I.

Introduction to Refrigeration Systems

REFRIGERATION

- is the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a material or

space below that of the surroundings by extracting the desired amount of heat
to a low-temperature cooling medium or substance, through a heat source,
and transferring the extracted heat, and any required energy input, to the
atmospheric air, or surface water through the heat sink.
- is the science of the producing and maintaining temperatures below of that of
the surrounding atmosphere
- means the cooling or removal of heat from the system.

REFRIGERANTS

- is defined as any substance that absorbs heat through expansion or

vaporization and loses it through condensation in a refrigeration system.

Most Common Refrigerants Used:

1. R- 717 (Ammonia/NH3) – is commonly used in ice factories and breweries

without exception. The reasons for this are:
a. Cheapest refrigerant
b. Lowest running cost
c. Smallest pipelines
d. Leaks are easy to detect
e. Possibility of fire hazard is minimum
f. Easier maintenance with no evacuation and drying
g. Largest latent heat per unit mass = 1250 kJ/kg

Disadvantages:
a. Requires more efficient separators and can cause oil carbonization
problems because of its high temperature.
b. Toxic in nature

2. R-11 (Trichloromonofluromethane/CCl3F) / Freon 11 – is a synthetic chemical

product made for refrigeration employed for 50 tonnes capacity and over in
small buildings and factories
a. Non-corrosive, Non-toxic and Non-flammable
b. Boiling point of 23.77 C at atmospheric pressure
c. Mixes completely with lubricating oil under all conditions
d. High specific volume of suction at any evaporator temperature
e. Latent heat at -15 C is 195.66 kJ/kg

3. R – 12 (Dichlodifluroromethane/CCl2F2) / Freon 12 – is the most widely used and

most popular refrigerant that is used for domestic applications and suitable for
high, medium and low temperature applications.
a. Non-corrosive, Non-toxic and Non-flammable
b. Latent heat at -15 C is 161.3 kJ/kg
c. COP = 4.61
d. Fully oil miscible therefore it simplifies the problem of oil return
e. Does not break even under the extreme operating conditions
f. More critical as to its water content

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4. R – 22 (Monochlorodifluoromethane / CHClF2) / Freon 22 – is a synthetic
refrigerant developed for refrigeration installations that need a low evaporating
pressure and is used commercially and industrial low temperature system.
a. 60 % less than compressor displacement
b. Latent heat at -15 C is 218.1 kJ/kg
c. Toxicity is about the same as CO2
d. Water is more soluble
e. Can be used with all types of condensing units, water-cooled, air-cooled
and evaporative type.
Disadvantage
a. Compared to R – 12 is the high discharge temperature which requires
water cooling of the compressor head and cylinder.

5. R – 502 – is an azeotropic mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-15. It has replaced R
-22 because of high discharge temperature and poor oil return.
a. Non-corrosive, Non-toxic and Non-flammable
b. Latent heat at -29 C is 168.6 kJ/kg
c. Less compressor displacement
d. Less power input
e. Easy to handle and easy to control

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

- is and equipment employed to maintain the system at a low temperature

- operates on a series of consecutive thermodynamic processes that form a
cycle that returns the working substance to the same state

Elements of Refrigeration System

1. Compressor
- It pumps and circulates refrigerant through the system
2. Condenser
- It de-superheats high temperature vapor changes the phase from vapor
to liquid
3. Expansion Device
- It is used to control the flow of refrigerant throughout the system
4. Evaporator
- It vaporized the volatile liquid for the purpose of removing heat from the
refrigerated space.

Methods of Refrigeration

1. Ice Refrigeration
2. Air-Refrigeration
3. Vapor compression refrigeration
4. Cascade refrigeration
5. Absorption refrigeration
6. Steam Jet refrigeration

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 Application of Refrigeration

1. Food Production and Handling - Processing, Preservation and

Transportation/Distribution:
Ex: Dairy products, meat, poultry, fish, beverages, ice making,etc
2. Chemical and Industrial Processes:
Ex. Gas separation, condensation process, fermentation
3. Air- conditioning:
Residential, commercial and industrial spaces.
Ex: Laboratories, printing, textiles, shopping malls, offices, etc.
4. Special Applications:
Ex. Cold treatment of metals, medical/pharmaceutical, ice- skating
rinks, desalting of seawater.

Unit of Refrigerating Capacity

(By international agreement) The standard unit used in the rating of refrigerating
machines in a refrigerating system is called the TONS OF REFRIGERATION or TOR.

TONS OF REFRIGERATION is the rate of cooling required to freeze one ton weight of
water at 0OC (32OF) into ice at 0OC (32OF) in one day.

1 ton x 2000 lb/ton x 144 BTU/lb

1 TOR =
24 hr

= 12,000 BTU/hr

= 200 BTU/min = 211 KJ/min = 3.52 Kw

where: 144 BTU/lb is the latent heat of ice.

Exercises:

1. Using refrigerant tables, determine the properties of ammonia refrigerant

at -10OC when it is: a) Saturated vapor and
b) Saturated liquid.
2. The same as number 1 except that the refrigerant is R-12.
3. The same as number 1 except that the refrigerant is R-22.
4. Using refrigerant charts, determine the enthalpy, entropy and specific
volume of R-12 if its temperature is 20OC and its pressure is 500 kPa.

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 II. Simple Ideal Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems

LEARNING OUTCOME
1. Identify and discuss the basic components of a simple vapor compression
refrigeration system.
2. Explain the different processes involved in the cycle.
3. Explain the thermodynamic analysis and performance measurements of
each component and the system as a whole.
4. Explain the effects of sub-cooling and superheating.
5. Explain heat exchangers.

Refrigeration System – An assembly of different components basically the

compressor, condenser, liquid receiver, expansion valve, and evaporator
arranged in a sequential order and interconnected by pipes through
which a very low boiling point fluid called refrigerant flows so as to
produce refrigerating effect.

3 2
Liquid • Condenser •
Receiver

Expansion Compressor
Valve

4 1
• Evaporator •
3

EVENTS IN THE CYCLE

1. The Vaporizing process:

Low pressure, low temperature refrigerant absorbs the heat
from the material being refrigerated. Such refrigerant turns
from liquid to vapor. The process is constant pressure and
temperature.

2. The compressing process:

The compressor draws the vapor from the evaporator to the
condenser and compresses it to high temperature high
pressure vapor above that of the condensing medium. The
process is Isentropic.

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3. The condensing process:
The heat of the high temperature high pressure vapor will flow
to the condensing medium. The temperature of the
refrigerant therefore lowers while the pressure remains
constant thereby condensing it to its liquid state.
The condensed liquid flows to the liquid receiver for storage
before flowing back to the evaporator through the expansion
valve.

4. The pressure reducing or throttling process:

The liquid refrigerant from the condenser must be kept at low
temperature and pressure so that it will be capable of
absorbing heat again. This is done by a liquid pressure
controlling device called the expansion valve. The process is
adiabatic (h = C).
The expansion valve acts as a dividing point between the
high pressure side and the low pressure side of the system.

DIVISIONS OF THE SYSTEM

1. Low pressure side:

Sometimes called the low side pressure, evaporator pressure,
suction pressure, or back pressure side, this comprises of:
Expansion Valve, Evaporator, and Suction line.

2. High pressure side:

It is also called condensing pressure, discharge pressure, or
head pressure side. It comprises of: compressor, discharge or
hot gas line, condenser, liquid receiver, and liquid line.

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION DISTRIBUTION

1. Direct expansion
The materials or space to be refrigerated is directly exposed
to the evaporator. Used for small capacity refrigeration
where leakage is minimal.

2. Indirect Expansion
The evaporator is immersed inside a brine tank and such
brine is circulated through piping which is used to cool the
materials or products.

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 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE CYCLE

P T
3 condensation 2 •2
• P=C •

Expansion Compression 3 T=C

h=C S=C • S=C
h=C

Evaporation T=C
4• P=C •1 •4 •1

H S

1-2  Isentropic compression from saturated vapor

to the condenser pressure (s = c)
Refrigerant is superheated vapor at point 2.

2-3  Heat rejection at constant pressure.

De-superheating and condensation process
Refrigerant is liquid at point 3.

3–4  Expansion at constant enthalpy (h = c) from

saturated
liquid to wet mixture where evaporator pressure is
achieved. Refrigerant is wet at point 4.

4-1  Heat absorption at constant pressure, (P = c), and

constant temperature, (T = c).
Refrigerant is saturated vapor at point 1.

ANALYSIS OF THE CYCLE

1. Compressor
m
1 2
w = h2 - h1 ----- kj/kg Suction • • Discharge
h1 h2
υ1 υ2
= specific work of
compression.

W = m(h2 - h1) ----- kW

= theoretical
compressor power.
w
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 V1 = m(υ1) ------ m3/sec.

= actual volume of
refrigerant drawn or
taken in to the
cylinder.

Where:
h = enthalpy of refrigerant in kJ/kg
υ = Specific volume of refrigerant in m3/kg
Both of the above properties are to be taken from the refrigerant
charts and tables based on the given refrigerant pressures and
temperatures.

2. Condenser
qr

3 2 m
• •
h3 h2

qr = h2 - h3 ----- kj/kg

= heat extracted from the refrigerant per unit mass

Qr = m(h2 - h3) ----- kW

= Total heat extracted from the refrigerant

3. Expansion Valve

m
High 3 • h3
pressure
side
h3 = h4

P3 > P4
Low
pressure
side
4 • h4

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 4. Evaporator

qe

4 1
m • •
h4 h1

qe = h 1 - h4 ----- kj/kg

= h 1 - h3

= heat absorbed by
the refrigerant per unit mass

= refrigerating effect or cooling effect

Qe = m(h1 - h4) ----- kW

= m(h1 - h3)

= Total heat absorbed by the refrigerant

= refrigerating capacity or cooling capacity

TOR, kW, kJ/min, kJ/hr, Btu/min

PERFORMANCE OF THE CYCLE

5. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Refrigerating Effect QA
COP = =
Work of compression WNET

h1 - h3
COP =
h2 - h 1

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 Note: The higher the COP, the more efficient is the
refrigerating system.

➢ Energy Efficiency Ratio, EER - The ratio of the

cooling effect in kJ/hr over the Power consumption
or power rating in watts.

➢ The minimum EER required by the Philippine

government (DTI) is 9.1

QA, kJ/hr
EER =
WNET, watts

6. Volumetric Efficiency, v

a) Piston displacement, VD - the displacement of the

compressor.
- m3/sec, ft3/min.

π
VD = D2 L N
4

where: D = Diameter of cylinder or bore diameter

= m, ft.

L = Length of stroke, m, ft.

N = Number of cycles per unit time

N = (No. of cylinder)(n)(1)
→ for single acting compressor

N = (No. of cylinder)(n)(2)
→ for double acting compressor

n = Axial speed of compressor.

= revolutions per min -- rpm

= revolutions per second -- rps

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 b) Actual volume of refrigerant, V1 – Actual volumetric flow
rate of refrigerant drawn in to the compressor.

V1 = m(υ1) ------ m3/sec, ft3/min

where: υ1 = specific volume of

refrigerant
entering the compressor,
m3/kg, ft3/lb.
c) Actual Volumetric Efficiency, va

Actual Vol. of refrigerant

va =
Piston Displacement

V1
va =
VD

d) Clearance Volumetric Efficiency, vc

(Considering the compressor alone)

P2

A = πD2/4

P1
V1 L

c b
Pc = Pb = P2 Discharge Pressure

PVk = C

a
Pa = Pd = P1 d Suction Pressure

V1

VC VD

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 V1 = Actual volume of refrigerant drawn in
to the piston.

V1 = Va - Vd

VD = Va - Vc

Vc
Percent clearance = c =
VD
Vc = c VD

Process c to d is isentropic expansion,

k k
PcVc = PdVd
k
Vd Pc
=
Vc Pd

1/k
Pc
Vd = Vc
Pd

Pc = P2

Pd = P 1

V1 Va - Vd
vc = =
VD VD

1/k
Pc
Va - cVD
Pd
vc =
VD

1/k
Pc
VD + cVD - cVD
Pd
vc =
VD

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 1/k
P2
vc = 1 + c - c
P1

υ1
vc = 1 + c - c
υ2

υ1
vc = 1 - c - 1
υ2

where: c = percent clearance

Vc
=
Va - Vc

k = Specific heat ratio of refrigerants

= 1.31 for ammonia = 1.166 for R-22

= 1.13 for R-11 = 1.102 for R-134a
= 1.126 for R-12 = 1.3 for CO2
= 1.33 for H2O = 1.086 for R-600a

7. Compression Efficiency, c

Isentropic Work of Compression

c =
Actual Work of Compression

8. Mechanical Efficiency, m
Indicated Work
m =
Brake Work

WI IHP
m = =
WB BHP

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Example:

1. A four cylinder, 8 cm x 10 cm, single acting, V-type compressor operates at

600 rpm. It is used in a Freon-12 vapor compression system with condenser and
evaporator temperatures of 29OC and -14OC, respectively. If the compression is
dry and isentropic, the clearance is 2 percent. Determine (a) the refrigerating
capacity of the compressor in tons, (b) the heat given off in the condenser, and
(c) the COP. The gas constant, k for R-12 is 1.126.

Given:
Refrigerant used, Freon-12
Number of cylinders, Nc = 4
Cylinder dimensions: D = 8 cm, L = 10 cm, single acting
Speed n = 600 rpm
Condenser temperature = 29OC
Evaporator temperature = -14OC
Clearance c = 2%
K = 1.126

Analysis:
P
29OC
3 2
• • 2
•3 • P2
Condenser

29OC

-14OC • •1
4
• • -14OC
4 1
Evaporator
h

Schematic Diagram Refrigerant PH Diagram

From R-12 Charts and Tables:

h1 = hg @ -14OC = 345.365 kJ/kg

h2 = 369 kJ/kg

υ 1 = 0.090 m3/kg
h3 = hf @ 29OC = 227.557 kJ/kg
h4 = h3

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 h2 = 369 kJ/kg

2
• P2

t2 = 29OC

1
•

t1 = -14OC

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12 Apa2020
Solution:

a) Refrigerating Capacity, QE in tons of refrigeration

QE = m(h1 – h4)
Solve for the mass of refrigerant, m in kg/sec
π
Piston displacement, VD = 4 (D )(L)(Nc)(n)(1)
2

π
VD = (0.08 m)2(0.10 m)(4)(600 rev/min)(1)
4
VD = 1.206 m3/min = 0.0201 m3/sec

Clearance Volumetric Efficiency, ηc

ηc = V1 x 100%
VD

V1 = ηc x VD
1/k
P2
ηc = 1 + c – c
P1

P2 = Psat @ 29OC
P2 = 725.5 kPa
P1 = Psat @ -14OC
P1 = 189.5 kPa
1/1.126
725.5
ηc = 1 + 0.02 – 0.02 189.5

ηc = 0.954 = 95.4%

ηc = V1 x 100%
VD

V1 = ηc x VD = 0.954 x 0.0201

V1 = 0.0192 m3/sec

V1 = m x υ 1

V1 0.0192 m3/sec
m= =
υ1 0.090 m3/kg

m = 0.213 kg/sec

QE = 0.213 kg/sec(345.365 – 227.557)kJ/kg

QE = 25.103 kW

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 1 TR
QE = 25.103 kW x
3.52 kW

QE = 7.131 TR

b) Total heat given-off in the condenser, QR in kW

QR = m(h2 – h3)
QR = 0.213 kg/sec(369 – 227.557) kJ/kg

QR = 30.127 kW

c) Coefficient of Performance, COP

QE m(h1 – h4) h1 – h4
COP = = =
WC m(h2 – h1) h2 – h1

345.365 – 227.557
COP =
369 – 345.365

COP = 4.984

2. An ammonia refrigerating cycle operates at 247.14 kPa suction pressure and

1203.7 kPa discharge pressure. Other data are the following:

Refrigerating capacity 28kW

Compressor clearance 5%
Compression efficiency 80%
Mechanical efficiency 75%
Gas constant for ammonia 1.31

Calculate (a) the clearance volumetric efficiency, (b) the ideal and actual
COP, (c) the mass flow rate of ammonia (d) the mass of flash gas per kg of
ammonia circulated and (e) the brake work of the prime mover.

Given:
Refrigerant used: Ammonia (NH3)
Suction Pressure, P1 = 247.14 kPa
Discharge Pressure, P2 = 1,203.7 kPa
Refrigerating Capacity, QE = 28 kW
Compressor Clearance, c = 5%
Compression Efficiency, ηc = 80%
Mechanical Efficiency, ηm = 75%
Ammonia gas constant, k = 1.31

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Analysis:
P
1203.7 kPa
3 2
• • 2
•3 • P2 = 1203.7 kPa
Condenser

31OC

247.14 kPa • •1 P1 = 247.14 kPa

4
• • -14OC
4 1
Evaporator
h

Schematic Diagram Refrigerant PH Diagram

From R-12 Charts and Tables:

NOTE: It is recommended that the temperatures at suction and discharge should be

used to determine the enthalpies in the refrigerant chart. It is more accurate
than using the pressures because the pressure graduation in the refrigerant
chart is irregular.

Therefore, first locate the temperatures on the ammonia tables.

t1 = tsat @ 247.14 kPa

t1 = -14OC

t2 = tsat @ 1203.7 kPa

t2 = 31OC

h1 = hg @ -14OC = 1445.2 kJ/kg

h2 = 1,681 kJ/kg

υ 1 = 0.500 m3/kg
h3 = hf @ 29OC = 346.614 kJ/kg
h4 = h3

Solution:

a) Clearance Volumetric Efficiency, ηc

1/k
P2
ηc = 1 + c – c
P1
1/1.31
1203.7
ηc = 1 + 0.05 – 0.05 247.14

ηc = 0.8826 = 88.26%

b) Ideal and actual COP

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 i) Ideal COP

h1 – h4
COP =
h2 – h1

1445.2 – 346.614
COP =
1681 – 1445.2

COP = 4.659

ii) Actual COP = COP’

h1 – h4
COP’ =
h2’ – h1

Where h2’ = Actual enthalpy at the compressor discharge

From the given Compression Efficiency, ηc = 80%

wc
ηc = wI

Where WI = Indicated or Actual work of compression = h2’ – h1

wc h2 – h1 1681 – 1445.2
wI = = =
ηc ηc 0.80

wI = 294.75 kJ/kg = h2’ – h1

h2’ = WI + h1 = 294.75 + 1445.2 = 1739.95 kJ/kg

h 1 – h4 1445.2 – 346.614
COP’ = =
h2’ – h1 1739.95 – 1445.2

COP’ = 3.727

c) Mass flow rate of ammonia, m in kg/sec

From the given Refrigerating Capacity, QE = 28 kW,

QE = 28 kW = m(h1 – h4)
QE 28 kJ/sec
m= =
h1 – h4 (1445.2 – 346.614) kJ/kg

m = 0.025 kg/sec

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d) The mass of flash gas per kg of ammonia circulated, x4 in kg of vapor per kg of
refrigerant
P

2
•3 • P2 = 1203.7 kPa

31OC
4 1
• • P1 = 247.14 kPa

-14OC
h
hf4 h4 h1 = hg1 =hg4

Refrigerant PH Diagram

h4 = hf4 + x4(hg4 – hf4)

h4 – hf4
x4 =
hg4 – hf4

Where:
hg4 = h1 = 1445.2 kJ/kg
hf4 = hf @ -14OC
hf4 = 135.820 kJ/kg

346.614 – 135.820
x4 =
1445.2 – 135.820

x4 = 0.1609 kgvapor/kgrefrigerant

e) Brake work of prime mover, WB

WI
ηm = W
B

mwI
WB =
= ηm

(0.025 kg/sec)(294.75 kJ/kg)

WB =
= 0.75

WB = 9.825 kW
=

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 h2=1,681 kPa

2
• P2=1203.7 kPa

t2 = 31OC

υ 1=0.500 m3/kg

1
• P2=1203.7 kPa

t1 = -14OC

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 Cooling Load Calculation Through Transmission and Product Load

Refrigeration system – Cold Room

A cold room is used to store perishable goods such as meat and vegetables to slow down their
deterioration and preserve them as fresh as possible for as long as possible. Heat accelerates
their deterioration so the products are cooled down by removing the heat.

To remove the heat we use a refrigeration system as this allows accurate and automatic
control of the temperature to preserve the goods for as long as possible.

To remove the heat we need to know what the cooling load will be. The cooling load varies
throughout the day so in most cases the average cooling load is calculated and the
refrigeration capacity is calculated to suit this.

Where does all the heat come from that we need to remove?

Transmission load

Typically 5-15% is through transmission loads. This is the thermal energy transferred
through the roof, walls and floor into the cold room. Heat always flows from hot to cold and
the interior of the cold room is obviously a lot colder than its surroundings, so heat is always
trying to enter the space because of that difference in temperature. If the cold store is
exposed to direct sunlight then the heat transfer will be higher so an additional correction will
need to be applied to allow for this.
 Product Load

Then we have Product loads which account for typically 55-75% of the cooling load. This
accounts for the heat that is introduced into the cold room when new products enter. Its also
the energy required to cool, freeze and further cool after freezing. If you’re just cooling the
products then you only need to consider the sensible heat load. If you’re freezing the product
then you need to account for the latent heat also as a phase change occurs. During this time
energy is used but you will not see a temperature change while the product changes between
a state of liquid and ice. There is additional energy required to further chill this food down
below the freezing point which is again sensible heat. You also need to account for the
packaging as this will inherently be cooled also. Lastly if you’re cooling fruit and vegetables
then these products are alive and they will generate some heat so you’ll need to account for
the removal of this too.

To calculate the transmission load we will be using the formula

Q = U x A x (Temp out – Temp in)

 Q= kW

 U = U value of insulation (Example: 0.028 kW/m2.K)

 A = surface area of walls roof and floor (we will calculate this) (m2)

 Temp in = The air temperature inside the room (°C)

 Temp out = The ambient external air temperature (°C)

T To calculate “A” is fairly easy, its just the size of each internal walls, so drop the numbers
in to find the area of each wall, roof and floor.

Side 1 = 6m x 4m = 24m2
Side 2 = 6m x 4m = 24m2
Side 3 = 5m x 4m = 20m2
Side 4 = 5m x 4m = 20m2
Roof = 5m x 6m = 30m2
Floor = 5m x 6m = 30m2
Then we can run these numbers in the formula we saw earlier, you’ll need to calculate the
floor separately to the walls and roof as the temperature difference is different under the floor
so the heat transfer will therefore be different.

Walls and roof

Q = U x A x (Temp out – Temp in)

Q = 0.028 kW/m2.K x 113m2 x (30°C – 1°C)
Q = 91.76 kW

[113m2 = 24m2 + 24m2 + 20m2 + 20m2 + 30m2 + 30m2 ]

Floor

Q = U x A x (Temp out – Temp in)

Q = 0.028 kW/m2.K x 30m2 x (10°C – 1°C)
Q = 7.56 kW

Total transmission heat = 91.76 kW + 7.56 kW = 99.32 kW

Next we will calculate the cooling load from the product sensible heat brought into the cold
room from new products which are at a higher temperature.

For this example we’ll be storing apples, we can look up the specific heat capacity of the
apples but do remember if you’re freezing products then the products will have a different
specific heat when cooling, freezing and sub cooling so you’ll need to account for this and
calculate this separately, but in this example we’re just cooling.

There are 4,000kg of new apples arriving each day at a temperature of 5°C and a specific
heat capacity of 3.65kJ/kg.°C and be cooled in 1 hr.

We can then use the product load sensible heat formula

Q = m x Cp x (Temp enter – Temp store) / t.

 Q = kWh/day

 CP = Specific Heat Capacity of product (kJ/kg.°C)

 m = the mass of new products each day (kg)

 Temp enter = the entering temperature of the products (°C)

 Temp store = the temperature within the store (°C)

 t = time ( 1 hr = 3600s)

Calculation

Q = m x Cp x (Temp enter – Temp store) / 3600

Q = 4,000kg x 3.65kJ/kg.°C x (5°C – 1°C) / 3600.
Q = 16.22 kW

Next we calculate the product latent heat, this is the heat generated by living products such
as fruit and vegetables. These will generate heat as they are still alive, that’s why we’re
cooling them to slow them down their deterioration and preserve them for longer.
For this example I’ve used 9.5 kJ/kg per day as an average but this rate changes over time
and with temperature. . If you were to calculate for a critical load you should use greater
precision. In this example the store maintains a hold of 4,000kg of apples.

To calculate this we’ll use the product load latent heat formula

Q=mxh/t

 Q = kW
 m = mass of product in storage (kg)
 h = the latent heat of the product (1.9kJ/kg)
t = 1 hr = 3600s

Q = m x h / 3600
Q = 4000kg x 9.5 kJ/kg / 3600
Q = 10.56 kW

To calculate the total cooling load we will just sum all the values calculated

Transmission load: 99.32 kW

Product load: 16.22 kW

Product load: 10.56 kW

Total = 126.1 kW
Thermal Properties of Foods 9.3

Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods*
Moisture Initial Specific Heat Specific Heat Latent
Carbohydrate
Content, Protein, Freezing Above Below Heat of
% % Fat, % Total, % Fiber, % Ash, % Point, Freezing, Freezing Fusion,
Food Item xwo xp xf xc xfb xa °C kJ/(kg·K) kJ/(kg·K) kJ/kg
Vegetables
Artichokes, globe 84.94 3.27 0.15 10.51 5.40 1.13 –1.2 3.90 2.02 284
Jerusalem 78.01 2.00 0.01 17.44 1.60 2.54 –2.5 3.63 2.25 261
Asparagus 92.40 2.28 0.20 4.54 2.10 0.57 –0.6 4.03 1.79 309
Beans, snap 90.27 1.82 0.12 7.14 3.40 0.66 –0.7 3.99 1.85 302
lima 70.24 6.84 0.86 20.16 4.90 1.89 –0.6 3.52 2.07 235
Beets 87.58 1.61 0.17 9.56 2.80 1.08 –1.1 3.91 1.94 293
Broccoli 90.69 2.98 0.35 5.24 3.00 0.92 –0.6 4.01 1.82 303
Brussels sprouts 86.00 3.38 0.30 8.96 3.80 1.37 –0.8 3.90 1.91 287
Cabbage 92.15 1.44 0.27 5.43 2.30 0.71 –0.9 4.02 1.85 308
Carrots 87.79 1.03 0.19 10.14 3.00 0.87 –1.4 3.92 2.00 293
Cauliflower 91.91 1.98 0.21 5.20 2.50 0.71 –0.8 4.02 1.84 307
Celeriac 88.00 1.50 0.30 9.20 1.80 1.00 –0.9 3.90 1.89 294
Celery 94.64 0.75 0.14 3.65 1.70 0.82 –0.5 4.07 1.74 316
Collards 90.55 1.57 0.22 7.11 3.60 0.55 –0.8 4.01 1.86 302
Corn, sweet, yellow 75.96 3.22 1.18 19.02 2.70 0.62 –0.6 3.62 1.98 254
Cucumbers 96.01 0.69 0.13 2.76 0.80 0.41 –0.5 4.09 1.71 321
Eggplant 92.03 1.02 0.18 6.07 2.50 0.71 –0.8 4.02 1.83 307
Endive 93.79 1.25 0.20 3.35 3.10 1.41 –0.1 4.07 1.69 313
Garlic 58.58 6.36 0.50 33.07 2.10 1.50 –0.8 3.17 2.19 196
Ginger, root 81.67 1.74 0.73 15.09 2.00 0.77 — 3.75 1.94 273
Horseradish 78.66 9.40 1.40 8.28 2.00 2.26 –1.8 3.70 2.12 263
Kale 84.46 3.30 0.70 10.01 2.00 1.53 –0.5 3.82 1.86 282
Kohlrabi 91.00 1.70 0.10 6.20 3.60 1.00 –1.0 4.02 1.90 304
Leeks 83.00 1.50 0.30 14.15 1.80 1.05 –0.7 3.77 1.91 277
Lettuce, iceberg 95.89 1.01 0.19 2.09 1.40 0.48 –0.2 4.09 1.65 320
Mushrooms 91.81 2.09 0.42 4.65 1.20 0.89 –0.9 3.99 1.84 307
Okra 89.58 2.00 0.10 7.63 3.20 0.70 –1.8 3.97 2.05 299
Onions 89.68 1.16 0.16 8.63 1.80 0.37 –0.9 3.95 1.87 300
dehydrated flakes 3.93 8.95 0.46 83.28 9.20 3.38 — — — 13
Parsley 87.71 2.97 0.79 6.33 3.30 2.20 –1.1 3.93 1.94 293
Parsnips 79.53 1.20 0.30 17.99 4.90 0.98 –0.9 3.74 2.02 266
Peas, green 78.86 5.42 0.40 14.46 5.10 0.87 –0.6 3.75 1.98 263
Peppers, freeze-dried 2.00 17.90 3.00 68.70 21.30 8.40 — — — 7
sweet, green 92.19 0.89 0.19 6.43 1.80 0.30 –0.7 4.01 1.80 308
Potatoes, main crop 78.96 2.07 0.10 17.98 1.60 0.89 –0.6 3.67 1.93 264
sweet 72.84 1.65 0.30 24.28 3.00 0.95 –1.3 3.48 2.09 243
Pumpkins 91.60 1.00 0.10 6.50 0.50 0.80 –0.8 3.97 1.81 306
Radishes 94.84 0.60 0.54 3.59 1.60 0.54 –0.7 4.08 1.77 317
Rhubarb 93.61 0.90 0.20 4.54 1.80 0.76 –0.9 4.05 1.83 313
Rutabaga 89.66 1.20 0.20 8.13 2.50 0.81 –1.1 3.96 1.92 299
Salsify (vegetable oyster) 77.00 3.30 0.20 18.60 3.30 0.90 –1.1 3.65 2.05 257
Spinach 91.58 2.86 0.35 3.50 2.70 1.72 –0.3 4.02 1.75 306
Squash, summer 94.20 0.94 0.24 4.04 1.90 0.58 –0.5 4.07 1.74 315
winter 87.78 0.80 0.10 10.42 1.50 0.90 –0.8 3.89 1.87 293
Tomatoes, mature green 93.00 1.20 0.20 5.10 1.10 0.50 –0.6 4.02 1.77 311
ripe 93.76 0.85 0.33 4.64 1.10 0.42 –0.5 4.08 1.79 313
Turnip 91.87 0.90 0.10 6.23 1.80 0.70 –1.1 4.00 1.88 307
greens 91.07 1.50 0.30 5.73 3.20 1.40 –0.2 4.01 1.74 304
Watercress 95.11 2.30 0.10 1.29 1.50 1.20 –0.3 4.08 1.69 318
Yams 69.60 1.53 0.17 27.89 4.10 0.82 — 3.47 2.06 232
Fruits
Apples, fresh 83.93 0.19 0.36 15.25 2.70 0.26 –1.1 3.81 1.98 280
dried 31.76 0.93 0.32 65.89 8.70 1.10 — 2.57 2.84 106
Apricots 86.35 1.40 0.39 11.12 2.40 0.75 –1.1 3.87 1.95 288
Avocados 74.27 1.98 15.32 7.39 5.00 1.04 –0.3 3.67 1.98 248
Bananas 74.26 1.03 0.48 23.43 2.40 0.80 –0.8 3.56 2.03 248
Blackberries 85.64 0.72 0.39 12.76 5.30 0.48 –0.8 3.91 1.94 286
Blueberries 84.61 0.67 0.38 14.13 2.70 0.21 –1.6 3.83 2.06 283
Cantaloupes 89.78 0.88 0.28 8.36 0.80 0.71 –1.2 3.93 1.91 300
Cherries, sour 86.13 1.00 0.30 12.18 1.60 0.40 –1.7 3.85 2.05 288
sweet 80.76 1.20 0.96 16.55 2.30 0.53 –1.8 3.73 2.12 270
Cranberries 86.54 0.39 0.20 12.68 4.20 0.19 –0.9 3.91 1.93 289
9.4 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)

Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* (Continued)
Moisture Initial Specific Heat Specific Heat Latent
Carbohydrate
Content, Protein, Freezing Above Below Heat of
% % Fat, % Total, % Fiber, % Ash, % Point, Freezing, Freezing Fusion,
Food Item xwo xp xf xc xfb xa °C kJ/(kg·K) kJ/(kg·K) kJ/kg
Currants, European black 81.96 1.40 0.41 15.38 0.00 0.86 –1.0 3.71 1.95 274
red and white 83.95 1.40 0.20 13.80 4.30 0.66 –1.0 3.85 1.98 280
Dates, cured 22.50 1.97 0.45 73.51 7.50 1.58 –15.7 2.31 2.30 75
Figs, fresh 79.11 0.75 0.30 19.18 3.30 0.66 –2.4 3.70 2.25 264
dried 28.43 3.05 1.17 65.35 9.30 2.01 — 2.51 4.13 95
Gooseberries 87.87 0.88 0.58 10.18 4.30 0.49 –1.1 3.95 1.96 293
Grapefruit 90.89 0.63 0.10 8.08 1.10 0.31 –1.1 3.96 1.89 304
Grapes, American 81.30 0.63 0.35 17.15 1.00 0.57 –1.6 3.71 2.07 272
European type 80.56 0.66 0.58 17.77 1.00 0.44 –2.1 3.70 2.16 269
Lemons 87.40 1.20 0.30 10.70 4.70 0.40 –1.4 3.94 2.02 292
Limes 88.26 0.70 0.20 10.54 2.80 0.30 –1.6 3.93 2.03 295
Mangos 81.71 0.51 0.27 17.00 1.80 0.50 –0.9 3.74 1.95 273
Melons, casaba 92.00 0.90 0.10 6.20 0.80 0.80 –1.1 3.99 1.87 307
honeydew 89.66 0.46 0.10 9.18 0.60 0.60 –0.9 3.92 1.86 299
watermelon 91.51 0.62 0.43 7.18 0.50 0.26 –0.4 3.97 1.74 306
Nectarines 86.28 0.94 0.46 11.78 1.60 0.54 –0.9 3.86 1.90 288
Olives 79.99 0.84 10.68 6.26 3.20 2.23 –1.4 3.76 2.07 267
Oranges 82.30 1.30 0.30 15.50 4.50 0.60 –0.8 3.81 1.96 275
Peaches, fresh 87.66 0.70 0.90 11.10 2.00 0.46 –0.9 3.91 1.90 293
dried 31.80 3.61 0.76 61.33 8.20 2.50 — 2.57 3.49 106
Pears 83.81 0.39 0.40 15.11 2.40 0.28 –1.6 3.80 2.06 280
Persimmons 64.40 0.80 0.40 33.50 0.00 0.90 –2.2 3.26 2.29 215
Pineapples 86.50 0.39 0.43 12.39 1.20 0.29 –1.0 3.85 1.91 289
Plums 85.20 0.79 0.62 13.01 1.50 0.39 –0.8 3.83 1.90 285
Pomegranates 80.97 0.95 0.30 17.17 0.60 0.61 –3.0 3.70 2.30 270
Prunes, dried 32.39 2.61 0.52 62.73 7.10 1.76 — 2.56 3.50 108
Quinces 83.80 0.40 0.10 15.30 1.90 0.40 –2.0 3.79 2.13 280
Raisins, seedless 15.42 3.22 0.46 79.13 4.00 1.77 — 2.07 2.04 52
Raspberries 86.57 0.91 0.55 11.57 6.80 0.40 –0.6 3.96 1.91 289
Strawberries 91.57 0.61 0.37 7.02 2.30 0.43 –0.8 4.00 1.84 306
Tangerines 87.60 0.63 0.19 11.19 2.30 0.39 –1.1 3.90 1.93 293
Whole Fish
Cod 81.22 17.81 0.67 0.0 0.0 1.16 –2.2 3.78 2.14 271
Haddock 79.92 18.91 0.72 0.0 0.0 1.21 –2.2 3.75 2.14 267
Halibut 77.92 20.81 2.29 0.0 0.0 1.36 –2.2 3.74 2.18 260
Herring, kippered 59.70 24.58 12.37 0.0 0.0 1.94 –2.2 3.26 2.27 199
Mackerel, Atlantic 63.55 18.60 13.89 0.0 0.0 1.35 –2.2 3.33 2.23 212
Perch 78.70 18.62 1.63 0.0 0.0 1.20 –2.2 3.71 2.15 263
Pollock, Atlantic 78.18 19.44 0.98 0.0 0.0 1.41 –2.2 3.70 2.15 261
Salmon, pink 76.35 19.94 3.45 0.0 0.0 1.22 –2.2 3.68 2.17 255
Tuna, bluefin 68.09 23.33 4.90 0.0 0.0 1.18 –2.2 3.43 2.19 227
Whiting 80.27 18.31 1.31 0.0 0.0 1.30 –2.2 3.77 2.15 268
Shellfish
Clams 81.82 12.77 0.97 2.57 0.0 1.87 –2.2 3.76 2.13 273
Lobster, American 76.76 18.80 0.90 0.50 0.0 2.20 –2.2 3.64 2.15 256
Oysters 85.16 7.05 2.46 3.91 0.0 1.42 –2.2 3.83 2.12 284
Scallop, meat 78.57 16.78 0.76 2.36 0.0 1.53 –2.2 3.71 2.15 262
Shrimp 75.86 20.31 1.73 0.91 0.0 1.20 –2.2 3.65 2.16 253
Beef
Brisket 55.18 16.94 26.54 0.0 0.0 0.80 — 3.19 2.33 184
Carcass, choice 57.26 17.32 24.05 0.0 0.0 0.81 –2.2 3.24 2.31 191
select 58.21 17.48 22.55 0.0 0.0 0.82 –1.7 3.25 2.24 194
Liver 68.99 20.00 3.85 5.82 0.0 1.34 –1.7 3.47 2.16 230
Ribs, whole (ribs 6-12) 54.54 16.37 26.98 0.0 0.0 0.77 — 3.16 2.32 182
Round, full cut, lean and fat 64.75 20.37 12.81 0.0 0.0 0.97 — 3.39 2.18 216
full cut, lean 70.83 22.03 4.89 0.0 0.0 1.07 — 3.52 2.12 237
Sirloin, lean 71.70 21.24 4.40 0.0 0.0 1.08 –1.7 3.53 2.11 239
Short loin, porterhouse steak, lean 69.59 20.27 8.17 0.0 0.0 1.01 — 3.49 2.14 232
T-bone steak, lean 69.71 20.78 7.27 0.0 0.0 1.27 — 3.49 2.14 233
Tenderloin, lean 68.40 20.78 7.90 0.0 0.0 1.04 — 3.45 2.14 228
Veal, lean 75.91 20.20 2.87 0.0 0.0 1.08 — 3.65 2.09 254
Thermal Properties of Foods 9.5

Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* (Continued)
Moisture Initial Specific Heat Specific Heat Latent
Carbohydrate
Content, Protein, Freezing Above Below Heat of
% % Fat, % Total, % Fiber, % Ash, % Point, Freezing, Freezing Fusion,
Food Item xwo xp xf xc xfb xa °C kJ/(kg·K) kJ/(kg·K) kJ/kg
Pork
Backfat 7.69 2.92 88.69 0.0 0.0 0.70 — 2.17 2.98 26
Bacon 31.58 8.66 57.54 0.09 0.0 2.13 — 2.70 2.70 105
Belly 36.74 9.34 53.01 0.0 0.0 0.49 — 2.80 3.37 123
Carcass 49.83 13.91 35.07 0.0 0.0 0.72 — 3.08 3.10 166
Ham, cured, whole, lean 68.26 22.32 5.71 0.05 0.0 3.66 — 3.47 2.22 228
country cured, lean 55.93 27.80 8.32 0.30 0.0 7.65 — 3.16 2.31 187
Shoulder, whole, lean 72.63 19.55 7.14 0.0 0.0 1.02 –2.2 3.59 2.20 243
Sausage
Braunschweiger 48.01 13.50 32.09 3.13 0.0 3.27 — 3.01 2.40 160
Frankfurter 53.87 11.28 29.15 2.55 0.0 3.15 –1.7 3.15 2.31 180
Italian 51.08 14.25 31.33 0.65 0.0 2.70 — 3.10 2.37 171
Polish 53.15 14.10 28.72 1.63 0.0 2.40 — 3.14 2.36 178
Pork 44.52 11.69 40.29 1.02 0.0 2.49 — 2.95 2.43 149
Smoked links 39.30 22.20 31.70 2.10 0.0 4.70 — 2.82 2.45 131
Poultry Products
Chicken 65.99 18.60 15.06 0.0 0.0 0.79 –2.8 4.34 3.32 220
Duck 48.50 11.49 39.34 0.0 0.0 0.68 — 3.06 2.45 162
Turkey 70.40 20.42 8.02 0.0 0.0 0.88 — 3.53 2.28 235
Egg
White 87.81 10.52 0.0 1.03 0.0 0.64 –0.6 3.91 1.81 293
dried 14.62 76.92 0.04 4.17 0.0 4.25 — 2.29 2.10 49
Whole 75.33 12.49 10.02 1.22 0.0 0.94 –0.6 3.63 1.95 252
dried 3.10 47.35 40.95 4.95 0.0 3.65 — 2.04 2.00 10
Yolk 48.81 16.76 30.87 1.78 0.0 1.77 –0.6 3.05 2.25 163
salted 50.80 14.00 23.00 1.60 0.0 10.60 –17.2 3.01 3.79 170
sugared 51.25 13.80 22.75 10.80 0.0 1.40 –3.9 3.07 2.54 171
Lamb
Composite of cuts, lean 73.42 20.29 5.25 0.0 0.0 1.06 –1.9 3.60 2.14 245
Leg, whole, lean 74.11 20.56 4.51 0.0 0.0 1.07 — 3.62 2.14 248
Dairy Products
Butter 17.94 0.85 81.11 0.06 0.0 0.04 — 2.40 2.65 60
Cheese
Camembert 51.80 19.80 24.26 0.46 0.0 3.68 — 3.10 3.34 173
Cheddar 36.75 24.90 33.14 1.28 0.0 3.93 –12.9 2.77 3.07 123
Cottage, uncreamed 79.77 17.27 0.42 1.85 0.0 0.69 –1.2 3.73 1.99 266
Cream 53.75 7.55 34.87 2.66 0.0 1.17 — 3.16 2.91 180
Gouda 41.46 24.94 27.44 2.22 0.0 3.94 — 2.87 2.77 138
Limburger 48.42 20.05 27.25 0.49 0.0 3.79 –7.4 3.03 2.82 162
Mozzarella 54.14 19.42 21.60 2.22 0.0 2.62 — 3.15 2.46 181
Parmesan, hard 29.16 35.75 25.83 3.22 0.0 6.04 — 2.58 2.94 97
Processed American 39.16 22.15 31.25 1.30 0.0 5.84 –6.9 2.80 2.75 131
Roquefort 39.38 21.54 30.64 2.00 0.0 6.44 –16.3 2.80 3.36 132
Swiss 37.21 28.43 27.45 3.38 0.0 3.53 –10.0 2.78 2.88 124
Cream
Half and half 80.57 2.96 11.50 4.30 0.0 0.67 — 3.73 2.16 269
Table 73.75 2.70 19.31 3.66 0.0 0.58 –2.2 3.59 2.21 246
Heavy whipping 57.71 2.05 37.00 2.79 0.0 0.45 — 3.25 2.32 193
Ice Cream
Chocolate 55.70 3.80 11.0 28.20 1.20 1.00 –5.6 3.11 2.75 186
Strawberry 60.00 3.20 8.40 27.60 0.30 0.70 –5.6 3.19 2.74 200
Vanilla 61.00 3.50 11.00 23.60 0.0 0.90 –5.6 3.22 2.74 204
Milk
Canned, condensed, sweetened 27.16 7.91 8.70 54.40 0.0 1.83 –15.0 2.35 — 91
Evaporated 74.04 6.81 7.56 10.04 0.0 1.55 –1.4 3.56 2.08 247
Skim 90.80 3.41 0.18 4.85 0.0 0.76 — 3.95 1.78 303
Skim, dried 3.16 36.16 0.77 51.98 0.0 7.93 — 1.80 — 11
Whole 87.69 3.28 3.66 4.65 0.0 0.72 –0.6 3.89 1.81 293
dried 2.47 26.32 26.71 38.42 0.0 6.08 — 1.85 — 8
Whey, acid, dried 3.51 11.73 0.54 73.45 0.0 10.77 — 1.68 — 12
sweet, dried 3.19 12.93 1.07 74.46 0.0 8.35 — 1.69 — 11
9.6 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)

Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* (Continued)
Moisture Initial Specific Heat Specific Heat Latent
Carbohydrate
Content, Protein, Freezing Above Below Heat of
% % Fat, % Total, % Fiber, % Ash, % Point, Freezing, Freezing Fusion,
Food Item xwo xp xf xc xfb xa °C kJ/(kg·K) kJ/(kg·K) kJ/kg
Nuts, Shelled
Almonds 4.42 19.95 52.21 20.40 10.90 3.03 — 2.20 — 15
Filberts 5.42 13.04 62.64 15.30 6.10 3.61 — 2.09 — 18
Peanuts, raw 6.5 25.80 49.24 16.14 8.50 2.33 — 2.23 — 22
dry roasted with salt 1.55 23.68 49.66 21.51 8.00 3.60 — 2.08 — 5
Pecans 4.82 7.75 67.64 18.24 7.60 1.56 — 2.17 — 16
Walnuts, English 3.65 14.29 61.87 18.34 4.80 1.86 — 2.09 — 12
Candy
Fudge, vanilla 10.90 1.10 5.40 82.30 0.0 0.40 — 1.90 — 36
Marshmallows 16.40 1.80 0.20 81.30 0.10 0.30 — 2.02 — 55
Milk chocolate 1.30 6.90 30.70 59.20 3.40 1.50 — 1.83 — 4
Peanut brittle 1.80 7.50 19.10 69.30 2.00 1.50 — 1.77 — 6
Juice and Beverages
Apple juice, unsweetened 87.93 0.06 0.11 11.68 0.10 0.22 — 3.87 1.78 294
Grapefruit juice, sweetened 87.38 0.58 0.09 11.13 0.10 0.82 — 3.85 1.78 292
Grape juice, unsweetened 84.12 0.56 0.08 14.96 0.10 0.29 — 3.77 1.82 281
Lemon juice 92.46 0.40 0.29 6.48 0.40 0.36 — 3.99 1.73 309
Lime juice, unsweetened 92.52 0.25 0.23 6.69 0.40 0.31 — 3.99 1.73 309
Orange juice 89.01 0.59 0.14 9.85 0.20 0.41 –0.4 3.90 1.76 297
Pineapple juice, unsweetened 85.53 0.32 0.08 13.78 0.20 0.30 — 3.81 1.81 286
Prune juice 81.24 0.61 0.03 17.45 1.00 0.68 — 3.71 1.87 271
Tomato juice 93.90 0.76 0.06 4.23 0.40 1.05 — 4.03 1.71 314
Cranberry-apple juice drink 82.80 0.10 0.0 17.10 0.10 0.0 — 3.73 1.84 277
Cranberry-grape juice drink 85.60 0.20 0.10 14.00 0.10 0.10 — 3.81 1.80 286
Fruit punch drink 88.00 0.0 0.0 11.90 0.10 0.10 — 3.87 1.78 294
Club soda 99.90 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.10 — 4.17 1.63 334
Cola 89.40 0.0 0.0 10.40 0.0 0.10 — 3.90 1.76 299
Cream soda 86.70 0.0 0.0 13.30 0.0 0.10 — 3.83 1.79 290
Ginger ale 91.20 0.0 0.0 8.70 0.0 0.0 — 3.95 1.73 305
Grape soda 88.80 0.0 0.0 11.20 0.0 0.10 — 3.89 1.77 297
Lemon-lime soda 89.50 0.0 0.0 10.40 0.0 0.10 — 3.90 1.76 299
Orange soda 87.60 0.0 0.0 12.30 0.0 0.10 — 3.86 1.78 293
Root beer 89.30 0.0 0.0 10.60 0.0 0.10 — 3.90 1.76 298
Chocolate milk, 2% fat 83.58 3.21 2.00 10.40 0.50 0.81 — 3.78 1.83 279
Miscellaneous
Honey 17.10 0.30 0.0 82.40 0.20 0.20 — 2.03 — 57
Maple syrup 32.00 0.00 0.20 67.20 0.0 0.60 — 2.41 — 107
Popcorn, air-popped 4.10 12.00 4.20 77.90 15.10 1.80 — 2.04 — 14
oil-popped 2.80 9.00 28.10 57.20 10.00 2.90 — 1.99 — 9
Yeast, baker’s, compressed 69.00 8.40 1.90 18.10 8.10 1.80 — 3.55 2.17 230
*Composition data from USDA (1996). Initial freezing point data from Table 1 in Chapter 30 of the 1993 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals. Specific heats calculated from equa-
tions in this chapter. Latent heat of fusion obtained by multiplying water content expressed in decimal form by 334 kJ/kg, the heat of fusion of water (Table 1 in Chapter 30 of the
1993 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals).

Example 1. A 150 kg beef carcass is to be frozen to –20°C. What are the DENSITY
masses of the frozen and unfrozen water at –20°C?
Modeling the density of foods and beverages requires knowledge
Solution: of the food porosity, as well as the mass fraction and density of the
From Table 3, the mass fraction of water in the beef carcass is 0.58
and the initial freezing point for the beef carcass is –1.7°C. Using
food components. The density ρ of foods and beverages can be cal-
Equation (5), the mass fraction of ice is culated accordingly:

1.105 × 0.58 (1 – ε)
x ice = ---------------------------------------------------- = 0.52 ρ = -------------------- (6)
0.7138
1 + ------------------------------------------
ln ( –1.7 + 20 + 1 ) ∑ xi ⁄ ρi
The mass fraction of unfrozen water is where ε is the porosity, xi is the mass fraction of the food constitu-
x u = x wo – x ice = 0.58 – 0.52 = 0.06
ents, and ρi is the density of the food constituents. The porosity ε is
required to model the density of granular foods stored in bulk, such
The mass of frozen water at –20°C is as grains and rice. For other foods, the porosity is zero.
x ice × 150 kg = 0.52 × 150 = 78 kg
SPECIFIC HEAT
The mass of unfrozen water at –20°C is
Specific heat is a measure of the energy required to change the
x u × 150 kg = 0.06 × 150 = 9 kg temperature of a food by one degree. Therefore, the specific heat