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Armature Reaction
The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a magnetic field, which is called as
armature flux. This armature flux distorts and weakens the magnetic flux produced by the main
poles. This effect of armature flux on the main flux is known as armature reaction.

Case 1
Consider a two pole generator on no-load. Thus, the current in the armature conductors is zero.
Under this condition, there is only the main flux (φm) in the machine which is produced by the main
poles. This main flux is distributed symmetrically with respect to the polar axis (i.e. centre line of
field poles).

The magnetic neutral axis (MNA, which is a plane perpendicular to the axis of flux) coincides with
the geometrical neutral axis (GNA). The brushes are always placed along MNA, hence the MNA
is also called as axis of commutation.

Case 2
Now consider the armature carrying current with no current in the field coils. The direction of flux
produced by the current in the armature conductors may be determined by cork-screw rule. Refer
the figure, the conductors under the N-pole carry current in the direction into the plane of paper.
Thus, the flux produced by the conductors under the N-pole is in the downward direction.
Similarly, the conductors under the S-pole carry current in the direction out of the plane of paper.
These conductors also produce a flux which is directed downward. Therefore, all the armature
conductor produces a flux through the armature in the downward direction. This flux is known as
armature flux (φA).

Case 3
This case shows the condition when the field current and armature currents are acting
simultaneously. Hence, there are two fluxes inside the machine, one is produced by the main field
poles of the generator and the other by the current in the armature conductors. These two fluxes
combine to give a resultant flux (φR).

From the above discussion, it can be seen that the main flux entering the armature is shifted and
distorted. The distortion increases the flux density in the upper pole tip of the N-pole and in the
lower pole tip of the S-pole. Similarly, there is a decrease in the flux density in the lower pole tip
of the N-pole and in the upper pole tip of the S-pole. Therefore, the direction of the resultant flux
has shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.
Since the MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant flux, hence the MNA is also
shifted. Due to the non-linear behaviour and saturation of the core, the increase in the flux in one
pole tip is less than the decrease in the flux in the other pole tip. This results in, the main flux is
decreased. Consequently, the generated emf (Eg ∝ Nφm) is decreased with the increase in load.

Effects of Armature Reaction

The armature reaction in a DC generator causes the following adverse effects

• As the total field flux produced by each pole is slightly reduced, which reduces the
generated EMF.
• Due to the shifting of the resultant flux axis, the MNA is also shifted in the direction of
rotation of the generator.
• Due to the armature reaction, a flux is established in the commutating zone or neutral zone.
This flux in the neutral zone induces conductor voltage that causes the commutation
problems.

Remedies to the Armature Reaction Effect

There are four methods to reduce the armature reaction problem

Adjust the Brush Position

In this method, rotate the brush mechanism to find the correct neutral zone position. This can be
applied only fixed load current.

Modify the Ends of the Poles

In this method, the field pole tip is to be modified so that high flux cannot exist on the ends because
of the high reluctance path.

Interpoles

The effect of armature reaction can be reduced by placing a set of interpoles or commutating poles
between the main poles of the DC generator. The polarity of interpole must be that of the main pole
just next of it in the direction of rotation. The interpole windings are connected in series with the
armature so that respective fluxes rise and fall together with the changes in the load current.

Compensating Winding

The heavy duty operations produce very sudden changes in the armature reaction. In such
generators, the interpoles do not adequately neutralise the armature flux. Hence, to overcome this
problem, the compensating windings are used.
The compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in the slots of the main poles. The
compensating winding is connected in series with the armature in such a way that the direction of
the current in the compensating conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the direction of
current through the adjacent armature conductors. Hence, the compensating windings produce a
flux equal and opposite to the armature flux and thus completely neutralise the armature reaction

Action of Commutator in DC
Generator
The currents induced in the armature winding of a DC generator are alternating
in nature. The action of commutator (called commutation) involves the change
from a generated alternating current to a direct current.

Explanation
Consider a commutator consisting of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two
segments C1 and C2 respectively separated by a thin sheet of mica. The
commutator is mounted on the rotor shaft and insulated from it. The ends of
the armature coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2
respectively. Two stationary carbon brushes are placed on the commutator
and carry current to the external load. Thus, with this arrangement, the
commutator always connects the coil side under S-pole to the positive brush
and under the N-pole to the negative brush.

Case 1
Here, the coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole and S-pole respectively (see
the figure). The coil side AB is connected to the segment C1 which is connected
to the point x of the load R. and the coil side CD is connected to the segment
C2 which is connected to the point y of the load R. The direction of the current
through the load is from y to x.
Case 2
After 180° rotation of the loop, the coil side AB is under the influence of S-pole
and the coil side CD is under the influence of N-pole (see the figure). Thus, the
currents in the coil sides now flow in the reverse directions but the segments
C1 and C2 have also moved through 180° so that the segment C1 is now in
contact with the positive brush and the segment C2 is in contact with negative
brush.

In this way, the commutator has reversed the coil connections with the load
i.e. the coil side AB is now connected to y terminal and the coil side CD is
connected to x terminal. Therefore, the direction of the current through the
load is again from y to x.

Thus, the alternating voltage generated in the armature winding will appear
as the direct voltage across the brushes and hence across the load terminals.
 Method of improving Commutation
In DC machines, there are mainly three methods to obtain good commutation.
They are

• Resistance Commutation
• Voltage Commutation
• Compensating Windings

Resistance Commutation
In the resistance commutation method of improving commutation, the high
resistance carbon brushes are used. This increases the resistance between the
contact of commutator segments and brushes. This high contact resistance
has the tendency to force the current in the short-circuited coils to reverse
according to commutation requirements and then increase in the reverse
direction.

Voltage Commutation
In voltage commutation method, the arrangements are made to induce a
voltage in the coil undergoing commutation, which will neutralise the reactance
voltage. This induced voltage is in opposite direction to the reactance voltage.
If the value of induced voltage becomes equal to the reactance voltage, then
the quick reversal of current in the short circuited coil will take place and there
will be sparkless commutation.

There are two methods of inducing voltage opposite to the reactance voltage

• Brush Shift
• Interpoles or Commutating Poles
Brush Shift

The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is shifted in the direction of rotation (for the
generator) and against the direction of rotation (for the motor) due to the
effect of armature reaction. The armature reaction creates a flux in the neutral
zone and due to this flux, a small voltage is induced in the commutating coil.
Therefore, by shifting the brushes to the new MNA, the sparkless commutation
can be obtained.
Interpoles or Commutating Poles

Some small field poles are also attached to the yoke of the machine and placed
midway between the main field poles, are known as interpoles or commutating
poles. The windings of the interpoles are connected in series with the
armature, because the interpoles must produce fluxes that are directly
proportional to the armature current.

The MMF produced by the armature and interpoles being acted simultaneously
by the same armature current. Due to this, the armature flux in the neutral
zone which tends to shift the MNA, is neutralised by the interpole flux.
Therefore, the neutral axis is adjusted in position regardless of the load.

In DC machines, the following rules are used for deciding the polarity of the
interpoles

• For a Generator, the polarity of interpole must be the same as that of the next main
field pole in the direction of rotation.
• For a Motor, the polarity of interpole must be opposite to that of the next main field
pole in the direction of rotation.

The interpoles only provide the flux which is sufficient to assure good
commutation. They do not overcome the distortion due to the cross-
magnetisation effect.

Compensating Windings
To improve the commutation in DC machines, the commutating windings are
used, which eliminates the effect of armature reaction and flashover by
balancing the armature flux.

Commutating windings are the auxiliary windings placed in the slots provided
in the pole faces parallel to the armature conductors and are connected in
series with the armature. The direction of current in the compensating winding
is opposite to the armature winding, hence the commutating windings produce
a flux which is opposite to the armature flux. Therefore, they neutralise the
armature flux and the flux per pole being undisturbed by the armature flux
regardless of the load conditions.

Load sharing is the method of distributing the load

(or power demand) among multiple generators so
that no one generator is overloaded. This is usually
done by using a load-sharing controller, which
automatically adjusts the output of each generator
based on the demand
 Characteristics of DC Generators –
Series, Shunt and Compound

Characteristics of DC Generators
The speed of a DC generator is made constant by the prime mover. Under such
conditions, the performance of the generator is given by the relation among
the excitation, terminal voltage and load. These relations are given graphically
in the form of curves, which are called as characteristics of DC generators.
These characteristics show the behaviour of the DC generator under different
load conditions.

The following are the main characteristics of a DC generator

Open Circuit Characteristics or Magnetisation Curve

This is the graph plotted between the generated EMF at no-load (E0) and the
field current (If) at a given constant speed. It is also known as no-load
saturation curve. Its shape being practically the same for all types of DC
generators whether separately-excited or self-excited.

Internal Characteristics

It is the graph plotted between generated EMF (E) on-load and the armature
current. Because of the effect of armature reaction, the magnetic flux on-load
will be less than the flux at noload. Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under
loaded condition will be less than the EMFgenerated (E0) at no-load. As a result
of this, the internal characteristics curve lies just below the open circuit
characteristics.

External Characteristics or Load Characteristics

The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot between the

terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). Since, the terminal voltage is less
than the generated voltage due to armature and series field copper losses.
Hence, the external characteristics curve will lie below the internal
characteristics curve by an equal amount to voltage drop due to copper losses
in the machine.

Characteristics of DC Series Generator

In a DC series generator only one current flows through the whole machine.
Therefore, the armature current, load current and excitation all are same.

Open Circuit Characteristics (O.C.C)

The curve (1) in the plot shows the O.C.C of a series DC generator. It is the
graph plotted between the generated EMF at no-load and field current. The
O.C.C can be obtained by disconnecting the field winding from the machine
and is excited separately.

Internal Characteristics

The internal characteristics of a DC series generator is the graph plotted

between generated EMF (E) on-load and the armature current. Because of the
effect of armature reaction, the magnetic flux on-load will be less than the flux
at no-load. Therefore, the generated EMF (E) under loaded condition will be
less than the EMF generated (E0) at no-load. As a result of this, the internal
characteristics curve lies just below the open circuit characteristics [See the
curve (2)].

External Characteristics or Load Characteristics

The external characteristics or load characteristics is the plot between the

terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL}). Since, the terminal voltage is less
than the generated voltage due to armature and series field copper losses,
which is given by,

V=E−Ia(Ra+Rse)V=E−Ia(Ra+Rse)

Therefore, the external characteristics curve will lie below the internal
characteristics curve by an equal amount to voltage drop due to copper losses
in the machine [see the curve (3)].

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

In a shunt generator, the armature current splits up into two parts: one is
Ish flowing through the field winding and the other is IL which goes to the
external load.

Open Circuit Characteristics

The curve (1) in the figure shows the open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt
generator which is same as that of the series generator.

Internal Characteristics

When the load is connected to the generator, the generated EMF (E) is reduced
due the reduced flux per pole because of the effect of armature reaction.
Therefore, the generated EMF under loaded condition is less than the
generated EMF at no-load. As a result of this, the internal characteristics drops
down slightly [see the curve (2)].
External Characteristics

It gives the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and the load current (IL).
It is also known as load characteristics or terminal characteristics.

V=E−IaRaV=E−IaRa

Therefore, the external characteristics lies below the internal characteristics

by an amount equal to voltage drop due to armature resistance.

External or Load Characteristics of DC Compound

Generator
In compound DC generators, both the series and shunt fields are combined.
Depending upon the connection of field winding with the armature, the
compound generators are of either shortshunt or long-shunt type. The
cumulative compound generators are mostly used; hence we shall discuss the
characteristics of cumulatively-compound DC generator.

In a cumulatively-compound DC generator, the series field aids the shunt field.

The degree of compounding depends upon the series field excitation with the
increase in the load current.

Over-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that with the increase in the load
current, the full-load terminal voltage is greater than the no-load terminal
voltage, then the generator is known as over-compounded generator [see the
curve (1)].
Flat-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the full load terminal voltage is
equal to the noload terminal voltage, the generator is known as flat-
compounded generator or level compounded generator [see the curve (2)].

Under-Compounded Generator

If the series field turns are so adjusted that, the terminal voltage at full load
is less than the terminal voltage at no-load, the generator is known as under-
compounded generator [see the curve (3)].

Applications of DC Generators

There are different types of DC generators are available for the various types
of applications. The applications of various types of DC generators based on
their characteristics are as follows −

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

A separately excited DC generator requires an independent external DC source
for the excitation of field winding. Thus, it is expensive and being rarely used.
Following are some application of separately excited DC generators −

• These are able to produce a wide range of voltage output, they are primarily used in
laboratory and commercial testing.
• These are used in speed regulation tests.
• These generators operate in a stable condition with any change in field excitation.
Therefore, they are also used in supplying power to the DC motors, whose speed being
to be controlled.

Applications of Series DC Generators

A series DC generator has limited applications. Some of the applications of a
series DC generator are as follows
 • The rising characteristics of a series DC generator makes it suitable for voltage
boosting applications in the feeders in the various types of distribution systems.
• A series DC generator has the tendency to supply constant load current. Hence,
several series generators can be connected in series to provide high voltage DC power
transmission at constant load current.
• The series DC generators are also used in supplying field excitation current in DC
locomotives for regenerative breaking.
• The series generators also find applications in series arc lightening.

Applications of Shunt DC Generators

A shunt DC generator produces constant terminal voltage for small distance
operations. Therefore, these are used in following applications

• They are used for battery charging applications.

• Shunt DC generators with field regulators are used for lighting and power supply
purposes.
• Use for giving excitation to the alternators.

Applications of Compound DC Generators

The compound DC generators are used in following applications

• The over compounded generators have ability to compensate voltage drop in the
transmission lines and tends to maintain constant voltage at the consumer’s end.
Therefore, the over compounded generators are used in supplying loads through long
transmission lines.
• Cumulative compound generators are used for supplying power to DC motors.
• Cumulative compound generators are used for lighting, power supply purposes and
for heavy power services, etc.
• The differential compound generators are used for arc welding purposes where a
large voltage drop and constant current is required