Lecture -5

Control Systems

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 1

 Control Systems

Control engineering is the application of mathematical

techniques to the design of algorithms and devices to
control processes or pieces of machinery.
It almost always requires a model of the entity that is
being controlled
If a system can be modeled by a set of linear
differential equations there are well understood
techniques for getting exact analytical solutions, and
so designing controllers so that the output of the
system is the required one

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 2

 Real-World Systems
Unfortunately, most real-world
systems are non-linear in nature
Example: Pendulum

In these cases, the nonlinear system is often

approximated by a linear system
For the Pendulum, assume sin() ≈ , which yields:

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 3

 Control System Non-Linearity
Saturation – Occurs when the input
signal to a certain device exceeds
the ability of the device to process it
• Input – sensors

• Output – motors

 For output, saturation means that the required compensation

can no longer be applied to the control system
• In general, it is good practice to limit the signal to the saturation value
in software
 When an input reaches the saturation point, it no longer
provides a reliable estimate of the real world

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 4

 Continued…
Dead Zone – Because the sensitivity of
actuators is limited, not every non-zero
input will result in action.
The Dead Zone is the +/- region above a
zero (0) input that will result in no
actuator movement.

Backlash – Term describing actuator

hesitation and overshoot caused by
small gaps between motor gears
Can result in small, but unnecessary,
oscillations of the actuator position

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Continued…

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 Control System Components
 Target Value – The desired operating point of the overall
system, which is speed.
 Measured Value – The actual operating point of the system. It
is affected by external and internal factors.
 Difference Value – This is the difference between the target
value and the measured value. Translates into feedback.
 Control Input – This is the main adjusting point of the control
system. The amount of fuel delivered to the engine is the
primary control input to the cruise control
 Control Algorithm – Determines how to best regulate the
control input to make the difference value as close to zero as
possible. It does this by periodically looking at the difference
value and adjusting the control input
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 7
 Open Loop Controller
The Open Loop Controller (OLC) is the simplest kind
The controller sends an input signal to the plant
It does not compensate for disturbances that occur after the
control stage
Actual effects are assumed – not measured
No feedback to match actual to intended

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 8

 Continued…
The OLC is commonly used for behavior-based
systems
If a trigger condition is met , then the behavior is
activated
Behavior is performed until the condition is no longer
met
If the condition is not met, the (assumedly) some other
behavior is activated
You would likely use an OLC if you have no way
of measuring your operating point (e.g., the
value you are trying to control)
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 9
 Closed Loop Controller
In Closed-loop control, the output is sensed and compared with
the reference. The resulting error signal is fed back to the
controller [feedback].
Components:
Reference – Desired State
Controller – Issues Commands
Plant – Actuator

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 10

 What is Feedback?
Feedback: continuous monitoring of the sensors and reacting to their
changes.
Feedback control = self-regulation
Two kinds of feedback: positive and negative
Negative feedback acts to regulate the state/output of the system
e.g., if too high, turn down, if too low, turn up
thermostats, toilets, bodies, robots...
Positive feedback acts to amplify the state/output of the system
e.g., the more there is, the more is added
lynch mobs, stock market, ant trails...
Often results in system instability

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 11

 Continued…
[Negative] Feedback keeps the operation of the system smooth
and stable

Closed Loop Controller issues:

How quickly will the system respond to error?
How long will it take the system to reach equilibrium?
What, if any, residual error will remain?
Under what conditions will the system become unstable?
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What is important in a control system?
Response speed
 Accuracy
 Dynamic overshoot
 steady-state error

 Stability

 Robustness

 errors in models

 Non-linear and variable

process dynamics
 Effects of disturbances
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 13
 Example of a Closed Loop
Controller
Input Error Output
Computation Actuator Control Velocity
+ (Brain) (Auto Pedals) (Engine Power)
Desired - Actual
Position
Position

Sensing
(Eyes)
Velocity

Time
Velocity decreases as the
car gets closer to the
desired position

Velocity
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 Continued…

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 Flight Control System
Roll angle Hold Mode
Feedback element-Gyroscope Sensor
Controller- flight computer
Actuator- Ailerons

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Design Process Flow

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Control System Design Process
The main steps are:
Establishment of goals and variables to be
controlled;
Technical specifications definition or
measurements of performance;
Modeling;
Model response analysis;
Controller design, simulation and analysis
Finally, integrating and practical implementation.
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 Manipulator Dynamics
Dynamics Model of n-link Arm

  D(q)q  H (q, q )  C(q)

The Acceleration-related Inertia term, Symmetric Matrix
The Coriolis and Centrifugal terms
 1 
The Gravity terms Driving torque applied
    
on each link
 n 

Non-linear, highly coupled , second order differential equation

Joint torque Robot motion

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 State Feedback Control
Linear Control System
• State space equation of a system (1)
x  Ax  Bu
• Example: a system:
 x1  x2  x1  0 1  x1  0
  x   0 0  x   1u
 x2  u  2   2   
 Eigenvalue of A are the root of characteristic equation
 1 2
I  A  0 I  A 
0 
 0

Asymptotically stable all eigenvalues of A have negative real

part

20
 Continued…
• Find a state feedback controlu   K  x such that the
closed loop system is asymptotically stable
 x1 
u  k1 k 2   (Equ. 2)
 x2 
• Closed loop system becomes A

x  ( A  BK ) x u x x
B 

-K

• Chose K, such that all eigenvalues of A’=(A-BK) have

negative real parts

 1
I  A'   2  k2  k1  0
k1   k2
21
 Feedback Linearization
Nonlinear system
X  f ( x)  G( x)U

U  [G 1 ( x) f ( x)  G 1 ( x)V ]

Example: X  V Linear System

V Nonlinear U Dynamic x
Original system: Feedback System
x  cos x  U
Nonlinear feedback:
U  cos x  V Linear system: x  V

22
 Joint level PID control
• Each joint is a servo-mechanism
• Adopted widely in industrial robot
• Neglect dynamic behavior of whole arm
• Degraded control performance especially in high
speed
• Performance depends on configuration
e  qd  q
e e q q
Trajectory q d q d tor
Controller Robot
Planner qd _

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 Key Points About PID
Gain(s) --The parameter(s) that determine the magnitude of the
system’s response.
Gain values determine whether or not the system stabilizes or fluctuates.
Finding effective gains is a trial and error process, requiring testing and
recalibration.
Proportional Gain – When the value of the gain is proportional to
the error.
Damping – The process of systematically decreasing a system’s
fluctuations
A system is damped if it does not oscillate out of control.
Generally, the gains have to be adjusted for a system to be damped
Steady State Error – The amount of error that remains after the
system has reached equilibrium

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 Continued…

• KP – Proportional Gain
• KI – Integral Gain
• KD – Derivative Gain

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 PID Controller Response Curve
Controlled
variable
Overshoot
%
Steady state error

Transient State Steady State

Time
Settling time

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 26

 Continued…
Rise Time (Tr) – The time for the plant output y to rise beyond
90% of the desired level for the first time
Overshoot – How much the peak level is higher than the
steady state, normalized against the steady state
The time required for the output to reach its maximum level is
called the Peak Time (Tp)
Settling Time (Ts) – The time it takes for the system to
converge to its steady state
Transient State – The period from the detection of error until
its approximate correction, resulting in the steady state
Steady-state Error – The difference between the steady-state
output and the desired output.
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Effect of Increasing PID Factors

KI

KP KD

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 Optimizing Performance
PID Tuning – By Hand
• Boost Kp until it oscillates
• Boost KD to stop oscillation, back off Kp by
10%
• Dial in KI to Hold position or velocity smooth
• Trial and error
PID tuning – By Design
• Zeigler-Nichols Method (next slide)
Other:
• Work to minimize environmental interference
and sensor error (two are typically coupled)
• Smart design helps too
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 Zeigler-Nichols Tuning Rule for
PID Controllers

Yields ~25% overshoot

and good settling time

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 Why PID Controller?
 Because PID Controllers are everywhere!
 Due to its simplicity and excellent if not optimal performance
in many applications, PID controllers are used in more than
95% of closed-loop industrial processes.
 It can be tuned by operators without extensive background in
Controls, unlike many other modern controllers that are much
more complex but often provide only marginal improvement.
• In fact, most PID controllers are tuned on-site.

 The lengthy calculations for an initial guess of PID parameters

can often be circumvented if we know a few useful tuning
rules. This is especially useful when the system is unknown

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 31

 Computed Torque Method
D(q)q  H (q, q )  C (q)  
Robot system: 
 Y  h( q )

Controller:
tor  D(q)[qd  kv (q d  q )  k p (q d  q)]  H (q, q )  C (q)

(qd  q)  kv (q d  q )  k p (q d  q)  0

How to
chose Kp, Kv
Error dynamics e  kv e  k p e  0 ?

Advantage: compensated for the dynamic effects

Condition: robot dynamic model is known
32
 Continued…
How to chose Kp, Kv
to make the system
Error dynamics e  kv e  k p e  0 stable?

x1  e x1  x2
Define states:
x2  e x2  kv x2  k p x1
 x1   0 1   x1 
In matrix form:
 x    k   
 kv   x2 
 AX
 2  p
 1
Characteristic equation: I  A   2  kv   k p  0
kp   kv
 k v  k v  4k p
2

The eigenvalue of A matrix is: 1, 2 

2 kv  0
Condition:  have negative real part One of a
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom
selections: k p  033
 Non-linear Feedback Control
Linear System
e  Yd  Y
Task level Yd e Linear U Nonlinear tor Robot q Forward Y
Planner Yd  Controller Feedback
_e
Dynamics q Kinematics Y

Robot System: D(q)q  H (q, q )  C (q)  


 Y  h( q )
d
Y  [h(q)]  q  Jq
Jocobian: dq Y  Jq  Jq q  J 1 (Y  Jq )

D(q) J 1 (Y  Jq )  H (q, q )  C (q)  

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 34
 Continued…
• Non-linear Feedback Control
Linear System
e  Yd  Y
Task level Yd e Linear U Nonlinear tor Robot q Forward Y
Planner Yd  Controller Feedback
_e
Dynamics q Kinematics Y

Design the nonlinear feedback controller as:

tor  D(q) J 1 (U  Jq )  H (q, q )  C (q)
Then the linearized dynamic model:
D(q) J 1Y  D(q) J 1U Y  U

Design the linear controller: U  Yd  kv (Yd  Y )  k p (Yd  Y )

Error dynamic equation: e  kv e  k p e  0
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 35
 Digital Control
Digital control offers distinct advantages over analog
control that explain its popularity.
Accuracy: Digital signals are more accurate than their
analogue counterparts.
Implementation Errors: Implementation errors are
negligible.
Flexibility: Modification of a digital controller is possible
without complete replacement.
Speed: Digital computers may yield superior performance
at very fast speeds
Cost: Digital controllers are more economical than analogue
controllers. Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 36
Structure of a Digital Control
System

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Drug Delivery System

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 What is Active Vibration Control?
It is process of producing a secondary displacement to
interact with the sensed displacement in destructive
interference nature .

Such system Consists of:

 Sensor (to detect the vibration).
 An electronic controller (to suitably manipulate signal from
the detector).
 An actuator (which influences the mechanical response of the
system).
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 39
Active Suspension System

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 40

 Piezoelectric Effect
 Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques discovered the
effect in 1880.
 Appearance of an electrical potential across some faces
of a crystal when it is under pressure and of distortion.

 When an electrical field is applied, the ions are displaced

by electrostatic forces, resulting in the mechanical
deformation of the whole crystal.
 Piezoelectric crystals are used in such devices as both a
sensor and actuator.
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 41
 Why Piezoelectric materials as sensor
and Actuator?
Piezoelectric materials can transform mechanical energy
into electrical energy and vice versa.
 Fast response
 Miniature size

High power density

 Large force output

 No magnetic field

 High bandwidth

Therefore, these materials are ideal for vibration

suppression applications as sensors and actuators.
Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 42
 Piezoelectric Sensing Law
Sensing law
The resulting electric displacement vector is

The total generated charge on the sensor surface due to the strain
is: q(t)   D3 dA    e31 x  e32 y  e33 x  dA   e31 x  e31 y dA
A A A
Then the equivalent current becomes:

The output voltage of the charge amplifier in frequency domain

becomes:

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 43

 Piezoelectric Actuation Law

Actuation law
The above equation can be alternatively written in the form:

Therefore, it is clear that the structure will be stressed due to the

application of electric field even in the absence of mechanical
load.
The force vector for plate element as a function of force per unit
area is given by

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 44

 System Identification

O/P
O/P DAQ I/PI/P

Out put Input

PZT HOST beam

0.01 m 0.024 m 0.01 m 0.024 m 0.232 m

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 45

 MATLAB System Identification
Toolbox

Input data to system Modeled system

identification identification

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 46

System Stimulus and Response

Mechatronics Dr. Riessom 47