond pairs(such as single, double or triple bonds) are shared electrons so the
concentration of charge is considerably lesser.
 In descending order of repulsion, the electron domains are:
o Lone pair-lone pair >> Lone pair-bond pair >> Bond pair-bond pair
  Since a lone pair repels a bond pair more than a bond pair and bond pair, this reduces
the bond angle between the bonded atoms around the central atom.
 The molecule will always take the shape which will minimise repulsion between
electron domains.

2 Electron Domains

 Molecules with 2 electron domains take a linear shape, in which the bond
angle is 180∘180∘.
 This can be seen for BeCl2BeCl2, CO2CO2, and C2H2C2H2.

3 Electron Domains

 For molecules with 3 electron domains, the electron domain geometry is

always triangular(or trigonal) planar.
 However, there are 2 possibilites for the molecular geometry.

3 bond pairs

 In the case of 3 bond pairs, the bonds equally repel each other and the shape of the
molecular geometry is also triangular planar.
 The bond angle between any two bond pairs is 120∘120∘.
2 bond pairs and 1 lone pair

 In the case of 1 lone pair, the lone pair is not an actual bond pair so it is not
counted while calculating bond angle.
 So, there are only 2 actual bond pairs and so the molecular geometry is V-shaped,
or bent.
 Furthermore, due to lone pair-bond pair repulsion being greater than bond pair-
bond pair repulsion, the lone pair repels the bond pairs more and so the bond angle
between the bond pairs reduces.
 Therefore, the bond angle is 117∘117∘, which is just a little bit
lesser than 120∘120∘(due to increased repulsion)

4 Electron Domains

 For molecules with 4 electron domains, the electron domain geometry is

always tetrahedral.
 However, there are numerous possibilities.

4 bond pairs

 In this case, the bond pairs repel each other and the molecular geometry of the
molecule is tetrahedral as well.
 The bond angle in this case is 109.5∘109.5∘.
3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair:

 In this case, since the lone pair-bond pair repulsion is higher than bond pair-bond
pair repulsion, the bond angle between the bonded atoms is smaller.
 Also, since the lone pair is not an actual bond, the molecular geometry is
called triangular(or trigonal) pyramidal.
 The bond angle is 107.8∘107.8∘, which is just a bit lesser than
than 109.5∘109.5∘.

2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs

 In this case, there is lone pair-lone pair repulsion which is very high, and so
the bond angle decreases.
 Furthermore, since the lone pairs are not actual bonds, there are only two bonds and
so the molecular geometry is V-shaped or bent.
 The bond angle in this case is 104.5∘104.5∘, which is much
lesser than 109.5∘109.5∘, oweing to the increased repulsion.
Polar and non-polar bonds

 Polarity depends on the difference in electronegativity between two atoms.

 A high electronegativity difference between two atoms(>1.8>1.8) means that the
bond is ionic.
 A low electronegativity difference between two atoms(<0.5<0.5) means that the
bond is pure covalent(00) or weakly polar covalent(between 00 and 0.50.5).
 However, if the electronegativity is between 0.50.5 and 1.81.8, the bond between
the molecule is considered to be polar covalent.

Note: IB often considers molecules such as �2�H2S to be polar even though

the electronegativity between �H and �S is 0.40.4 units.

 Polarity occurs because the difference in electronegativity between both the atoms
causes the an unequal sharing of electrons and the electron cloud is attracted
towards the more electronegative atom which creates a bond dipole.
 Bond dipoles result in the atoms having partial positive charges(�+δ+) or partial
negative charges(�−δ−), where the more electronegative atom gains a partial
negative charge and the less electronegative one gains a partial positive charge.

Polar and non-polar molecules

 Certain molecules may have polar covalent bonds within them but may not be polar
molecules themselves.
 The polarity of a molecule depends on:
o the electronegativity difference between the atoms.
o the orientation of the polar bonds within the molecule.
  If the molecule contains no polar bonds, it is strictly non-polar. This is seen in
halogens, such as Cl2Cl2, where both the ClCl atoms are equally electronegative,
so electronegativity difference is 00.
 If the molecule contains polar bonds but is arranged in a perfectly symmetrical
way, the polar moments due to each polar bond cancel out and the molecule is
considered to be non-polar, as the net polar moment is 00.

 If the molecule contains polar bonds but its orientation is assymetrical, the polar
moments do not cancel out and the net polar moment is non-zero, leading to the
molecule being polar.

 Therefore, the polarity of the molecule depends on the molecular geometry of the
molecule.

Resonance Hybrid Structures

 Resonance occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be drawn for
a particular molecule.
 This means that a certain bond(such as a double bond) has equal probability of being
in different places, and so each bond is in between a single and a double bond.
 The actual structure of this type of molecule is known as a resonance hybrid
structure.
 Since in resonance hybrid structures the electrons are not confined to one location and
can take different locations, they are considered as delocalised and the molecule is
more stable.
 Some resonance hybrid structures include: C6H6C6
H6 (benzene), O3O3 (ozone), CO32−CO32−
Allotropes of Carbon

Diamond

 Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral

structure with repeated patterns and bond angles of 109.5∘109.5∘.
 It is a giant covalent/network covalent/macromolecular structure.
 High melting point and boiling point.
 Non-conductor of electricity as all the electrons are bonded and cannot move.
 Great thermal conductor.
 Extremely hard and brittle.
 Transparent crystal.
 Used for glass cutting and for ornaments.

Graphite

 Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.

 Forms hexagonal structures with bond angles of 120∘120∘.
 Has many layers.
 It is a giant covalent/network covalent/macromolecular structure.
 High melting point and boiling point.
 Good conductor of electricity due to prescence of mobile electrons.
 Not a good conductor of heat.
 Soft and slippery due to many layers slipping over each other.
 Dark grey shiny solid.
 Used as a lubricant and used in pencils.

Graphene

 Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.

 Forms hexagonal structures with bond angles of 120∘120∘.
 Has only one layer(two dimensional).
 Good electrical conductor.
 Best thermal conductor.
 High melting and boiling point.
 Almost fully transparent.
 Flexible and has high tensile strength.
 Used in photo-voltaic cells and many electronic devices.

Fullerene C60C60

 Each carbon atom is bonded in a sphere of 60 carbon atoms, consisting of 12

pentagons and 20 hexagons.
 Semi-conductor due to some electron mobility.
  Very low thermal conductivity.
 Low melting and boiling point.
 Flexible.
 Yellow, crystalline solid.
 Used in lubricants and nano-technology.

Giant Covalent Structures

 Also referred to as network covalent or macromolecular structures.

 Giant covalent structures include diamond, graphite, silicon, and silicon
dioxide(SiO2SiO2)
 They generally have high melting and boiling points, are very hard, insoluble in
water, and non-conductors of electricity.

Note: do not refer to these structures as ‘molecules of …’ as they are not molecules.

Silicon

 Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 other silicon atoms covalently in a tetrahedral

structure with a bond angle of 109.5∘109.5∘.
 Poor conductor of electricity due to low electron mobility.
 Extremely hard and brittle.
 High melting and boiling points.

Silicon Dioxide(SiO2SiO2)

 Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to 2
silicon atoms in a tetrahedral structure with a bond angle of 109.5∘109.5∘.
 Very hard and brittle.
 High melting and boiling points.
 Non-conductor of electricity.

Properties of covalent compounds

 Physical properties of covalent compounds are mainly because of

their intermolecular forces.

Melting and boiling points

  Covalent compounds have relatively low melting and boiling points due to weak
intermolecular forces.

Solubility

 Non-polar substances generally dissolve in non-polar solvents by the formation

of London Dispersion forces between them.
 Polar substances generally dissolve in polar solvents due to dipole interactions and
hydrogen bonding.

Electrical Conductivity

 Since covalent compounds do not have any free ions, they are not able to conduct
electricity in any state.
 There are exceptions, however, such as HClHCl.

Intermolecular forces
 Intermolecular forces refer to the forces that hold the molecules together.
 Intermolecular forces affect the physical properties such as volatility, solubility
and conductivity.

London Dispersion Forces

 Exist between all atoms and molecules.

 Consist of:
o Instantaneous or temporary dipoles
 Non-polar molecules such as Cl2Cl2 have no dipoles and
therefore no permanent seperation of charge.
 However, there is a chance that the electron density in the molecule
might change for an instant, giving the atoms temporary partial
charges(�+δ+ and �−δ−)
 This leads to dipoles being induced in neighboring molecules.
o Induced dipoles
 The temporary partial charge in a molecule can induce
an temporary opposite charge in the neighboring molecule which
leads to both experiencing forces of attraction.
 London Dispersion forces are relatively weak and their strength depends on two
factors:
o The polarisablity of the molecule (ease with which temporary dipoles can be
formed):
 the greater the molar mass of the molecule, the greater the
polarisability.
  Larger polarisability leads to larger induced dipoles being formed
and stronger London Dispersion forces.
o The surface area of the molecule:
 Molecules with greater area have stronger London Dispersion
forces.
 Part of Van der Waal’s forces with dipole-dipole forces.

Dipole-dipole forces

 Only exist in polar molecules as they have permanent dipoles.

 Molecules are attracted to each other due to the opposite charges of the permanent
dipoles.
 Greater in strength than London Dispersion forces.
 Part of Van der Waal’s forces with London Dispersion forces.

Hydrogen Bonding

 Occurs between polar molecules that contain an atom with a lone pair such
as: OO, NN, FF.
 The lone pair has an negative chargedue to electrons whereas an atom of another
molecule has a permanent positive charge (�+δ+), and they attract, forming
a hydrogen bond.
 Strongest of the three.
 Leads to high melting and boiling points.
hydrogen bonds>dipole-dipole forces>London (dispersion) force
shydrogen bonds>dipole-dipole forces>London (dispersion) forces

Metallic bonding

 Electrostatic forces of attraction between a lattice of cations and a sea

of delocalised electrons.

Strength of metallic bond

 The strength of the metallic bond depends on two factors:

o Charge on the metal ion
  The greater the charge on the metal ion, greater the ionic
charge and greater the electrostatic forces of attraction, therefore
the strength of the metallic bond increases.
o Ionic radius
 If the ionic radius of the metal ion increases, the distance between
the cation and the delocalised electrons increases, and the forces of
attraction decrease, so the strength of the metallic bond decreases.

Properties of metals

Electrical conductivity

 Metals are good conductors of electricity due to the presence of delocalised

electrons which are highly mobile.

Thermal conductivity

 Metals are good thermal conductors as delocalised electrons and cations are close
together to enable efficient transfer of energy.

Malleability and Ductility

 Due to movement of delocalised electrons being random and non-directional, so

the metallic bond does not break when the shape changes.

High melting and boiling point

 Due to the electrostatic forces of attraction being very strong, the energy required
to break metallic bonds is very high.

Shiny, lustrous

 The delocalised electrons reflect light.

Alloys

 Alloys are made by adding a metal element to another element in molten state.
When the homogenous mixture solidifies, the metal becomes very hard and the
layers cannot slide over each other easily.

Brass
  70% copper, 30% zinc.
 Harder than pure copper.

Bronze

 90% copper, 10% tin.

 Harder than pure copper.

Mild steel

 99.7% iron, 0.3% carbon.

 Stronger and harder than pure iron.

Stainless steel

 74% iron, 18% chromium, 8% nickel.

 Increased resistance to corrosion, used to make cutlery.

Further Covalent Bonding(HL)

VSEPR

 Elements that can expand their octets have 5-6 electron domains
 eg. sulfur, phosphorus

5 Electron Domains

 Electron domain geometry is always triangular bi-pyramidal, with angles

of 90∘,180∘,120∘90∘,180∘,120∘
 However there are several possibilities for molecular geometry.
4 Bonding Pairs, 1 Lone Pair

 Assymetrical/see-saw shape molecular geometry

 The lone pair increases repulsion now forming bond angles
of 90∘,180∘,117∘90∘,180∘,117∘
 eg. ��4SF4

3 Bonding Pairs, 2 Lone Pairs

 T-shaped molecular geometry

 Two lone pairs repel each other equally forming bond angles
of 90∘,180∘90∘,180∘
 eg. ���3ClF3
2 Bonding Pairs, 3 Lone Pairs

 Linear molecular geometry

 Two lone pairs repel on one side, one lone pair repels on the other,
forming 180∘180∘ bond angle.
 eg. �3−I3−

6 Electron Domains

 Electron domain geometry is always octahedral, with 90∘90∘ bond angles.

 However there are several possibilites for molecular geometry.

6 Bonding Pairs

 Octahedral molecular geometry, with 90∘90∘ bond angles.

 eg. ��6SF6
5 Bonding Pairs, 1 Lone Pair

 Lone pair causes repulsion at one angle, resulting in Square-pyramidal molecular

geometry.
 eg. ���5BrF5

4 Bonding Pairs, 2 Lone Pairs

 Two lone pairs cause equal repulsion on opposite sides, resulting in square-
planar molecular geometry.
 eg. ���4XeF4
Determining Polarity

 If there are no lone pairs in a molecule, there is no net dipole and the molecule is
non-polar.
 However, if the molecules are not the same, polarity depends on symmetry
 Molecules with lone pairs are often polar, yet symmetry may affect this, as dipoles
might cancel eg. ���4XeF4

Formal Charge

 Defined as FC = V - (1/2B +L), where V is valence electrons, B is bonding

electrons and L is lone pair electrons (not lone pairs)
 This formula is for each atom in a molecular structure.
 Low formal charges means that less charge transfer has taken place in the
formation of the molecule, and is hence the more stable/preferred structure.

Sigma and Pi bonds

Sigma bond

 Formed when two atomic orbitals overlap along the bond axis, in a head-on
manner
 The electron density is concentrated between the nuclei of bonded atoms
 Sigma bonds are always present in any kind of bond (ie. single, double, triple)

Pi bond
  Formed when two p orbitals overlap sideways above and/or below the bond axis.
 The electron density is concentrated in two regions - above and/or below the plane
of the bond axis.
 Only forms alongside the formation of a sigma bond ie. only forms in a double or
triple bond
 Aa double bond contains one sigma and on pi bond; a triple bond contains one
sigma and two pi bonds.

Ozone Case Study

Structure

 The central oxygen atom has three electron domains, in a triangular

plane geometry
 Only two of the domains are involved in bonding, therefore the shape is bent, with
a 117∘117∘ bond angle
 The central atom has a single bond to one oxygen atom, and double bond to the
other
 The double bond consists of a sigma bond formed from the overlap of hybrid orbitals,
and a pi bond formed for the overlap of unhybridised p orbitals.
 The double bond can occur between the central atom and either flanking atom,
resulting in resonance
 The electrons in the pi bond are less tightly held and hence delocalise through the
structure, thus creating a resonance hybrid, with three pairs of electrons in two
bonding positions.
 The resulting bond order is 1.5
 The molecule is expected to be non-polar, as all atoms are the same element. Yet
the formal charges on the atoms show uneven distribution of charge and hence
make the molecule polar.

Ozone Cycle

 �2(�)→�.(�)+�.(�)O2(g)→O.(g)+O.(g) (dissociation of oxygen

at �λ < 242 nm)
  �3(�)→)�.+2�2(�)O3(g)→)O.+2O2(g) (dissociation of ozone
at �λ < 330 nm )
 �3(�)+�.(�)→2�2(�)O3(g)+O.(g)→2O2(g) (exothermic reaction)
Note: the . symbolizes a free radical, which refers to a species with an unpaired electron,
which is highly reactive.

 Ozone has weaker bonds than oxygen, and breaks down at a longer wavelength.
Longer wavelength means lower frequency, and lower energy. This means it
absorbs harmful UV-rays of wavelength 242nm to 330nm242nm to 330nm.

Catalytic Destruction of Ozone

 Nitrogen oxides(���NOx) and Chlorofluorocarbons(����CFCs) are

mainly responsible for the catalitic destruction of ozone.

Nitrogen Oxides

 ��.(�)+�3(�)→��2.(�)+�2(�)NO.(g)+O3(g)→NO2.(g)+O2
(g)
 ��2.(�)+�.(�)→��.(�)+�2(�)NO2.(g)+O.(g)→NO.(g)+O2
(g)
 ��.NO. comes out unchanged and it is a catalyst
 �3(�)+�.(�)→2�2(�)O3(g)+O.(g)→2O2(g) (overall reaction)

Chloroflourocarbons

 ���2�2(�)→����2.(�)+��.(�)CCl2F2(g)→CClF2.(g)
+Cl.(g) (photochemical decomposition)
 ��.(�)+�3(�)→���.(�)+�2(�)Cl.(g)+O3(g)→ClO.(g)+O2
(g)
 ���.(�)+�.(�)→��.(�)+�2(�)ClO.(g)+O.(g)→Cl.(g)+O2
(g)
 ��.Cl. comes out unchanged and it is a catalyst
 �3(�)+�.(�)→2�2(�)O3(g)+O.(g)→2O2(g) (overall reaction)

Hybridization (HL)
  Defined as the process by which atomics orbitals within an atom mix to produce
hybrid orbitals of intermediate energy.
 Covalent bonds with hybridised orbitals are often stronger.

Excitation

 Formation of covalent bonds starts with the excitation of electrons

 eg. consider carbon, with its electron configuration, it only has two singly paired
electron available f boding, and an empty shell.
 In order to maximise bonding, and electron from the 2s orbital moves to the 2p
orbital, making four unpaired electrons free for bonding.
 This is known as excitation, and occurs in almost all elements.
 The amount of energy this requires is compensated by bond formation

Hybridizing orbitals

 After excitation, the atomic orbitals available forom boinding are not all the same.
 Some are at a higher energy level and would form unequal bonds.
 To resolve this, the available orbitals mix to from new hybrid atomic orbitals that
are identical to each other, but different form the original orbitals.
 Hybridisation involves different numbers and types of orbitals
 The overlap of a hybrid orbital with any other kind of orbial always froms a sigma
bond.

sp3sp3 Hybridization

 ixing of orbital an 3 p-orbitals.**

 rbitals orient themselves at 109.5∘109.5∘, forming a tetrahedron.
 eg. C in ��4CH4

sp2sp2 Hybridization

 Mixing of 1 s-1 orbital an 2 p-orbitals.

 Oorbitals orient themselves at 120∘120∘, forming a triangular plane.
 P-orbitals that did not hybridize are free to from pi bonds.
 his type of hybridization often occurs for double bonds.
 eg. C in �2�4C2H4

sp3sp3 Hybridization

 Mmixing of 1 s-1 orbital and 1 p-orbital.

 Orbitals orient themselves at 180∘180∘, forming a linear shape.
  P-orbitals that did not hybridize are free to from pi bonds.
 Tthis type of hybridization often occurs for triple bonds.
 eg. C in �2�2C2H2

Determining Type of Hybridization

 The molecular geometry informs us about the hybridization.

 Tetrahedral = sp3sp3
 Triangular planar = sp2sp2
 Linear = spsp