CIE IGCSE Biology Revision Notes [Link].

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2 ORGANISATION
6 PLANT NUTRITION
OF THE ORGANISM

DR. NOOR MUHAMMAD

YOUR NOTES
CONTENTS:

6.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6.3 LIMITING FACTORS (EXTENDED ONLY)
6.4 INVESTIGATING GAS EXCHANGE (EXTENDED ONLY)
6.5 LEAF STRUCTURE
6.6 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS

VIEW EXAM QUESTIONS

6.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis Theory: Basics

• Green plants make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials carbon dioxide and
water

• At the same time oxygen is made and released as a waste product

• The reaction requires energy which is obtained by the pigment chlorophyll trapping light
from the Sun

• So photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture

carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light

• It can be summed up in the following equation:

Photosynthesis word equation

EXAM TIP

If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is
carbon dioxide and water. Although required for the reaction to take place,
light energy is not a substance and therefore cannot be a raw material.

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6.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

How plants get the materials they need

EXTENDED ONLY

Photosynthesis Theory

• The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis is:

Balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

• The light energy is converted into chemical energy in the bonds that are holding the
atoms in the glucose molecules together

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6.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY

The Products of Photosynthesis

• Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration

• They can also convert it into starch for storage, into lipids for an energy source in seeds,
into cellulose to make cell walls or into amino acids (used to make proteins) when
combined with nitrogen and other mineral ions absorbed by roots

The fate of glucose

EXAM TIP

The photosynthesis equation is the exact reverse of the aerobic respiration equation
– so if you have learned one you also know the other one!

You will usually get more marks for providing the balanced chemical equation than
the word equation.

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Starch Production & Need for Chlorophyll

• Although plants make glucose in photosynthesis, leaves cannot be tested for its
presence as the glucose is quickly used, converted into other substances and transported
or stored as starch

• Starch is stored in chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so testing a leaf for starch
is a reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising

Leaves can be tested for starch using the following procedure:

• A leaf is dropped in boiling water to kill and break down the cell walls

• The leaf is left for 5-10 minutes in hot ethanol in a boiling tube. This removes the
chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly

• The leaf is dipped in boiling water to soften it

• The leaf is spread out on a white tile and covered with iodine solution

• In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occuring in all
areas of the leaf

• This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by
using a variegated leaf (one that is partially green and partially white)

• The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the
areas that contain chlorophyll stain blue-black

• The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is

occurring here and so no starch is stored

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

Testing a variegated leaf for starch

• Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable,
so at that stage of the experiment the Bunsen burner should be turned off. The safest way
to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a Bunsen
burner with an open flame

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

The Need for Light in Photosynthesis

• The same procedure as in the investigation above can be used to investigate if light is
needed for photosynthesis

• Before starting the experiment the plant needs to be destarched by placing in a dark
cupboard for 24 hours

• This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not
affect the results of the experiment

• Following destarching, a leaf of the plant can be partially covered with aluminium foil
and the plant placed in sunlight for a day

• The leaf can then be removed and tested for starch using iodine

• The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as
it did not receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to
sunlight will turn blue black

• This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch

The Need for Carbon Dioxide in Photosynthesis

• Destarch a plant

• Tie a clear bag containing sodium hydroxide, which will absorb carbon dioxide from the
surrounding air, around one leaf

• Tie a clear bag containing water (control experiment), which will not absorb carbon
dioxide from the surrounding air, around another leaf

• Place the plant in bright light for several hours.

• Test both leaves for starch using iodine

• The leaf from the bag containing sodium hydroxide will remain orange brown as it could
not photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide

• The leaf from the control bag containing water should turn blue black as it had all
necessary requirements for photosynthesis

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

The Rate of Photosynthesis Using a Water Plant

• The plants usually used are Elodea or Camboba – types of pondweed

• As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released

• As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of
the pond weed

• The number of bubbles produced over a minute can be counted to record the rate

• The more bubbles produced per minute, the faster the rate of photosynthesis

• A more accurate version of this experiment is to collect the oxygen released in a test tube
inverted over the top of the pondweed over a longer period of time and then measure the
volume of oxygen collected

• This practical can be used in the following ways:

Investigating the effect of changing light intensity by moving a lamp

different distances away from the beaker containing the pondweed

Investigating the effect of changing light intensity

on the rate of photosynthesis

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

Investigating the effect of changing temperature by changing the

temperature of the water in the beaker

Investigating the effect of changing temperature

on the rate of photosynthesis

Investigating the effect of changing carbon dioxide concentration

by dissolving different amounts of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the water
in the beaker

Investigating the effect of changing carbon dioxide concentration

on the rate of photosynthesis

• Care must be taken when investigating a condition to keep all other variables constant
in order to ensure a fair test – for example, when investigating changing light intensity, a
glass tank should be placed in between the lamp and the beaker to absorb heat from the
lamp and so avoid changing the temperature of the water as well as the light intensity

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6.2 INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS cont...

EXAM TIP

Alternative ways of measuring the gas (oxygen) given off in these experiments
would be to measure the volume of gas produced using an inverted measuring
cylinder with graduations filled with water that readings can be taken from as the
water is displaced by the gas, or by using a syringe attached by a delivery tube to
the funnel.

6.3 LIMITING FACTORS

EXTENDED ONLY

What is a Limiting Factor?

• If a plant is given unlimited sunlight, carbon dioxide and water and is at a warm
temperature, the limit on the rate (speed) at which it can photosynthesise is its own ability
to absorb these materials and make them react

• However, most often plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their
rate of photosynthesis is limited by whatever factor is the lowest at that time

• So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such

short supply that it restricts life processes

• There are three main factors which limit the rate of photosynthesis:

• Temperature
• Light intensity
• Carbon dioxide concentration

• Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor

as the amount needed is relatively small compared to the amount of water transpired
from a plant so there is hardly ever a situation where there is not enough water for
photosynthesis

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6.3 LIMITING FACTORS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

Temperature

• As temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis increases as the reaction is

controlled by enzymes

• However, as the reaction is controlled by enzymes, this trend only continues up to a

certain temperature beyond which the enzymes begin to denature and the rate of reaction
decreases

The effect of temperature

on the rate of photosynthesis

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2 ORGANISATION
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6.3 LIMITING FACTORS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

Light Intensity

• The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis

• This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents
the rate from increasing further because it is now in short supply

The effect of light intensity

on the rate of photosynthesis

At low light intensities, increasing the intensity will initially increase the rate of
photosynthesis. At a certain point, increasing the light intensity stops increasing the [Link]
rate becomes constant regardless of how much light intensity increases as something else is
limiting the rate.

• The factors which could be limiting the rate when the line on the graph is horizontal
include temperature not being high enough or not enough carbon dioxide

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YOUR NOTES
6.3 LIMITING FACTORS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

Carbon Dioxide Concentration

• Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis

• This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur

• This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the
rate from increasing further because it is now in short supply

The effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis

• The factors which could be limiting the rate when the line on the graph is horizontal
include temperature not being high enough or not enough light

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2 ORGANISATION
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6.3 LIMITING FACTORS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY

Changing Glasshouse Conditions

• The knowledge about limiting factors and how they affect the rate of photosynthesis
can be used to help control factors in glass houses to ensure maximum crop yields for
farmers

• Growing crops outside does not allow farmers to control any of these factors to increase
growth of plants

• In a glass house, several conditions can be manipulated to increase the rate of

photosynthesis, including:

• artificial heating (enzymes controlling photosynthesis can work faster at slightly

higher temperatures – only used in temperate countries such as the UK)
• artificial lighting (plants can photosynthesise for longer)
• increasing carbon dioxide content of the air inside (plants can photosynthesise
quicker)
• regular watering

• When considering the use of glasshouses and manipulating conditions like this, farmers
need to balance the extra cost of providing heating, lighting and carbon dioxide against
the increased income

• In tropical countries where temperatures are much hotter, glasshouses may still be used
to control other conditions however they may need to be ventilated to release hot air and
avoid temperatures rising too high, which could cause the denaturation of the enzymes
controlling the photosynthesis reaction

EXAM TIP

Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s quite
simple.

In the section of the graph where the rate is increasing (the line is going up), the limiting
factor is whatever the label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the graph is.

In the section of the graph where the rate is not increasing (the line is horizontal), the
limiting factor will be something other than what is on the x axis – choose from
temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.

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6.4 INVESTIGATING GAS EXCHANGE

EXTENDED ONLY

Effect of Light on Net Gas Exchange

• Plants are respiring all the time and so plant cells are taking in oxygen and releasing
carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic respiration

• Plants also photosynthesise during daylight hours, for which they need to take in
carbon dioxide and release the oxygen made in photosynthesis

• At night, plants do not photosynthesise but they continue to respire, meaning they
take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide

Photosynthesis and respiration in plants

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6.4 INVESTIGATING GAS EXCHANGE cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

• During the day, especially when the sun is bright, plants are photosynthesising at a
faster rate than they are respiring, so there is a net intake of carbon dioxide and a
net output of oxygen

• We can investigate the effect of light on the net gas exchange in an aquatic plant using
a pH indicator such as hydrogencarbonate indicator

• This is possible because carbon dioxide is an acidic gas when dissolved in water

• Hydrogencarbonate indicator shows the carbon dioxide concentration in solution

The table shows the colour that the hydrogencarbonate indicator

turns at different levels of carbon dioxide concentration:

CONCENTRATION COLOUR OF HYDROGEN CONDITIONS

OF CARABON DIOXIDE CARBON INDICATOR IN PLANT

HIGHEST YELLOW
MORE RESPIRATION
> PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- LOWER pH
(MORE ACID)
HIGHER ORANGE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
ATMOSPHERIC RED
LEVEL = RESPIRATION

LOWER MAGENTA MORE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS >
RESPIRATION
- HIGHER pH
LOWEST PURPLE (MORE ALKALINE)

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6.4 INVESTIGATING GAS EXCHANGE cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

• Several leaves from the same plant are placed in stoppered boiling tubes containing
some hydrogen carbonate indicator

• The effect of light can then be investigated over a period of a few hours

Results from a typical gas exchange experiment

are shown in the table below:

TUBE CONTENTS CONDITIONS INDICATOR CONCLUSION

TURNS

A LEAF LIGHT PURPLE THERE IS A NET

INTAKE OF OXYGEN
BY A LEAF IN LIGHT

B LEAF DARK YELLOW THERE IS A NET

INTAKE OF CARBON
DIOXIDE BY A LEAF IN
THE DARK

C NO LEAF LIGHT RED THIS IS THE

CONTROL -THE
TWO OTHER TUBES
CAN BE COMPARED
WITH IT

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YOUR NOTES
6.5 LEAF STRUCTURE

Structure of the Leaf

Diagram showing the cross section of a leaf

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6.5 LEAF STRUCTURE cont...

How photosynthesising cells obtain carbon dioxide

Pathway of carbon dioxide from atmosphere to chloroplasts by diffusion:

ATMOSPHERE

AIR SPACES AROUND SPONGY MESOPHYLL TISSUE

LEAF MESOPHYLL CELLS

CHLOROPLAST

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6.5 LEAF STRUCTURE cont...

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION

WAX CUTICLE PROTECTIVE LAYER ON TOP OF THE LEAF, PREVENTS

WATER FROM EVAPORATING

UPPER EPIDERMIS THIN AND TRANSPARENT TO ALLOW LIGHT TO ENTER

PALISADE MESOPHYLL LAYER UNDERNEATH IT

PALISADE MESOPHYLL COLUMN SHAPED CELLS TIGHTLY PACKED WITH

CHLOROPLASTS TO ABSORB MORE LIGHT, MAXIMISING
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

SPONGY MESOPHYLL CONTAINS INTERNAL AIR SPACES THAT INCREASES THE

SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO FOR THE DIFFUSION
OF GASES (MAINLY CARBON DIOXIDE)

LOWER EPIDERMIS CONTAINS GUARD CELLS AND STOMATA

GUARD CELL ABSORBS AND LOSES WATER TO OPEN AND CLOSE THE
STOMATA TO ALLOW CARBON DIOXIDE TO DIFFUSE IN,
OXYGEN TO DIFFUSE OUT

STOMATA WHERE GAS EXCHANGE TAKES PLACE; OPENS DURING

THE DAY, CLOSES DURING THE NIGHT. EVAPORATION
OF WATER ALSO TAKES PLACE FROM HERE. IN MOST
PLANTS, FOUND IN MUCH GREATER CONCENTRATION ON
THE UNDERSIDE OF THE LEAF TO REDUCE WATER LOSS

VASCULAR BUNDLE CONTAINS XYLEM AND PHLOEM TO TRANSPORT

SUBSTANCES TO AND FROM THE LEAF

XYLEM TRANSPORTS WATER INTO THE LEAF FOR MESOPHYLL

CELLS TO USE IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND FOR
TRANSPIRATION FROM STOMATA

PHLOEM TRANSPORTS SUCROSE AND AMINO ACIDS AROUND THE

PLANT

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6.5 LEAF STRUCTURE cont...

EXTENDED ONLY

Adaptations of Leaf for Photosynthesis

FEATURE ADAPTATION

LARGE SURFACE AREA INCREASES SURFACE AREA FOR THE DIFFUSION OF

(LEAF) CARBON DIOXIDE AND ABSORPTION OF LIGHT FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

THIN ALLOWS CARBON DIOXIDE TO DIFFUSE TO

PALISADE MESOPHYLL CELLS QUICKLY

CHLOROPHYLL ABSORBS LIGHT ENERGY SO THAT

PHOTOSYNTHESIS CAN TAKE PLACE

NETWORK OF VEINS ALLOWS THE TRANSPORT OF WATER TO THE

CELLS OF THE LEAF AND CARBOHYDRATES
FROM THE LEAF FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS (WATER
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CARBOHYDRATES AS A
PRODUCT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

STOMATA ALLOWS CARBON DIOXIDE TO DIFFUSE INTO THE

LEAF AND OXYGEN TO DIFFUSE OUT

EPIDERMIS IS THIN AND ALLOWS MORE LIGHT TO REACH THE PALISADE

TRANSPARENT CELLS

THIN CUTICLE MADE OF TO PROTECT THE LEAF WITHOUT BLOCKING

WAX SUNLIGHT

PALISADE CELL LAYER AT MAXIMISES THE ABSORPTION OF LIGHT AS IT WILL

TOP OF LEAF HIT CHLOROPLASTS IN THE CELLS DIRECTLY

SPONGY LAYER AIR SPACES ALLOW CARBON DIOXIDE TO DIFFUSE

THROUGH THE LEAF, INCREASING THE SURFACE
AREA

VASCULAR BUNDLES THICK CELL WALLS OF THE TISSUE IN THE BUNDLES

HELP TO SUPPORT THE STEM AND LEAF

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YOUR NOTES
6.6 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS

The Need for Mineral Ions

• Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, but plants contain many other types of biological
molecule; such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acid (DNA).

• As plants do not eat, they need to make these substances themselves

• Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but proteins, for
example, contain nitrogen as well (and certain amino acids contain other elements too)

• Other chemicals in plants contain different elements as well, for example chlorophyll
contains magnesium and nitrogen

• This means that without a source of these elements, plants cannot photosynthesise or
grow properly

• Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil
by root hair cells

• ‘Mineral’ is a term used to describe any naturally occurring inorganic substance.

EXTENDED ONLY

Effects of Mineral Ion Deficiencies

Mineral deficiencies in plants

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6.6 MINERAL REQUIREMENTS cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

MINERAL ION FUNCTION DEFICIENCY

MAGNESIUM MAGNESIUM IS NEEDED TO CAUSES YELLOWING

MAKE CHLOROPHYLL BETWEEN THE VEINS OF
LEAVES (CHLOROSIS)

NITRATE NITRATES ARE A SOURCE CAUSES STUNTED GROWTH

OF NITROGEN NEEDED TO AND YELLOWING OF LEAVES
MAKE AMINO ACIDS (TO
BUILD PROTEINS)

> NOW TRY SOME EXAM QUESTIONS

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EXAM QUESTIONS

? QUESTION 1

An experiment is set up with four test tubes as shown in the diagram below.

All four test tubes are left in sunlight for 6 hours.

Which test tube would contain the least amount of dissolved carbon dioxide after 6
hours?

? QUESTION 2

Which row of the table below shows the correct effects of deficiencies of essential
minerals for plant growth?

effect of magnesium ion deficiency effect of nitrate ion deficiency

A yellow leaves stunted growth

B stunted growth long roots

C small leaves yellow leaves

D stunted growth yellow leaves

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EXAM QUESTIONS cont...

? QUESTION 3

Which of the following options is the best explanation for the role of chlorophyll in
photosynthesis:

Chlorophyll…

A transfers light energy from the sun because it has magnesium ions.

B transfers chemical potential energy from sunlight into organic molecules which can
be used to synthesise carbohydrates such as glucose.

C transfers light energy from the sun into chemical energy in inorganic molecules
which can be used for growth.

D transfers light energy into chemical potential energy into glucose molecules which
are used in the synthesis of other carbohydrates.

? QUESTION 4

The average number of chloroplasts found in four different types of cell from the leaf
of a plant are shown in the bar chart below.

What are the names of the four types of cell?

1 2 3 4

spongy mesophyll epidermal palisade mesophyll guard

A
cell cell cell cell
palisade mesophyll guard spongy mesophyll epidermal
B
cell cell cell cell
epidermal spongy mesophyll palisade mesophyll guard
C
cell cell cell cell
palisade mesophyll spongy mesophyll epidermal
D guard cell
cell cell cell

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EXAM QUESTIONS cont...

? QUESTION 5

The diagram below shows how the rate of photosynthesis is affected by different
conditions.

What of the following correctly identifies the limiting factor for photosynthesis at the
three points on the graph?

1 2 3

A light intensity light intensity carbon dioxide concentration

B temperature temperature light intensity

C light intensity temperature carbon dioxide concentration

D light intensity carbon dioxide concentration temperature

> CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AT [Link]

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2 ORGANISATION
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YOUR NOTES
CONTENTS:

7.1 DIET
7.2 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
7.3 MECHANICAL DIGESTION
7.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION
7.5 ABSORPTION

VIEW EXAM QUESTIONS

7.1 DIET

Balanced Diet

• A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions

• The necessary food groups are:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Dietary Fibre
• Water

FOOD TYPE FUNCTION SOURCES

CARBOHYDRATE SOURCE OF ENERGY BREAD, CEREALS, PASTA, RICE,

POTATOES

PROTEIN GROWTH AND REPAIR MEAT, FISH, EGGS, PULSES, NUTS

LIPID INSULATION AND ENERGY BUTTER, OIL, NUTS

STORAGE

DIETARY FIBRE PROVIDES BULK (ROUGHAGE) VEGETABLES, WHOLE GRAINS

FOR THE INTESTINE TO PUSH
FOOD THROUGH IT

VITAMINS NEEDED IN SMALL QUANTITIES FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

TO MAINTAIN HEALTH

MINERALS NEEDED IN SMALL QUANTITIES FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, MEATS,

TO MAINTAIN HEALTH DAIRY PRODUCTS

WATER NEEDED FOR CHEMICAL WATER, JUICE, MILK, FRUITS AND

REACTIONS TO TAKE PLACE IN VEGETABLES
CELLS

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7.1 DIET cont...

Specific vitamin & mineral requirements:

VITAMIN / MINERAL FUNCTION SOURCES

VITAMIN C FORMS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF CITRUS FRUIT,

COLLAGEN PROTEIN, WHICH STRAWBERRIES,
MAKES UP SKIN, HAIR, GUMS AND GREEN VEGETABLES
BONES

DEFICIENCY CAUSES SCURVY

VITAMIN D HELPS THE BODY TO ABSORB OILY FISH, EGGS, LIVER,

CALCIUM AND SO REQUIRED FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS, ALSO
STRONG BONES AND TEETH MADE NATURALLY BY THE
BODY IN SUNLIGHT

CALCIUM NEEDED FOR STRONG TEETH AND MILK, CHEESE, EGGS

BONES AND INVOLVED IN THE
CLOTTING OF BLOOD

DEFICIENCY CAN LEAD TO

OSTEOPOROSIS LATER IN LIFE

IRON NEEDED TO MAKE HAEMOGLOBIN, RED MEAT, LIVER,

THE PIGMENT IN RED BLOOD CELLS LEAFY GREEN
THAT TRANSPORTS OXYGEN VEGETABLES
LIKE SPINACH

EXTENDED ONLY

Causes & Effects of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies

SUBSTANCE DEFICIENT CAUSE EFFECT

VITAMIN D LACK OF CAUSES RICKETS - WHERE BONES

SUNLIGHT, BECOME SOFT AND DEFORMED (THIS
FISH, EGGS, IS BECAUSE VITAMIN D IS NEEDED FOR
BUTTER IN ABSORPTION OF CALCIUM INTO THE
DIET BODY WHICH IS A KEY COMPONENT OF
BONES AND TEETH)

IRON LACK OF CAUSES ANAEMIA - WHERE THERE

LEAFY GREEN ARE NOT ENOUGH RED BLOOD CELLS
VEGETABLES, SO TISSUES DO NOT GET ENOUGH
RED MEAT, OXYGEN DELIVERED TO THEM (THIS IS
LIVER BECAUSE IRON IS A KEY COMPONENT
OF HAEMOGLOBIN)

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DR. NOOR MUHAMMAD

YOUR NOTES
7.1 DIET cont...

Effects of Malnutrition

• Malnutrition is caused by not eating a balanced diet

• There are different types of malnutrition depending on the cause of the imbalance

• They include:

• Starvation
• Coronary heart disease
• Constipation
• Obesity

TYPE CAUSE EFFECT

STARVATION TAKING IN LESS ENERGY BODY STARTS TO BREAK DOWN

THAN IS USED (OVER A ENERGY STORES - FIRST FAT AND
LONG PERIOD) THEN MUSCLE TISSUE, LEADING
TO SEVERE WEIGHT LOSS AND
EVENTUALLY DAMAGE TO HEART AND
IMMUNE SYSTEM, INCREASING THE RISK
OF MANY DISEASES

CORONARY DIET TOO HIGH IN FAT DEPOSITS BUILD UP IN ARTERIES

HEART DISEASE SATURATED FAT AND SUPPLYING THE HEART, REDUCING
CHOLESTEROL FLOW OF BLOOD TO THE HEART
MUSCLE CELLS WHICH DO NOT WORK
PROPERLY DUE TO LACK OF OXYGEN.
CAN LEAD TO HEART ATTACKS AND
DEATH

CONSTIPATION LACK OF FIBRE IN THE DIET FOOD LACKS BULK FOR MUSCLES TO
PUSH IT THROUGH THE ALIMENTARY
CANAL AND SO RISK OF DISEASES
SUCH AS BOWEL CANCER ARE
INCREASED

OBESITY TAKING IN MORE ENERGY EXTRA ENERGY STORED AS FAT,

THAN IS USED WEIGHT INCREASES AND CONTRIBUTES
TO DEVELOPMENT OF MANY DISEASES
SUCH AS HEART DISEASE AND
DIABETES

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7.1 DIET cont... YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED ONLY

Protein Energy Malnutrition

• In many countries in the world, droughts, natural disasters, wars and a poor economy can
lead to mass malnutrition in large areas of the country

• The two types of malnutrition most common in these situations are termed ‘protein
energy malnutrition’ (PEM)and they are:

• Kwashiorkor – caused by a lack of protein in the diet, most common in children under 2.
• Often caused by poverty as high protein foods tend to be more expensive and
scarcer.
• Children suffering from kwashiorkor are always underweight for their age but they
often have a swollen abdomen as their diet may contain a lot of carbohydrate

• Marasmus – the most severe form of PEM, where there is a lack of both protein and
energy in the diet.
• People suffering from this have a much lower body weight than normal and look
emaciated

Dietary Needs of Different Individuals

FACTOR DIETARY NEEDS

AGE THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY THAT YOUNG PEOPLE NEED INCREASES

TOWARDS ADULTHOOD AS THIS ENERGY IS NEEDED FOR GROWTH
CHILDREN NEED A HIGHER PROPORTION OF PROTEIN IN THEIR DIET
THAN ADULTS AS THIS IS REQUIRED FOR GROWTH
ENERGY NEEDS OF ADULTS DECREASE AS THEY AGE

ACTIVITY LEVELS THE MORE ACTIVE, THE MORE ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MOVEMENT
AS MUSCLES ARE CONTRACTING MORE AND RESPIRING FASTER

PREGNANCY DURING PREGNANCY, ENERGY REQUIREMENTS INCREASE AS ENERGY

IS NEEDED TO SUPPORT THE GROWTH OF THE DEVELOPING
FOETUS, AS WELL AS THE LARGER MASS THAT THE MOTHER NEEDS
TO CARRY AROUND
EXTRA CALCIUM AND IRON ARE ALSO NEEDED IN THE DIET TO HELP
BUILD THE BONES, TEETH AND BLOOD OF THE FETUS

BREASTFEEDING ENERGY REQUIREMENTS INCREASE AND EXTRA CALCIUM STILL

NEEDED TO MAKE HIGH QUALITY BREAST MILK

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7.2 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

The Stages of Food Breakdown

• Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage through the
alimentary canal (the gut)

• Ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the
mouth

• Mechanical digestion – the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical
change to the food molecules

• Chemical digestion – the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules

• Absorption – the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood

• Assimilation – the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used, becoming part of the cells

• Egestion – the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faeces,
through the anus

Structure & Function of the Alimentary Canal

The human digestive system

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7.2 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL cont... YOUR NOTES

STRUCTURE FUNCTION

MOUTH / THE MOUTH IS WHERE MECHANICAL DIGESTION TAKES PLACE

SALIVARY - TEETH CHEW FOOD TO BREAK IT INTO SMALLER PIECES AND
GLANDS INCREASE IT’S SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
AMYLASE ENZYMES IN SALIVA START DIGESTING STARCH INTO
MALTOSE
THE FOOD IS SHAPED INTO A BOLUS (BALL) BY THE TONGUE AND
LUBRICATED IN SALIVA SO IT CAN BE SWALLOWED EASILY

OESOPHAGUS TUBE THAT CONNECTS THE MOUTH TO THE STOMACH

WHERE THE FOOD BOLUS GOES AFTER BEING SWALLOWED
WAVE - LIKE CONTRACTIONS WILL TAKE PLACE TO PUSH THE
FOOD BOLUS DOWN WITHOUT RELYING ON GRAVITY

STOMACH FOOD IS MECHANICALLY DIGESTED BY CHURNING ACTIONS WHILE

PROTEASE ENZYMES START TO CHEMICALLY DIGEST PROTEINS
HYDROCHLORIC ACID IS PRESENT TO KILL BACTERIA IN FOOD AND
PROVIDE THE OPTIMUM PH FOR PROTEASE ENZYMES TO WORK

SMALL INTESTINE FIRST SECTION IS CALLED THE DUODENUM AND IS WHERE THE
FOOD COMING OUT OF THE STOMACH FINISHES BEING DIGESTED
BY ENZYMES PRODUCED HERE AND ALSO SECRETED FROM THE
PANCREAS
PH OF THE SMALL INTESTINE IS SLIGHTLY ALKALINE - AROUND
PH 8 - 9
SECOND SECTION IS CALLED THE ILEUM AND IS WHERE
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD MOLECULES TAKES PLACE
THE ILEUM IS LONG AND LINED WITH VILLI TO INCREASE THE
SURFACE AREA OVER WHICH ABSORPTION CAN TAKE PLACE

LARGE INTESTINE WATER IS ABSORBED FROM REMAINING MATERIAL IN THE COLON

TO PRODUCE FAECES
FAECES IS STORED IN THE RECTUM AND REMOVED THROUGH THE
ANUS

PANCREAS PRODUCES ALL THREE TYPES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYME; AMYLASE,

PROTEASE AND LIPASE
SECRETES ENZYMES IN AN ALKALINE FLUID INTO THE DUODENUM
FOR DIGESTION TO RAISE PH OF FLUID COMING OUT OF THE
STOMACH

LIVER PRODUCES BILE TO EMULSIFY FATS (BREAK LARGE DROPLETS

INTO SMALLER DROPLETS) - AN EXAMPLE OF MECHANICAL
DIGESTION
AMINO ACIDS NOT USED TO MAKE PROTEINS BROKEN DOWN HERE
(DEAMINATION) WHICH PRODUCES UREA

GALL BLADDER STORES BILE TO RELEASE INTO DUODENUM AS REQUIRED

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YOUR NOTES
7.2 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL cont...

Diarrhoea Causes & Treatment

• Diarrhoea is the loss of watery faeces from the anus

• If it is severe and continues for a long time, it can lead to death

• Severe diarrhoea can cause the loss of significant amounts of water and ions from the
body, causing the tissues and organs to stop working properly

• It can be effectively treated by oral rehydration therapy

• This is a drink with a small amount of salt and sugar dissolved in it

• There are many causes of diarrhoea, one of which is infection with Vibrio cholerae
bacteria, which causes the disease cholera

EXTENDED ONLY

How Does Vibrio Cholerae Cause Diarrhoea?

How cholera leads to diarrhoea

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7.2 THE ALIMENTARY CANAL cont... YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

• Ingested via infected water or food, if it enters the small intestine it can cause illness in
the following way:

1. Bacteria attach to the wall of the small intestine

2. They produce a toxin

3. The toxin stimulates the cells lining the intestine to release chloride ions from inside
the cells into the lumen of the intestine

4. The chloride ions accumulate in the lumen of the small intestine and lower the
water potential there

5. Once the water potential is lower than that of the cells lining the intestine, water
starts to move out of the cells into the intestine (by osmosis)

6. Large quantities of water are lost from the body in watery faeces

7. The blood contains too little chloride ions and water

7.3 MECHANICAL DIGESTION

Mechanical Digestion: Basics

• Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical
change to the food molecules

• It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of the
stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum

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YOUR NOTES
7.3 MECHANICAL DIGESTION cont...

Types of Teeth

• Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw

• They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so that it can be
exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken down more quickly

• The differing shapes and sizes of teeth enable them to perform slightly different functions:

• Incisors – chisel shaped for biting and cutting

• Canines – pointed for tearing, holding and biting

• Premolars and molars – larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for chewing and
grinding up food

Types of teeth

Structure of a Typical Tooth

Structure of a typical tooth

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7.3 MECHANICAL DIGESTION cont... YOUR NOTES

Dental Decay

• Tooth decay and gum disease are both caused by bacteria

• Many bacteria live in the mouth and most are harmless, however some form a sticky film
with saliva, called plaque, which coats teeth and the areas where they attach to gums

• To begin with, plaque is soft and easy to remove, however if it hardens and forms tartar, it
cannot be removed by brushing

• Tartar around the edges of teeth and gums can allow bacteria to work their way into roots,
causing gum disease and loss of teeth

• If sugar is left in the mouth after eating, bacteria in plaque will feed on it

• They use it in respiration and turn it into acids

• The acids gradually dissolve the enamel coating of the teeth, working its way into the
dentine

• Dentine is softer than enamel and so dissolves more easily and quickly

• This is tooth decay and if not dealt with, can cause painful infections and loss of teeth

Dental Health

• Reducing the amount of sugar eaten can prevent tooth decay

• Brushing teeth regularly removes the buildup of plaque that can cause gum disease and
removes the sugars in the mouth so bacteria cannot turn them into acids and cause tooth
decay

• Teeth should be brushed with a fluoride toothpaste as this helps to strengthen enamel
and reduce damage from acids

• Regular visits to a dentist ensures that any signs of gum disease or tooth decay can be
dealt with promptly

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7.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION

Enzyme Action in the Alimentary Canal

• The purpose of digestion is to break down large, insoluble molecules (carbohydrates,

proteins and lipids) into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream

• Food is partially digested mechanically (by chewing, churning and emulsification) in order
to break large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food which increases the surface area
for enzymes to work on

• Digestion mainly takes place chemically, where bonds holding the large molecules
together are broken to make smaller and smaller molecules

• Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of the
digestive system

• There are three main types of digestive enzymes – carbohydrases, proteases and lipases

Carbohydrases: Basics

• Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum)

• Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars

The digestion of starch

EXTENDED ONLY

Carbohydrases

• Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and the duodenum
(from the pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a disaccharide)

• Maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase into glucose on the membranes of the
epithelium lining the small intestine

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7.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION cont... YOUR NOTES

Proteases: Basics
• Proteases break down proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine
(using an enzyme produced in the pancreas)

The digestion of proteins

EXTENDED ONLY

Proteases

Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main
enzymes produced:

• Pepsin is produced in the stomach

• Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum

Lipases
• Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum

• They digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

The digestion of lipids

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7.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION cont...

The Role of Hydrochloric Acid

• The Role of Hydrochloric Acid

• The stomach produces several fluids which together are known as gastric juice

• One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric acid

• This kills bacteria in food and gives an acid pH for enzymes to work in the stomach

EXTENDED ONLY

How is a Low pH Helpful in the Stomach?

• The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the enzymes in
their cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to maintain life

• Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an example of an enzyme which has a very low
optimum pH – around pH 2

• The hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach ensures that conditions in the stomach
remain within the optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest rate

The Role of Bile

• Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder

Bile production and secretion

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7.4 CHEMICAL DIGESTION cont... YOUR NOTES

Bile has two main roles:

• It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the stomach. The
enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than those in the
stomach

• It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known as emulsification. The
larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty
acids faster

EXAM TIP

Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of
paper.

This is an example of mechanical digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking something

into smaller pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical structure of the
molecules which make it up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.

7.5 ABSORPTION

Absorption of Food & Water

• Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive system into
the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)

• Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most absorption of
water also happens in the small intestine

• Absorption takes place in the second section of the small intestine, the ileum

EXTENDED ONLY

How is the Ileum Adapted for Absorption?

• The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface
with millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections)

• These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing absorption
to take place faster and more efficiently

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7.5 ABSORPTION cont...

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

Structure & Adaptations of a Villus

Adaptations of the small intestine

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7.5 ABSORPTION cont... YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED ONLY cont...

• Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for
faster absorption of nutrients

• Wall of villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short
distance for absorption to happen by diffusion and active transport

• Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport

glucose and amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood

• Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and
glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph

EXAM TIP

The way in which the structure of a villus is related to its function comes
up frequently in exam questions.

So ensure you have learned these adaptations.

> NOW TRY SOME EXAM QUESTIONS

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YOUR NOTES
EXAM QUESTIONS

? QUESTION 1

The diagram below shows the organs of the digestive system.

In which organs does the digestion of proteins take place?

A W&Y

B W&Z

C Z only

D W&X

? QUESTION 2

A patient suffering with persistent diarrhoea calls a doctor.

What treatment should the doctor advise the patient to take?

A Drinking pure water

B Drinking a solution of sugar and salt

C Taking antibiotics

D Eating more protein

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YOUR NOTES
EXAM QUESTIONS cont...

? QUESTION 3

Which of the following is a correct function of bile?

A To emulsify proteins

B To provide enzymes for the digestion of lipids

C To neutralise the alkaline conditions of food entering the duodenum

D To increase the surface area of lipids for digestion

? QUESTION 4

A student ate a meal which contained a type of biomolecule, X.

The digestion of biomolecule X started in the mouth, and finished in the duodenum.

What is the product of the digestion of biomolecule X?

A Amino acids

B Protein

C Glucose

D Starch

? QUESTION 5

Dietary fibre contains complex carbohydrates which cannot be broken down by

enzymes produced in the human digestive system. Fibre passes through several
structures after leaving the stomach.

In which order does dietary fibre pass through these structures?

A Pancreas → duodenum → ileum → rectum

B Duodenum → ileum → colon → rectum

C Duodenum → pancreas → ileum → rectum

D Ileum → duodenum → colon → rectum

> CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AT [Link]

Head to [Link]
for more questions and revision notes

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