Chapter 3: Hardware

3.1 Computer architecture

1. Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer

Ans:

The CPU processes instructions and data that are input into the computer so that the result can be output.

∙ It processes/executes instructions/data

∙ It carries out calculations

∙ It carries out logical operations

2. Understand what is meant by a microprocessor

Ans: A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

3. State the purpose of a core in the CPU.

Ans:

 To process / execute an instruction

 To perform a fetch-decode-execute cycle
4. Identify the Different components of CPU.
Control Unit:
 It sends control signals that manage the transfer of data and instructions within the CPU
 It fetches an instruction from the memory
 It decodes an instruction using an instruction set.

Arithmetic Logic Unit:

It performs the arithmetic and logical calculations,

5. What is the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von Neumann
architecture
Ans:
 An instruction is fetched from RAM into the CPU, where it is temporarily stored in the MDR.
 The instruction is then sent along the data bus to the Control Unit (CU) to be decoded .
 The ALU will then perform any Calculations and logic operations that are required to execute
the instruction
6. What is meant by clock speed?
Ans:
The (maximum) number of FDE cycles/instructions a CPU can perform in a second.
It regulates the number of fetch–decode–execute cycles the CPU can perform in a second.
Ex: 2.4Ghz clock speed-: It means that The CPU completes) 2.4 billion cycles/clock pulses per
second
7. The CPU contains registers and buses. Explain register & buses.

Ans:
Registers:
It is used to store or holds data / address / instruction temporarily.
The different registers used are:
- Memory address register // MAR
- Memory data register//MDR
- Program counter // PC
- Current instruction register // CIR
- Accumulator // ACC

Buses:
Address bus :Transmit/It carries addresses throughout the computer system. Between the CPU
and memory, the address bus is unidirectional (i.e. bits can travel in one direction only);

Data bus: Transmit / carries data between components in the CPU. The data bus is bidirectional
(allowing data to be sent in both directions along the bus). This means data can be carried from
CPU to memory (and vice versa) and to and from input/output devices.
 Control bus: Transmits control signals from the control unit to other components in the CPU. The
control bus is also bidirectional. It carries signals from the control unit (CU) to all the other
computer components. It is usually 8-bits wide

8. Accumulator:
Ans: To temporarily store data • It stores the result of interim calculations

9. What does MDR and MAR hold?

Ans:
MDR: It Stores data that is read from/written to RAM from the address in the which is passed to CIR
MAR: To temporarily store addresses of data that is written to/read from RAM

10. How is MDR and ALU used in the Fetch execute cycle?

a) Data fetched from RAM is stored in the MDR

b) Data from MDR is sent to ALU to be executed
c) ALU performs calculation and logical operations on data
d) ALU has a built-in register called accumulator where it stores interim results of calculations
e) After calculations, ALU sends data to MDR
f) Data is sent from MDR to be written to RAM
Fetch Execute Decode Cycle:

To carry out a set of instructions, the CPU first of all fetches some data and instructions from
memory and stores them in suitable registers. Both the address bus and data bus are used in this
process. Once this is done, each instruction needs to be decoded before finally being executed.
This is all known as the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle.

Fetch: Both data and instruction can be stored in MDR. In the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle, the
next instruction is fetched from the memory address currently stored in the MAR and the
instruction is stored in the MDR. The contents of the MDR are then copied to the Current
Instruction Register (CIR). The PC is then incremented (increased by 1) so that the next
instruction can be then be processed.

Decode The instruction is then decoded so that it can be interpreted in the next part of the cycle.

Execute The CPU passes the decoded instruction as a set of control signals to the appropriate
components within the computer system. This allows each instruction to be carried out in its
logical sequence.
11. Describe the Factors that affect the CPU performance
Cores, cache and internal clock
Ans:
Multiple Cores instead of single core: More instructions can be processed simultaneously

Increase in clockspeed: - Increases the performance of the CPU. The Tasks can be performed quicker
because more FDE cycles/instructions can be processed in a second

Cache: Cache memory is located within the CPU itself, which means it has much faster data access times
than RAM. Cache memory stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be accessed faster,
which improves CPU performance. When a CPU wishes to read memory, it will first check out the cache
and then move on to main memory/RAM if the required data isn’t there. The larger the cache memory
size the better the CPU performance.

The width of the address bus and data bus (as mentioned earlier) can also affect computer performance
and needs to be taken into account.

Ex: The wider the bus, the more memory locations that can be directly addressed at any given time, e.g.
a bus of width 16bits can address 216 (65536) memory locations whereas a bus width of 32bits allows
4294967296 memory locations to be simultaneously addressed.

the wider the data bus the larger the word length that can be transported.

12. What is Instruction set?

Ans: The CPU has a list of all the machine code commands it can process. These commands are called as
Instruction set.
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

13. Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and identify devices in which they
are commonly used
Ans:
An embedded system is used to perform a dedicated function, e.g. domestic appliances, cars, security
systems, lighting systems or vending machines.
This is different to a general purpose computer that is used to perform many different functions, e.g. a
personal computer (PC) or a laptop

 Performs a single/limited/dedicated function

 Normally based around a microprocessor
 Often don’t require an operating system
 It is normally built into a larger device/system

Ex: Washing Machine, - security light system,- freezer, vending machine
 3.2 Input and output devices

14. Define Input device.

Ans:

 Every computer system receives commands and data, from the real world, via input devices
 Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed.
 Ex: keyboard, optical mouse, microphone, barcode scanner, digital camera, QR code scanner,
touch screen (resistive, capacitive and infra-red), 2D and 3D scanners

15. Define Output Device

 An output device shows the results of the processing in a way humans can understand
 In a general purpose computer system, the main output device is the monitor/screen
 Other output devices include projectors, printers, speakers and actuators

16. Jamelia has a greenhouse that she uses to grow fruit and vegetables. She needs to make sure the
temperature in the greenhouse stays between 25°C and 30°C (inclusive).
A system that has a temperature sensor and a microprocessor is used to maintain the temperature
in the greenhouse.

The system will:

• open a window and turn a heater off if it gets too hot

• close a window and turn a heater on if it gets too cold.

Describe how the system uses the temperature sensor and the microprocessor to maintain the
temperature in the greenhouse.

Ans:

a) Sensor send data/readings/signal to microprocessor

b) Data is converted from analogue to digital (using ADC) −
c) Microprocessor compares/checks data to stored values/range of values also called as preset values
 If data is greater than 30 / above the range microprocessor sends signal to open window
and to turn heater off
 If data is below 25 the microprocessor sends signal to turn on heater and to close window
 If data is between 25 and 30 / within the range no action taken − Actuator is used to
operate heater/window −
d) Whole process is continuous
17. Describe how the sensors and the microprocessor control the security light system
Ans:

Light sensor − Motion sensor // infra-red sensor

Sensors send data to microprocessor and this Data is converted to digital (using ADC) −

Microprocessor compares data to stored value(s) … −

 if one value or neither values are within range/out of range/match no action is taken
 If both values are out of range/in range/match microprocessor sends signal to switch light on

1-minute timer is started. Actuator used to switch on/off light −

When timer reaches 1 minute, microprocessor sends signal to switch light off

Whole process is continuous

3.3 Data storage

18. What is meant by primary storage and secondary storage.

Ans: Primary memory is the part of the computer memory which can be accessed directly from the
CPU; this includes random access memory (RAM) and readonly memory (ROM) memory chips.

Primary memory allows the CPU to access applications and services temporarily stored in memory
locations.

19. Explain ROM

 they are non-volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the computer)
 they are permanent memories (the contents cannot be changed or written to by the user, the computer or
any application/program)
 the contents can only be read
 they are often used to store data that the computer needs to access when powering up for the first time
(the basic input/output system (BIOS)); these are known as the start-up instructions (or bootstrap)
20. Explain the primary storage RAM:

It stores

 Currently running data

 Currently running (application) software
 Currently running instructions
 Currently running parts of OS
 •Currently running utility software

21. Give the difference between RAM & ROM

Ans:

22. Why a computer needs both RAM and ROM.

23. Explain the purpose of Cache memory
Ans: - It is a type of data storage that stores frequently used data and instructions
to speed up access
to frequently used data and instructions

Secondary Storage:
1) Magnetic
2) Optical
3) SSD

24. Describe the operation of magnetic, optical and solid-state (flash memory) storage and give
examples of each

a) Magnetic Storage:
Platters and Tracks:

The magnetic disk consists of one or more circular, flat platters. These platters are divided into concentric
circles called tracks. Each track can be thought of as a separate data storage area on the disk.

Spinning the Platters:

The platters are mounted on a spindle, and the entire assembly spins at a high speed. The spinning motion
is crucial for the disk's operation, creating a continuous surface for data read and write operations.

Read/Write Arm:

Positioned above each platter is a read/write arm. This arm is like a tiny, moveable lever that can access
different tracks on the spinning platter. It moves back and forth across the platter's surface.

Reading and Writing Data:

The read/write arm has a read/write head at its end, which can magnetically read or write data. When
reading data, the head detects the magnetic orientation of tiny areas on the platter's surface. When
writing data, it changes the magnetic orientation of those areas.

Electromagnetic Operation:

The read/write head uses electromagnets to perform its operations. When writing data, the head generates
a magnetic field that alters the magnetic state of the surface, encoding binary information (0s and 1s).
When reading data, the head senses the changes in the magnetic field to retrieve the stored information.

Magnetic Fields and Binary Values:

 The magnetic fields created on the platter's surface determine the binary values of the stored data. For
example, one magnetic orientation could represent a '0', while another orientation could represent a '1'.
This binary encoding is the language that computers understand.

In summary,
Storage device has platters
Platters/disk divided into tracks
Storage platter / disk is spun –
It Has a read/write arm that moves across storage media
It Read/writes data using electromagnets .
It Uses magnetic fields to control magnetic dots of data
This Magnetic field determines binary value

Advantage:
 magnetic is high capacity
 Magnetic is cheaper to buy for storage per unit than solid state
 Magnetic is capable of more of read/write requests over time and has has more longevity
whereas SSD has more limited number of read/write requests (before it is no longer usable)
 Magnetic is cheaper per unit of data –

b) Solid State Storage:

Solid-state storage is non-volatile. This means that the data is not lost when the power is turned off.
Solid-state storage is made of transistors that are laid out in a grid.
Uses NAND/NOR technology /.
Gates are used to control the flow of the electrons through the transistors. This changes the data in the
transistors from 1 to 0, or from 0 to 1.
When data is stored the transistor is converted from 1 to 0 / 0 to 1 − Writes (and reads) sequentially

Example:
SD card
USB flash memory drive

Advantages:
 Solid-state is more energy efficient
 Solid-state runs cooler so will not overheat
 Solid state has faster read/write speeds to handle volume of traffic It is small in size // compact //
lightweight // portable
 It has low power consumption
 It runs quietly
 It runs at a cool temperature
 It is robust when dropped // durable
  Fast access/read/write speed
 High capacity
 Not affected by magnets

c) Optical storage:
25. Explain how the laser is used to store and read data from the disk.

 It uses a laser to store and read data from a disk.

 Laser is shone at the disk
 An (arm/head) moves the laser across the surface of the disk
 The laser burns pits onto the surface of the disk
 The laser is used to read the pits and lands on the surface of the disk
 The reflected light from the laser shining on the disk is captured (by a sensor)

26. Explain two differences between primary storage and secondary storage
Ans:-

 Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU whereas secondary storage is not directly
accessible by the CPU
 Primary storage stores the data that is currently in use/for booting the system whereas secondary
storage stores data permanently for the user
 Primary storage normally has a small capacity whereas secondary storage normally has a larger
capacity
 Some parts of primary storage are volatile whereas all secondary storage is non volatile
 Virtual memory:
27. Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used and why it is necessary

 Virtual memory is used when the RAM is full.

 It is created by partitioning the HDD
 .Data is divided into pages that can be sent from RAM to the HDD to be temporarily stored until
they are required.

28. Why is Virtual

memory
required?

Ans: . To extend RAM capacity, To stop the software from crashing when RAM is full. To allow the computer
to process large amount of data.
Cloud Storage:

29. What is meant by cloud storage?

Ans: A collection of servers that store data in a remote location / and that allows data to be accessed remotely
The data are (normally) accessed using an internet connection

Advantages of Cloud Storage:

 The data can be accessed from any location meaning that employees can work from anywhere with a
connection
 The hardware is owned and maintained by a third party meaning that the company are not responsible
for this- Can increase the storage needed easily without needing to buy new hardware
 Do not need to house the hardware needed costs can be saved on the space saved for this

Disadvanatges:

 Internet connection is needed and if this is not available the data cannot be accessed
 Employees could be pressured to work outside of hours as they can access the data from any
location
 May be less secure // by example
 May lose access to them if internet connection lost/not available
 Reliant on a third party maintaining the hardware // by example Could incur an extra/ongoing
fee/cost
3.4 Network hardware

30. Understand that a computer needs a network interface card (NIC) to access a network

Ans:

 This is a component in a device that enables it to connect to a network .

 A network interface card is given a MAC address at the point of manufacture.
 When A user wants to connect their computer to a network NIC is needed to access a network

31. Understand what is meant by and the purpose of a media access control (MAC) address, including its
structure

Ans:

 This address is assigned by the manufacturer and is used to uniquely identify the device .
 MAC addresses are usually written as hexadecimal.
 It is the address that is allocated to the component by the manufacturer, which is used to uniquely
identify the device.
 MAC addresses are created using the manufacturer code and the serial code.
 First part is manufacturer ID
 Second part is serial number
 Each part has 3 pairs of numbers // Each part has 6 numbers // 6 pairs of 2-digits //
 It consists of 12 numbers between 00 and FF separated by :
 Each part is 3 bytes // Is 6 bytes long // Is 48 bits long
 • Represented using hexadecimal

Characteristics of MAC address

 It is a unique address
 It is assigned by the manufacturer
 It can be used to identify a device
 It contains the manufacturer ID/code/number It contains the serial code/number
 It is written in hexadecimal It has 6 bytes/48 bits/6 pairs of digits
 Does not (usually) change // static
32. a) Understand what is meant by and the purpose of an internet protocol (IP) address
Ans: An IP address is allocated by the network and they can be static or dynamic. Ans: this address is
assigned by the network and used to identify a device on a network. Router would assign the IPv4 address to
the computer

Static Address:

Static IP addresses are permanently assigned to a device by the internet service provider (ISP);

they don’t change each time a device logs onto the internet.

Static IP addresses are usually assigned to:

» remote servers which are hosting a website

» an online database

» a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server.

Dynamic: A dynamic internet protocol (IP) address is allocated to the computer when it is connected to the
network. It can be used to uniquely identify a device (on a network)

It can change each time the device is connected to the network

33. Characteristics of and differences between IPv4 and IPv6
IPV4:

 It is denary based with numbers between 0 and

255
 It is 32 bits 4 sets/groups of number.
 It is a unique address
 It can be static or dynamic
 It can be public or private
 It contains the network prefix … and the host
number

IPV6:

 8 groups of numbers // 32 numbers

 separated by colons (:)
 0-FFFF in each group • 16 bytes long // 128 bits
 Consecutive groups of 0000 can be replaced with ::
 Represented in hexadecimal

SImilarity between IPV4 and IPV6

 They can both be used to identify a device (on a network)

 They can both be static / dynamic They are both unique (to a device on a network)
 They can both be assigned by a router
 They can both be public/private

Differences

 IPv4 is usually written as denary … IPv6 usually written as hexadecimal

 IPv4 is separated using dots … Pv6 is separated using colons
 IPv4 is 32-bit … IPv6 is 128-bit
 IPv4 is 4 groups of digits … IPv6 is 8 groups of digits
 IPv4 digits are between 0 and 255 … IPv6 digits are between 0000 and FFFF
 IPv4 all 0s are displayed … IPv6 can use double colons to replace repeated groups of 0000
 IPv4 has fewer available unique addresses ... IPv6 has more available unique addresses
34. Describe the role of a router in a network

Ans:

 A router sends data to a specific destination on a network/a device that forwards packets to their correct
destinations in a network
 A router can assign IP addresses
 A router can connect a local network to the internet
 It can connect multiple devices and automatically assign them an IP address.
 The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using a particular protocol)
and converts the data to a protocol and format understood by another network, thereby allowing them
to communicate.


35. How does the router route data packets?

Routers inspect the data package sent to it from any computer on any of the networks connected to it.

Since every computer on the same network has the same part of an internet protocol (IP) address, the router is
able to send the data packet to the appropriate switch, and the data will then be delivered to the correct device
using the MAC destination address.

If the MAC address doesn’t match any device connected to the switch, it passes on to another switch on the
same network until the appropriate device is found. Routers can be wired or wireless devices.