PRACTICAL 9 PRESERVATION OF FOOD

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Food Spoilage
9.3 Principles of Preservation
9.4 Techniques of Preservation
9.4.1 Freezing
9.4.2 Blanching
9.4.3 Dehydration
9.4.4 Sulfuring
9.4.5 Canning
9.4.6 Preservation by Preservatives
Activity 1: Effectiveness of Blanching by Peroxidase Inactivity Test
Activity 2: Methods for Blanching Vegetables
Activity 3: Moisture Removal Techniques in Foods
Activity 4: Rehydration Test for the Dried Samples

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to
stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent food borne illness while maintaining
nutritional value, texture and flavour. Units 10, 11 and 12 in the theory course (MFN-
008) dealt exclusively with the concept, principles and techniques of food
preservation. Surely you must have gone through these units carefully and are well
equipped to conduct this practical which focuses on preservation techniques. We
suggest you look up these units once again now before you start with the activities
given in this practical.
Objectives
After undertaking this practical, you will be able to:
• carry out various methods of blanching,
• check the adequacy of blanching,
• appreciate the time–temperature relationship in food preservation,
• select an effective pre-treatment before any processing with maximum retention
of the sensory attributes and select the best method for further processing,
• adopt different drying techniques for food preservation,
• comment on the effectiveness of different drying techniques,
• select the best method of dehydration on the basis of various parameters such as
drying time and sensory characteristics of foods, and
• describe the sensory changes that take place during the dehydration of the
samples.

9.2 FOOD SPOILAGE

Food spoilage is a major concern of all people. Spoilage by growth of bacteria, yeasts
and moulds limits the time that the food can be stored and still be safe and palatable.
The environmental conditions optimal for reproduction vary with the type of these
microorganisms. Foods can be preserved by altering these so that they no longer
serve as a suitable host for microorganisms.

Foods also spoil when they undergo physical and chemical changes which may be
due to the action of enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions such as oxidation,

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Principles of Food mechanical damage etc. Therefore, the major causes of food spoilage and
Science deterioration can be summarized as:
• Biological
– growth of bacteria, yeast, mould
– activity of enzymes
– insects, rodents and parasites
• Chemical
– reaction with oxygen
– chemical reactions within food constituents
– light
• Physical
– temperature
– physical stress or abuse
Microbial spoilage readily occurs in foods having sufficient moisture and a
favourable temperature and other conditions of growth like pH, oxidation-reduction
potential. Thus, to hinder the growth of the microorganisms these conditions must be
taken care of and you would realize, this is the basis of food preservation. The next
section focuses on the principle of food preservation.

9.3 PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION

Various methods can be used for preservation of foods like freezing, pasteurization,
sterilization, canning, dehydration, use of preservatives and preservation by high
osmotic pressure.
All these techniques of food preservation involve the following principles of
preservation:
1) Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition.
a) By keeping out microorganisms (asepsis).
b) By removal of microorganisms e.g. by filtration.
c) By hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms e.g. by low
temperature,
drying, use of chemicals.
d) By killing microorganisms e.g. by heat, radiations.
2) Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of food
a) By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes e.g. by blanching.
b) By delay of chemical reactions e.g. use of antioxidant to prevent oxidation.
3) Prevention of damage caused by insects, animals and mechanical damage by
rodents etc.
Having learnt about the principle next let us study about the techniques of
preservation.

9.4 TECHNIQUES OF PRESERVATION

In the last section we have read that various methods can be used for preservation of
foods. Some of the common methods employed to preserve foods are summarized
herewith:
• Heat (blanching, pasteurization, sterilization...)
• Cold (chilling, freezing etc.)
• Drying (partial or fully)
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• Acid (fermentation, addition) Preservation of Food

• Sugar and salt (addition– osmotic effect)

• Smoke (heat + smoke, formaldehyde and others)
• Atmospheric conditions (O2 or CO2)
• Radiation (X-ray, UV, microwaves, ionizing)
• Chemicals (preservatives)
Since we have already studied about these methods in the theory course, let us
quickly review these methods (very briefly) here in this practical.
9.4.1 Freezing
This is a method of preservation using low temperature. The chief preservative effect
of freezing lies in the inability of microorganisms to grow at freezing or below
freezing temperature. Freezing can be carried out either by slow freezing process,
quick freezing process or dehydro freezing.
In vegetables, enzymatic action may still produce undesirable effects on flavour and
texture during freezing. The enzymes are thus destroyed by heating before the
vegetables are frozen. This is known as the process of blanching, about which we
shall discuss next.
9.4.2 Blanching
As described in Table 9.1, the enzymes in the food system can be separated into four
groups relating to the changes in flavour, colour, texture and nutritive value.
Table 9.1:Food quality related enzymes

S.No. Quality Enzymes Quality defect

attribute

1. Flavour Lipoxygenases, Lipases Off flavour development

2. Colour Polyphenol oxidases Dark colour

3. Texture or Pectin methyl esterase, Amylase Softness, loss in viscosity

consistency

4. Nutritional value Ascorbic acid oxidase, Loss in Vitamin C and

Thiaminase loss in Vitamin B1 content

The inactivation of these enzymes is dependent upon both the time and temperature
of heat treatment during the process of blanching. Peroxidase is the most heat stable
enzyme in plants and thus is taken as the “universal indicator” for checking the
adequacy of blanching for fruits and vegetables.
Blanching of vegetables prior to freezing and dehydration has some advantages, as
well as, disadvantages. The advantages include stabilization of texture, colour,
flavour and nutritional quality; removal of intercellular gases, reduction in microbial
load and shrinkage of vegetable matter which can aid in the achievement of required
fill weight. The disadvantages include loss of colour, flavour and nutritive value.
However, the disadvantages can be taken care of by optimizing the time and
temperature required for blanching.
9.4.3 Dehydration
The word dehydration usually refers to the use of controlled conditions of heating,
with the forced circulation of air/artificial dryer as compared to the use of sun-
drying. Dried foods have low available moisture level [low water activity (aw)] so
that the microorganisms cannot grow and enzyme activity is controlled. Water
activity refers to the amount of unbound or "free" water in a system available to
support biological and chemical reactions.
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Principles of Food Dehydration processes are used commercially for many foods including dried milk,
Science coffee, tea, fruit mixes, dried fruits, vegetables, meat, fish etc. Although the process
of drying lowers water activity (aw) so as to hinder the growth of microorganisms
however, this technique of preservation is also requiring certain pre-treatments like
blanching and sulfuring. You are already familiar with the term blanching (discussed
in sub-section 9.4.2). We shall learn about sulfuring in the next sub-section.
Here let us now look at the advantages of drying.
Advantages of drying
Drying has been attributed with advantages of weight reduction, ease of packing,
storage and transportation. However, loss of colour, texture and nutritive value has
also been observed in this process.
9.4.4 Sulfuring
Sulfuring is the process which is used to destroy microorganisms and to preserve
colour. Fruits after blanching may be dipped into a sulphite solution. This process of
sulfuring maintains colour of the food as it hinder the process of browning. Apples
and bananas are examples of fruits that retain their colour during the process of
drying if they are dipped in an acidic fruit juice or exposed to sulfuring which
minimizes browning.
Next, we move on to the canning process.
9.4.5 Canning
Canning involves the application of heat that is high enough to destroy all pathogenic
microorganisms and their spores present along with the air tight sealing in sterilized
containers. Canned foods can be stored at room temperature for at least a period of
2 years and still be safe to eat if they have been processed to be commercially sterile.
The processing of food before the process of canning would involve blanching,
filling the canned food with brine or syrup, exhausting, sealing and then heating.
Microbial spoilage in canned fruits and vegetables is due either to under processing
or leakage. Under processing is the failure to destroy during the heat process all
bacteria capable of subsequent growth in the product. Leakage is due to the
contamination of the product after an adequate heat process, either due to faulty seam
or damage to the can after sealing. It is very important to know the pH classification
of these fruits and vegetables so as to study their spoilage relationships. pH, we
already know, is a scaled measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a food: the lower the
pH, the higher the acidity.
Table 9.2 gives the classification of various fruits and vegetables on the basis of their
pH value.
Table 9.2: Classification of various fruits and vegetables on the basis of their pH value

S. No. Class pH range Products

1. Low acid 5.3 and higher Vegetables such as corn, peas, lima beans,
cauliflower, potato, spinach, French beans and
beets
2. Medium acid 5.3-4.5 Cabbage, turnip, pumpkin, carrot, okra,
products like soups and sauces
3. Acid 4.5-3.7 Tomato, pear, pineapple, banana, mango, apple,
jackfruit, peach and other fruits
4. High acid 3.7 and lower Sauerkraut, citrus juice, rhubarb, prunes,
pickles, chutneys etc.

Source: Adapted from Ranganna, 1999

Finally, let us learn about preservation by preservatives.

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9.4.6 Preservation by Preservatives Preservation of Food

Preservatives, as you may already know, belong to a class of food additives that
extend shelf life by inhibiting microbial growth, or by minimizing the destructive
effects of oxygen, metals, and other factors that may lead to rancidity. Common
preservatives include nitrites (used extensively in processed meats), sodium benzoate
(often added to soft drinks), sorbic acid (dairy products), calcium and sodium
propionates and sorbates (mould inhibitors used in baked goods) and common table
salt.
The preservatives generally used in fruit and vegetable products may be broadly
classified as class I and class II preservatives.
The class I preservatives are the natural preservatives which are not restricted in any
food. Examples of class I preservatives are common salt, sugar, dextrose/glucose
syrup, spices, vinegar or acetic acid and honey.
Class II preservatives are the chemical preservatives, which prevent or delay the
growth of microorganisms. However, the use of chemical preservatives is limited in
foodstuffs.
Table 9.3 summarizes some of these chemical preservatives generally accepted as
safe (GRAS) and their uses in various foods.
Table 9.3: Chemical preservatives generally accepted as safe (GRAS) and their uses in
various foods

S. No. Preservatives Maximum Organism Foods

Tolerance Affected

1. Propionic 0.32% Moulds Bread, cakes, some cheeses,

acid/propionates rope inhibitor in bread dough

2. Sorbic acid/ 0.2% Moulds Hard cheeses, figs, syrups,

sorbates jellies and cakes

3. Benzoic acid/ 0.1% Yeasts and Pickles, sauces, Ketchups,

benzoates Moulds salad dressings and
margarine

4. SO2/sulphites 200-300ppm Insects, Molasses, dried fruits, wine

micro making
organism

5. Sodium diacetate 0.32% Moulds Bread

6. Sodium nitrite 120 ppm Clostridia Meat-curing preparation

Source: GRAS, section 201(32) (s) of the U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as
amended .
Commercially used natural preservatives are often used in preparation of jams, jellies
and pickles preparation. Water is withdrawn from microbial cells when they are
placed in solution containing large amounts of dissolved substances such as
sugar/salt. As a result of this water loss, microbial metabolism is halted and because
of this lower water activity, the microorganisms are not able to grow.
Food preservatives are often used in conjunction with other methods of preservation.
Now, with an understanding of the principles and various techniques involved in
preservation, let us carry out a few activities wherein we will be using these
techniques. There are four activities in this practical.

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Principles of Food
Science
ACTIVITY
1 EFFECTIVENESS OF BLANCHING BY PEROXIDASE
INACTIVITY TEST
Date: …………. Aim: To test the effectiveness of blanching by peroxidase inactivity test.
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• check the adequacy of the blanching process,
• appreciate the importance of time–temperature relationship in blanching process,
and
• select an effective pre-treatment before any processing with maximum retention
of the sensory attributes.
Principle
Raw or under blanched vegetables discolour, lose flavour and develop off flavours
during processing. The loss of quality is caused by enzymatic action. Peroxidase is
the most heat-resistant enzymes present in all vegetables. When these are inactivated
by heating, the enzymatic processes, in general would have been inhibited as other
heat resistant enzymes would have also been inactivated. Hence, blanched vegetables
should have been tested for their inactivation.
Materials Required
Green leafy vegetable
Other vegetable
0.08 % of peroxide solution H2O2: Dilute 2.8 ml of 30% H2O2 with water and store in
a dark bottle in a refrigerator. Prepare fresh every week
0.5 % Guaiacol in 50% ethyl alcohol
Stop-watch
Thermometers
Beakers
Pestle and Mortar
Test Tubes
Funnel
Cotton Distilled Water
Procedure
Carry out the activity following the procedure enumerated herewith:
1) Wash the given sample of vegetable thoroughly.
2) Dice or cut the vegetable.
3) Blanch small edible portions of vegetables at 85ºC, 100ºC for different time and
then carry out the following test for peroxidase activity.
4) After blanching put the vegetable immediately under cold water.
5) Take 10 g of representative sample.
6) Grind in a mortar using sand and 30 ml water added in small portions.
7) Filter through cotton cloth.
8) To 2.0 ml of filtrate, add 20 ml of distilled water in a test tube and mix.
9) Add 1 ml of 0.5 % guaiacol solution and then 0.08% H2O2 solution and keep
aside.
10) Observe for the development of a brown ring.
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11) If no brown ring formation takes place in 3–5 minutes consider the test to be Preservation of Food
negative (i.e., inactive peroxidase test) and the product to be adequately blanched
Results and Observations
Record your findings in the format given herewith. With regards to sensory attributes
comment on the flavour, texture, and appearance of the vegetable sample. The
peroxidase activity, as observed through the presence of brown ring, may be
indicated under the column peroxidase activity.

S.No. Vegetable Blanching Time Peroxidase Remarks

tempºC (min.) Activity Sensory attributes
active/inactive

1. Name 85 5

100 1

2. Name 85 5

100 1

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Principles of Food Inference
Science
Write the inference for the two samples:
A) The green leafy vegetable blanched at 85ºC gave peroxidase inactivity test at
……..………………… minutes.
When blanched at 100ºC, it gave peroxidase test at………………… minutes.
Out of the two temperatures, the maximum retention of sensory attributes was
found at ……………………… minutes and thus this time/temp would be
selected for further processing.
B) The ………….. vegetable blanched at 85° C gave peroxidase inactivity test at
…………… minutes.
When blanched at 100° C, it gave peroxidase test at………………………………
Out of the two temperatures the maximum retention of sensory attributes was
found at …………….. minutes and thus this time/temp would be selected for
further processing.

Conclusion
(Comment on the effectiveness of blanching of vegetables used)
………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

Submit the activity for evaluation.

……………………………..
Counsellor Signature

148
 Preservation of Food

ACTIVITY
2
METHODS FOR BLANCHING VEGETABLES
Aim: To carry out various methods of blanching for the given vegetables. Date: ………….
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• carry out various methods of blanching, and
• select the best method for further processing.
Principle
Blanching and cooling are necessary steps in the processing of vegetables. Blanching
is a partial pre-cooking treatment in which vegetables/fruits are usually heated in
water or in steam before processing. There are many ways of blanching, depending
upon the type of vegetable and the products desired.
The main purpose of blanching before processing is to inactivate enzymes, remove
raw and bitter flavour, stabilize the colour, stabilize the texture, reduce bacterial load
and add desirable additives.
Various methods are employed for blanching of vegetables such as hot water
blanching, steam blanching, microwave blanching with water spray or air cooling or
a combination of these.
Materials Required
Samples of vegetables to be blanched
Metallic Sieves
Microwave
Petri dishes
0.08% peroxide H2O2: Dilute 2.8 ml of 30% H2O2 with water and store in a dark
bottle in a refrigerator. Prepare fresh every week
0.5% Guaiacol in 50% ethyl alcohol
Stop-watch
Thermometers
Beakers
Pestle and mortar
Test tubes
Funnel
Cotton
Distilled water
Filter paper
Procedure
Now carry out the activity following the steps enumerated herewith:
1) Wash the given sample of vegetable thoroughly.
2) Dice or cut the vegetable.
3) Divide the sample into six parts.
4) Expose the first portion of the vegetable to hot water blanching by dipping the
vegetable in water having the temperature of 100° C. Note the time and carry out
peroxidase activity test as given in activity 1. Select the time where the
peroxidase activity is negative.
5) Repeat step 4 with the second portion. In this, the sample should be air dried after
blanching. Carry out the peroxidase test as in activity 1.
149
Principles of Food 6) Place third portion of the vegetable on a sieve and carry out the process of
Science steaming and cooling in cold water. Note the time and conduct peroxidase
activity test.
7) Do the steaming of the fourth portion of the sample along with air cooling of the
sample. Select the time where the peroxidase activity is negative.
8) To the fifth and sixth portion, do microwave blanching along with water and air
cooling respectively. Note for each, the time for peroxidase inactivity.
Results and Discussions
Record your observation in the format given herewith:
S. No. Vegetable Blanching Time taken Cooling Peroxidase Remarks
(min) activity

1. First portion Hot water Water

Second Hot water Air
Third Steam Water
Fourth Steam Air
Fifth Microwave Water
Sixth Microwave Air
2. First portion Hot water Water
Second Hot water Air
Third Steam Water
Fourth Steam Air
Fifth Microwave Water
Sixth Microwave Air

Inference
From the above results, it was found ………………… vegetable, when blanched
with ………………… and cooled by ………………… gave best results in terms of
colour, flavour and texture retention.
From the above results, it was found ………………… vegetable, when blanched
with ………………… and cooled by ………………… gave best results in terms of
colour, flavour and texture retention.
Conclusion
(Comment on the blanching methods used for and peroxide different vegetables
taken)
………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………….

Submit the activity for evaluation.

……………………………….
Counsellor Signature

150
 Preservation of Food

ACTIVITY
3
MOISTURE REMOVAL TECHNIQUES IN FOODS
Aim: To carry out the moisture removal in foods by different drying techniques. Date: ………….
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• make yourselves familiarized with different drying techniques, namely sun-
drying, tray drying and microwave drying, and
• select the best method of dehydration on the basis of various parameters such as
drying time and sensory characteristics of foods.
Principle
The principle of removal of moisture from food includes the process of heat and mass
transfer. Factors increasing heat and mass transfer are larger surface area, greater
temperature difference between the heating medium and the food, higher velocity of
air, dry air, low pressure drying process that employ high temperature for short time
do less damage to food than drying process employing lower temperature for longer
time.
Commercially, various drying processes are in use as air convection driers, cabinet
driers, tray driers, fluidized bed driers, spray driers, drum driers, vacuum drier, freeze
drier etc. However, due to limitation of equipment we will be using three processes
of drying. These are:
• Sun drying
• Tray drying
• Microwave
Materials Required
Sample material
Sieves
Filter paper
Tray dehydrator
Microwave
Muslin cloth
Procedure
Carry out the activity following the steps enumerated herewith:
1) Wash the vegetable thoroughly.
2) Dice vegetable into small pieces.
3) Divide the vegetable into six parts.
4) Keep the first part in the tray dehydrator at 70-75°C.
5) Conduct the blanching of the second portion according to previous activity. Air
dry on filter paper for half an hour and keep in the tray dehydrator at 70-75°C.
6) Keep the third portion after washing for sun dry.
7) To the fourth portion, do blanching and keep for sun drying.
8) Keep the fifth portion in the microwave.
9) To the sixth portion, do blanching and keep in the microwave for drying.
10) Note the change in colour, flavour and texture of all the portions after drying.
11) Keep them for shelf life analysis.
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Principles of Food Results and Observations
Science
Observe the samples for the sensory attributes (like colour, texture, flavour, overall
appearance) and report under remarks column of the observation table given
herewith.

S. Weight of Blanched/ Drying Weight of Remarks

No. the unblanched technique the dried
vegetable (g) used sample (g)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

For shelf life analysis, the sample should be observed after one month for any
changes in the sensory attributes.
Inference
The vegetable dried by …………………. method gave in the best results in terms of
………………………………………………………………………………………..
Conclusions
(Comment on the different drying techniques used to carry out moisture removal in
sample).
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….

Submit the activity for evaluation.

………………………………
Counsellor Signature

152
 Preservation of Food

ACTIVITY
4
REHYDRATION TESTS FOR THE DRIED SAMPLES
Aim: To perform the rehydration tests for the dried samples prepared in activity 3. Date: ………….
Objectives
After undertaking this activity, you will be able to:
• gain knowledge about the sensory changes that take place during the dehydration
of the samples, and
• learn about the effectiveness of different drying techniques.
Principle
Rehydration tests for the dried materials are important as they give idea about the
percentage water in the rehydrated material, rehydration ratio and coefficient of
rehydration. However, no standard method for testing these are available, although
are developed by the plants where the daily evaluation of quality of dried products is
made.
Materials Required
Sample: Culture or dehydrated carrots or dehydrated cauliflower or dehydrated
cabbage. (Take any 3 dried sample).
Beakers – (6)
Distilled water
Filter paper
Burner
Funnel
Weighing balance
Petri dish
Procedure
The following procedure for measuring rehydration is suggested by the US
Department of Agriculture. Follow these steps and carry out the activity.
1) Weigh 2-10 g of the dry material (sample) in six beakers of 500 ml capacity.
2) Add 80-150 ml of distilled water*
3) Cover each beaker with watch glass, bring to a boil within 3 min on an electric
heater/burner and continue boiling for 5 minute.
4) Filter through whatman no. 4 filter paper and drain excess water until the drip
from the funnel has stopped.
5) Remove the sample from the funnel and weigh in a weighed petri dish.
6) Set the sample aside for conducting quality tests.
7) Rehydrate six other 10 g samples, boiling two for 10 minutes, two for
20 minutes, and two for 30 minutes.
8) Boiling should be carried out carefully for proper rehydration of samples.
9) Now record your observations and do the calculations as stated herewith.
*Note: You would notice that the precise amount of water which will actually go into
rehydrating the given sample, will vary with material, time and rate of
boiling

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Principles of Food Calculations
Science
1) Rehydration ratio- If the weight of the dehydrated sample is x g and the drained
weight of the rehydrated sample is y g then rehydration ratio is calculated as:
Ratio being x:y
2) Coefficient of rehydration:
d X [100 – b]
Coefficient of rehydration = -------------------------
[a – c] × 100
where,
d = Drained weight of rehydrated sample
b = moisture content of sample before drying
a = Weight of dried sample taken for rehydration
c = Amount of moisture present in the dried sample taken for rehydration.
(Calculation of moisture present is a lengthy and time consuming process.
We shall hence not go into the process here. For calculation purposes, we
will however take the value 8-10%).
3) Percent water in the rehydrated material
Percent water in the rehydrated material is calculated as:
[d − x] ×100
d
where,
d = drained weight of rehydrated sample
x = dry matter content in the sample taken for rehydration
Precautions
1) The precise amount of water will vary with material, time and rate of boiling.
2) Start the test with at least enough water to submerge the pieces, but do not use so
much water that excess amounts are present at the end of the test.
3) Shake or stir, if necessary, to ensure wetting of all pieces during the test.
4) Control the rate of heating so as to prevent rapid and variable losses of water
while boiling.
Results and Observations
Record the observations of the experiment conducted by you in the space given
herewith. Start with naming the sample.
Sample Name ………………..
Next, calculate the rehydration ratio and coefficient of rehydration for this sample.
1) Rehydration ratio =
X =
Y =
Ratio is :
d × [100 – b]
2) Coefficient of rehydration = -------------------------
[a – c] × 100
d = …………………..
b = …………………..
a = ………………….
c = 8-10%

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Putting into the formula, we have coefficient of rehydration as: Preservation of Food

3) Percent water in the rehydrated material is calculated as:

[d – x] × 100
----------------
d
d = ………….
x = ………….
Percent water is calculated as:

Now, do the calculations for all the dried samples as done for the first sample
Note the results in the table given herewith:

Sample (name of Rehydration Coefficient of Percent Time taken for

the vegetable) ratio rehydration water rehydration

Inference
The time taken for rehydration is ………………….
The rehydration ratio is …………………………..
The coefficient of rehydration is …………………..
Conclusion
(Comment on the comparative drying techniques for rehydration of the products).
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….

Submit the activity for evaluation.

………………………………
Counsellor Signature
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