Continuity of Life

A-level course: Component 1.5

Population Size and Ecosystems

Synoptic Links:
• Respiration
• Photosynthesis
• Biodiversity

Employability Link: Ecologist: Ecologists are concerned with ecosystems as a whole, the abundance
and distribution of organisms (people, plants, animals), and the relationships between organisms
and their environment.
When starting out, ecologists often conduct surveys to identify, record, and monitor species and
their habitats. With career progression, work is likely to become more wide-ranging, with senior
ecologists getting involved in policy and management work.
 Term Definition
The study of living organisms within a habitat and their interactions
Ecology
with both biotic and abiotic factors.
A characteristic community of interdependent species interacting
Ecosystem
with the abiotic components of their habitat.

Habitat The place in which an organism lives.

A group of interbreeding organisms of the same species occupying a

Population
particular habitat.
Interacting populations of two or more species within a particular
Community
habitat.
Environmental
Environmental factors that slow down population growth.
Resistance

Biotic factors Living factors within the environment, e.g. pathogens and predators.

Non-living environmental factors, e.g. air temperature, oxygen

Abiotic factors
availability.
The specific role and position a species plays within a particular
Niche
ecosystem.
The maximum number of individuals a population can sustain within
Carrying capacity
a particular environment.

Intraspecific Competition between members of the same species

Interspecific Competition between members of different species

Random sampling Method of sampling when abiotic factors are uniform

Systematic sampling Method of sampling when there is a change in abiotic factors

Photosynthetic
A measure of the ability of a plant to absorb light energy.
efficiency
The rate of production of chemical energy in organic chemicals by
GPP
photosynthesis (kJ m -2 year-1).
Gross primary productivity minus the energy used up by the
NPP
producers in respiration in a year.

Biological productivity The rate at which biomass accumulates in an ecosystem.

Secondary The rate at which consumers accumulate energy from assimilated

productivity food in biomass in their cells of tissues
The dry mass of organic matter of a group of organisms in a particular
Biomass
habitat.
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 Population Growth
A population is a group of interbreeding organisms of the same species, occupying a particular habitat.
Ecosystems are dynamic and are always subject to change. Population numbers will fluctuate, and this is
dependent on various factors such as:

Birth rate - The reproductive capacity of a population

Death rate - Mortality rate

Immigration - The movement of individuals into a population of the same species

Emigration - The movement of individuals out of a population of the same species

Q1. What would happen to the population size if birth rate and immigration > death rate and
emigration?
Increase

Q2. When describing population growth of bacteria and yeast, would it be correct to use the term ‘birth
rate’? If not, what could be used instead?

No. Cell Division

Population growth curve for an equilibrium species
The population of an equilibrium species is controlled within a stable habitat through competition. If
conditions of temperature and nutrients are favourable the usual pattern of growth is sigmoidal (S-
shaped). Examples include bacteria placed into a fresh nutrient solution or rabbits newly introduced to
an island.

Label the phases of the population growth curve

stationary
Number of organisms

log
death

lag

Time
3
Phases of population growth

Lag phase
Slow rate of reproduction. Period of intense metabolic activity such as enzyme synthesis. In sexually
reproducing organisms such as rabbits, this phase represents the time for individuals to reach sexual
maturity. For yeast placed into a nutrient broth, it represents the time it takes for them to hydrate.

Exponential or log phase

Rapid increase in population numbers as more individuals are available for reproduction. There are no
factors limiting growth. Bacterial cells double per unit time. This rapid rate of reproduction cannot be
maintained indefinitely. Environmental resistance (all of the factors that may limit the growth of a
population) occurs at the end of log phase.

Q1. What environmental resistance will occur for bacteria in a flask?

Glucose availability, overcrowding, competition, toxic waste build up

Q2. What environmental resistance will occur for rabbits on a new island?
Predation, parasitism and disease, competition for food

Stationary phase
Birth rate or cell division is equal to death rate. Factors are limiting any further growth. The population
has reached its carrying capacity – the maximum number of individuals a population can sustain within
a particular environment. The actual number of individuals will fluctuate around the carrying capacity in
response to environmental changes.

Yeast change from asexual reproduction to sexual reproduction as they reach stationary phase and
some individuals survive as spores.

Death phase
Environmental factors now result in death rate becoming greater than birth rate. For example, glucose
running out in a nutrient broth or build-up of ethanol (toxic) when growing yeast.

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 Calculating Population Increase from a Graph
When a population increase is very large, for example in a population of bacteria in a test tube, the
range of numbers is too great to plot a graph on a linear scale. A log10 scale is therefore used, in which
each mark on the population scale is ten times the previous mark.

As a log scale is plotted, we cannot read the actual numbers in the population at day 9 and at day 4. The
actual number in the population is the antilog of the number on the scale.

For the example above:

Number of bacteria at day 9 – number of bacteria at day 4
9-4

= antilog 10 5 – antilog 10 2
9- 4
Q1. Calculate the rate of growth per day in the exponential phase for the bacterial growth curve above,
using the formula given.

Antilog10 5 = 100,000
Antilog10 2 = 100
100,000 – 100 = 99,900
99,900 / 5 = 19,980 per day

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 Factors Affecting Population Size
The size of a population is regulated by the balance between the birth and death rate. Populations do
not remain constant in size, although the fluctuations are normally small. The numbers of most species
lie near an equilibrium - the carrying capacity.

It is possible to distinguish between the factors that will slow down population growth rate and those
that might cause a population crash.

Density dependent factors

Factors that have a greater effect the larger the population size (more likely to slow down population
growth rate).
Examples of density dependent factors include:-
• Disease and parasitism
• Food availability
• Toxic waste build up

Density independent factors

Factors that have an effect regardless of the size of the population (more likely to cause a population
crash).
Examples of density independent factors include:-
• Floods
• Fires
• Sudden temperature changes

Predator-prey relationships
As the population density of a
particular prey (e.g. Snowshoe hare)
increases, more are eaten by the
predator (e.g. Lynx). As a result the
prey population then decreases.
When the prey population increases
there is more available food for the
predator. As a result the predator
population increases.

Competition
Competition has a large impact on the potential breeding success and survival of an organism.
This is due to two types of competition:

• Intra-specific competition - Competition between members of the same species

• Inter-specific competition - Competition between members of different species

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 The Concept of Niche
Only one species can occupy a particular niche within an ecosystem. One species will always
outcompete the other.

This can be demonstrated by growing two different species of the protozoan Paramecium in flasks in a
lab. They both grow well in flasks when grown separately, but when grown together P.aurelia out-
competes P.caudatum for food, so the population of P.caudatum falls.

Q1. State and explain the type of competition demonstrated in this experiment.

Interspecific for food, only one species can occupy the same niche

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 Sampling Techniques
The study of species abundance and distribution is called biogeography.
In an area where abiotic variables are uniform e.g. an open field.
1. Set up a 10 m x 10 m grid and use random numbers to generate coordinates to determine where
to place the 1 m2 quadrat.
2. Count the number of species or percentage cover in each quadrat.
3. Repeat at 10 random coordinates.
4. Calculate a mean for each species.

For consistency, always

place the bottom of the
quadrat at the co-ordinate.

Density - With some species it is easy to count individuals, e.g. plantain. If you count the number of
individuals in 10 quadrats and calculate a mean, data may be presented as a bar graph. The one below
compares density of plantain in trampled and non-trampled grassland.

plantain

Percentage cover - If it is difficult to count individual plants, such as with grass or moss, estimating
percentage cover is useful. The example below occupies about 25% of the area. Using a gridded quadrat
can give a better estimation. A quadrat divided into 10 x 10 squares would mean that each square
represented 1%.

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 Sampling Techniques
If you wanted to sample the change in species over time within an area:
Set up a permanent area within the habitat and create a 10 m x 10 m grid. Generate random
coordinates for quadrat placement and record the number or percentage cover of plant species. This
grid would be visited periodically (every year for 10 years) to gain results for comparison.

In an area where there is a change in an abiotic factor:

Random placement of quadrats are unsuitable if there is an environmental gradient such as altitude or
light intensity. A line along the gradient is instead used. This is called a transect.

• A line transect would be used to describe the difference in plants as you enter a wood. Simply
record the species touching the transect at each point. See example results in the table above.

• A belt transect provides more data than a line transect. Place a quadrat at regular intervals along
the transect. Estimate the density or percentage cover of plant species in each quadrat. As there is
an environmental gradient, it is useful to also measure the varying abiotic factor, e.g. light intensity.

To set up a transect:
1. Run a 20 m tape measure along the area to sample.

2. For a line transect, identify the species touching the transect every half metre along the tape
measure.

3. For a belt transect, place a quadrat down every half metre along the transect and calculate
percentage cover.

4. Repeat multiple times within the area to ensure a representative sample. For a belt transect,
calculate a mean.

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 Sampling Techniques
Kite diagrams
Can be drawn when looking at percentage cover. The table below shows the percentage area cover of
three species along a transect:

Species % area cover at a distance along transect (m)

0 5 10 15 20

Meadow grass 80 60 20 0 0

Moss 10 10 60 60 60

Bracken 20 30 20 40 40

The following kite diagrams could be drawn from this data:

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 Sampling Techniques
The distribution of a species is determined by a range of different variables. These can be grouped into
abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors.

Abiotic (non-living) factors include light intensity, amount of water and nutrients, and temperature.

Biotic (living) variables include bacteria which are living, competition for resources, the amount of
predators and disease.

Write a method for a practical to investigate biodiversity in an open meadow. (5)

Equipment list: Quadrat, 2x tape measure, appropriate equipment to measure variables.

1. Choose a 10x10m area to take samples from. Use a random

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
number generator to generate 10 sets of random coordinates.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Use two tape measures to create a set of axes off which

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
coordinates can be read.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. Place the quadrat at each of the coordinates, placing the

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
bottom left corner on the coordinate every time.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. Record the percentage cover for the chosen species. This can
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
be done by recording how many of the quadrat’s 100 squares
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
contain the chosen species. A square should only be counted
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
if half or more of it is covered.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. At each coordinate, a measure of the independent variable
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
should be taken. For example, if investigating light intensity, a
photometer can be used to take a reading for the light
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
intensity at each coordinate.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Reference to H and S issues and minimising damage to the
area
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a characteristic community of interdependent species interacting with abiotic
components in their habitat. Ecosystems can be large or small.
Q1. What is the source of all energy for an ecosystem?

Light energy from the sun trapped by photosynthesis provides the

energy for almost all ecosystems (other than those based on
chemosynthesis).
A habitat is the place in which an organism lives. A habitat often contains a community of organisms.
A community is populations of different species living within the same habitat.

Trophic levels
These are feeding levels within an ecosystem. Producers are the first trophic level. Energy flows
between the sun, producers and consumers. On the death of the organisms some energy remains
locked up as organic material. Dead particulate organic matter is called detritus. Decomposers are not
classed as a trophic level as they feed from every level.

Q2. Why does an ecosystem rarely support more than 5 trophic levels.

A lot of energy is lost, e.g. through

respiration and excretion.

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 Ecology Equations
Photosynthetic efficiency is a measure of the ability of a plant to absorb light energy. It is calculated
using this formula:

Photosynthetic efficiency = energy incorporated into photosynthetic products

x 100
total light energy falling on the plant

Q1. Why isn’t all light energy that falls on a plant absorbed by photosynthetic pigments?
• Wrong wavelength

• Reflected

• Transmitted straight through the leaf

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the rate of production of chemical energy in organic chemicals
by photosynthesis (kJ m-2 year-1).

Net primary productivity (NPP) is gross primary productivity minus the energy used up by the
producers in respiration in a year. It is therefore the energy in the plants’ biomass.

NPP represents the potential food energy available to heterotrophs in ecosystems. On average GPP is
0.2% of incident global sunlight energy and NPP is 0.1%. NPP represents the potential food/chemical
energy available to heterotrophs in ecosystems

Net primary productivity = GPP – Respiration

Q2. Why don’t consumers take all of this potential energy?

Some parts of a plant are inedible – roots and bark.

Some parts of a plant are indigestible – cellulose.

Complete the table below:

Plant Plant production Respiration Net primary

(GPP) production (NPP)
Cactus 26 2.8 23.2
Ivy 18.2 5.0 13.2
Oak 56 21.8 34.2
Willow 22.3 17.6 4.7
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 Biological Productivity
Biological productivity is the rate at which biomass accumulates in an ecosystem. Biomass is the dry
weight of organic matter comprising a group of organisms in a particular habitat.
Reminder: Net Primary Productivity is the rate at which producers convert energy into biomass.

To find the dry mass of plants ecologists dry samples in an oven at 65°C.
Q1.Describe how the ecologists would be confident that all the water had been removed but none of the
organic matter had been lost.

Repeat until constant mass recorded and ensure there is no burning or

combustion

Secondary productivity is the rate at which consumers accumulate energy from assimilated food in
biomass in their cells or tissues.

As energy is passed along the food chain from one trophic level to the next, there is loss from the food
chain at each level. This is due to:
• Energy in egested molecules – mostly cellulose.
• Energy lost as heat generated in respiration.
• Energy remains in inedible parts of animals e.g. horns, bones and fur.

Q2. Explain why carnivores have a more efficient energy conversion than herbivores:

Protein is more rapidly and easily digested than cellulose.

A lot of cellulose is lost in the faeces of a herbivore.

Q3. Explain why farmers keep animals in barns during the winter:

They won’t have to use as much energy maintaining their body temperature,
so more energy is available to produce biomass (meat).
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 Biological Productivity
Total plant growth within an ecosystem depends on the light intensity, temperature and the supply of
water and inorganic minerals to the ecosystem.

Table 3.1 shows the net primary production by plants in four different ecosystems.

Discuss possible reasons for the differences in net primary production in these ecosystems. [4]

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 Ecological Efficiency
Gross ecological efficiency is a measure of how much energy is transferred from one trophic level
to the next.

Gross ecological efficiency = energy in trophic level

x 100
energy in previous trophic level

Values for gross ecological efficiency differ in different ecosystems:

• They are often around 10%.

• Oceanic food chains can have high values, around 40%.

• Food chains involving birds and mammals may be as low as 1%.

The difference in these three values is because many aquatic organisms don’t regulate their body
temperature and so save a lot of energy. Birds and mammals maintain a high body temperature
(endothermic) and this uses up a lot of energy and is therefore less efficient.

Ecological Equations Summary

Photosynthetic efficiency (a measure of the ability of a plant to absorb light energy). It is calculated
using this formula:

Photosynthetic efficiency = energy incorporated into photosynthetic products

x 100
total light energy falling on the plant

Net Primary Productivity (is gross primary productivity minus the energy used up by the producers
in respiration in a year. It is therefore the energy in the plants’ biomass). It is calculated using this
formula:

Net primary productivity = GPP – Respiration

Gross ecological efficiency (a measure of how much energy is transferred from one trophic level to
the next). It is calculated using this formula:
Gross ecological efficiency = energy in trophic level x 100
energy in previous trophic level

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 Application Questions
Solar
Respiration - lost as heat
Energy
26,532 5,910 497 X
2 x 106

Primary 15,510 Primary 1,400 Secondary 230 Tertiary

producer consumer consumer consumer

1.94 x 10 6
17,958 Y 673 72

Decomposers

In the food chain above, calculate:

(a) (i) X -
230 - 72 = 158
(ii) Y – 15,510 – 5,910 – 1,400 = 8,200

(b) The gross ecological efficiency for:-

i. Primary producer to primary consumer
15,510/60,000 x 100 = 25.85%
ii. Primary consumer to secondary consumer

1,400/15,510 x 100 = 9%
iii. Secondary consumer to tertiary consumer

230/1,400 x 100 = 16.43%

(c) The photosynthetic efficiency

60,000 / 2,000,000 x 100 = 3%

(d) The gross primary productivity

60,000 kJm-2yr-1

(e) The net primary productivity

60,000 – 26,532 = 33,468 kJm-2yr-1
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 Pyramids of Energy
Pyramids can be used to give a quantitative account of the feeding relationships in a community. Below
are examples of pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.

A pyramid of energy shows the quantity of energy transferred from one trophic level to another per unit
area/volume per unit time. e.g. kilo joules per square metre of an ecosystem in one year (kJ/m2/yr).

Q1. How is energy lost at each trophic level?

Heat through respiration, excretion, egestion

Q2. Why can a pyramid of energy never be inverted?

Energy is always lost from one trophic level to the next, cannot be produced

Q3. What aspect of a pyramid of energy overcomes problems associated with pyramids of numbers and
biomass?
Never inverted.

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 Succession
Ecosystems are dynamic and subject to change. Interactions of the organisms and their environment
cause ecosystems to change over time. Succession is the change in structure and species composition of
a community over time.

Primary Succession:
The introduction of plants/animals into areas that have
not previously supported a community e.g. bare rock.

Each stage during succession

when particular communities
dominate is known as a sere.

• Pioneer species are the first organisms to colonise the rock e.g. lichens.

• These organisms slowly erode the rock and the accumulation of dead and
decomposing organic material leads to the formation of primitive soil.

• As the soil develops grasses become established.

• As the soil builds up and nutrient levels increase, deep rooted shrubs appear.

• Over a very long period of time trees and woodlands become established.

• This results in a stable, long lived community known as the climax community.

Secondary Succession:
The reintroduction of organisms into a bare habitat previously occupied by plants and animals that may
have been damaged by fire or tree felling.

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 Succession
Succession is affected by:
• Migration – the arrival of spores, seeds and animals is vital for succession to progress. Immigrating
non-native species may spread themselves widely, altering communities.

• Competition – interspecific competition (like on page 6).

• Facilitation – positive interactions between species that become increasingly significant as

succession progresses. Mutualism is an interaction between two different species that is beneficial
to both, e.g. flowering plants and their pollinators.

Q1. As succession occurs, what happens to species diversity?

Increases

Q2. How do primary and secondary succession differ?

Secondary succession is much more rapid as soil is already present.

Animals also undergo a similar succession, dictated by plant species present at each stage.

Factors that assist in the colonisation of a habitat:

• The seeds previously dispersed by flowering plants and spores from fungi may remain in the soil
and begin to germinate.

• Migrating animals produce droppings. This improves nitrate levels in the soil.

Human interference can affect natural development of the climax community during succession,
e.g.

• Grazing: livestock such as sheep eat the grasses and other plants.

• Moorland management: heather colonisation is controlled by burning.

• Farming: ploughing and growth of crops by monoculture stops trees and shrubs from getting
established.

• Deforestation: trees are cut down and this can cause erosion of soil.

• Industry: e.g. coal mining and quarrying of stone.

• Urban Development: building of new roads and buildings

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 Extension Activities
R1 R2 R3 R4

28745 758

C1 C2 C3 Top
Producers Herbivores Carnivores
20227 919 51 Carnivores

972 3732 110 20

E1 E2 E3 E4

(a) The energy flow through the herbivores can be expressed by this equation:

C1 = C2 + R2 + E2

(i) Calculation the respiratory loss by the herbivores and write your answer in the current position on
the diagram. Show your workings. [2]

3732+919 = 4651
20227-4651 = 15576
(ii) Give the equation that expresses the energy flow through the carnivores. [1]

C2 = C3 + R3 + E3/C3 = C2-(R3+E3)

(b) The values given are for a small wood and are in kJm-2yr1. The area of the wood is 25000 m2.
(i) Calculate the total amount of energy ‘expelled’ by this ecosystem in one year, showing your
working. [2]

Total energy expelled per m2 972 + 3732 + 110 + 20 = 4834

Total energy expelled = 4834 x 25000 = 120,850,000/1.2085x108

(ii) Describe what happens to this ‘expelled’ energy. [2]

Passes to decomposers/detritivores;
respired/used released by decomposers;
lost as heat

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 Extension Activities
1 Distinguish between the terms:
(a) Habitat and niche
The place in which an organism The specific role and position a species
lives. plays within a particular ecosystem.
(b) Population and community

A group of interbreeding organisms of the Interacting populations of two or more

same species occupying a particular habitat. species within a particular habitat.
(c) Ecosystem
A characteristic community of
interdependent species interacting with the
abiotic components of their habitat.
2(a) Calculate the species frequency of a species found in 78 out of 130 quadrats.

78/130 = 0.6
(b) Using a frame quadrat 50 cm x 50 cm, the mean number of a species of plant per quadrat was 4.2.
Calculate the species density of the plant m–2.

(c) If a point quadrat containing ten pins was used ten times and the same species of plant was hit by a
total of 42 pins, calculate the percentage cover of the plant.

3(a) Random numbers are a good way of generating co-ordinates for random sampling. Suggest one
limitation of random sampling.

(b) Explain the difference between random sampling and systematic sampling.

(c) Explain how the limitation(s) of random sampling are minimized by systematic sampling.

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 Extension Activities
4 Investigating the distribution of two species of plants that appeared to be influenced by light intensity,
ten 1 m x 1 m quadrats were placed at random in a small copse of area 400 m x 250 m. As well as the
number of the two species in each quadrat, the light intensity was recorded as a percentage of that
outside the copse. The results are shown on the right.
(a) Calculate the percentage of the habitat that was sampled.
Area of habitat = 400 m  250 m = 100,000 m2
Area sampled = 10  1 m2 = 10 m2
Percentage sampled = (10/100 000)  100 = 0.01%
(b) Draw a graph to illustrate these results.

Graph with light

intensity on the x axis,
both axes scaled with
units in ascending
order, points accurately
plotted, curves
identified.

(c) What were the limitations of this investigation?

Too small an area sampled. Other environmental factors not measured, e.g. soil water
content, soil pH.
5(a) Describe one method for sampling animals in a named habitat.
Kick sampling, sweep nets, pitfall traps, sticky traps, light traps, Baermann funnel,
Tullgren funnel, mammal traps, quadrats, transects.
(b) To estimate the number of trout in a pen, 63 were netted, marked, and released. A few days later 54
trout were netted, of which 34 were marked. Calculate the approximate size of the population of trout
in the pen.

63  54/34 = 100.
(c) List three assumptions that are made in reaching an estimate of the population size using the mark–
release–recapture method.

That enough time is allowed for marked individuals to disperse among the population; that
they integrate with unmarked individuals at random; that there is an equal chance of
marked and unmarked individuals being caught; that the marking procedure does not
disadvantage the animals in any way; that the marks have not been lost; that both samples
are random; that the population size does not change during the study period.
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