Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125470

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

The circularity of potential bio-textile production routes: Comparing

life cycle impacts of bio-based materials used within the
manufacturing of selected leather substitutes
Jakob Hildebrandt a, b, *, Daniela Thra
€n a, c, Alberto Bezama a
a
Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Bioenergy, Permoserstr, 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
b €rlitz University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Process Development, Peat and Natural Materials Research, Friedrich-Schneider-Straße 26,
Zittau/Go
02763, Zittau, Germany
c
Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum DBFZ gGmbH, Torgauerstr. 116, 04347, Leipzig, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nowadays the fashion industry faces increasing pressures to reduce the environmental impacts associ-
Received 17 March 2020 ated to the production of leather-based fashion products, particularly considering issues regarding public
Received in revised form acceptance due to animal welfare standards and due to the toxicity of tanning chemicals. An alternative
11 November 2020
solution facilitated by the bio-textiles industry is the introduction of vegan and bio-based leather sub-
Accepted 7 December 2020
Available online 9 December 2020
stitutes for the production of shoes, handbags, clothing’s and upholstery i.e. on the basis of natural fibres,
bio-based polymers, microbial cellulose and fungal mycelium composite products. Nonetheless, also
^as de
Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bo these bio-based leather products cause negative environmental impacts i.e. related to land-use change
Almeida and intensification, to water use and to energy use in polymer manufacturing. For further impact
reduction and designing environmentally most sound solutions, design of leather substitute products
Keywords: should integrate best-practice interventions for increased circularity along the full product life cycles
Circular bioeconomy from fibre feedstock provisioning to polymer production and end-of-life recyclability and degradability.
Bio-based textiles This study evaluated the current best practice scenarios for impact reduction when implementing cir-
Leather substitutes
cular design strategies in the production of bio-based fashion materials. Three case studies of alternative
Comparative life cycle assessment
leather substitutes were considered, including respectively two sub-scenarios in a comparative Life Cycle
Circularity
Sustainable fashion products Impact Assessment. Results for the aggregated single score using the Environmental footprint approach
showed that principles of circularity (e.g. the feedstock type and by-product recovery for fiber and sugar
feedstocks) have an influence of 65% between the best and worst performer in mitigating environmental
impacts. Furthermore, enhancing the product durability of the leather substitutes against the temporal
product replacement benchmark of animal leather would have an influence of 25e70% in mitigating
impacts concerning water scarcity and climate change. The most important conclusion of this work is
that alternative leather substitutes can contribute to relative environmental advantages in impact
reduction in 8e14 impact categories, but only as long as the material substitution is coupled with less
frequent product replacement and preferably also low impact coating systems and impregnation agents.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Many of these materials rely on circular design strategies and

biofabrication technologies, and have been successively introduced
As of late, the fashion industry has demanded a shift in the in consumer markets (Earley and Goldsworthy, 2019; Myers and
textile sector as disruptive start-up entrepreneurs are rapidly pro- Antonelli, 2014; Qua, 2019; Wood, 2019).
totyping an increasing variety of leather substitution materials. A major reason for these substitution strategies and product
innovation initiatives is the increasing policy pressure on textiles
manufacturing for impact reduction. Overall, the textile sector has
been forced to react to the market’s dwindling acceptance of
* Corresponding author. Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ,
established products due to the use of toxic tanning agents, high
Department of Bioenergy, Permoserstr, 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Hildebrandt).
environmental burden on water bodies from livestock farming, and

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J. Hildebrandt, D. Thra Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125470

poor international standards in animal welfare (Blackburn, 2009b; benchmarking if the product use phase is comparable or if product
Bruckner et al.; Charter, 2018; Chowdhury et al., 2017; Earley and replacements must be included for comparison with a common
Goldsworthy, 2019; Joseph and Nithya, 2009a). Some innovation baseline due to differences in overall product durability.
processes used by experimental start-ups, such as biologically Taking into account these considerations this study aims to
inspired designers and green fashion companies, offer a broad apply an analytical framework of circularity along the value-added
range of bio-based substitution options, circular strategies for chains for three alternative leather substitute materials in order to
sourcing secondary raw materials and agricultural residues, and compare their environmental sustainability profiles and identify
novel manufacturing technologies, which can be introduced into strategic recommendations. Simply, this study aims to answer
the processing chain (Luis Quijano; Milly, 2018/2019; Qua, 2019; questions regarding the strategic levers and the general achiev-
Wood, 2019). The use of agricultural residues is a possible approach ability of the impact decoupling in the metabolism of the bio-
to promote the shift toward circular resource mobilization strate- textiles industry and the influence of product durability and
gies. One example of this includes the use of pineapple leaf fibers product replacement on the environmental impact profiles of
(PALF) from pineapple residues for fiber provisioning in the pro- leather substitute materials.
duction of nonwoven products. Another example is the use of In particular, the assessment of a product’s circularity must
lignocellulose residues, e.g., straw and husks, for the cultivation of combine traditional concepts of a circular economy with the novel
mycelium materials or for the production of bio-based coating understanding of a circular economy by going beyond waste
options on the basis of lignocellulose-based polymers. Further- treatment and enhanced recyclability to include the repurposing
more, leather tanning processes can be altered to a renewable and holistic redesign of products.
resource base, e.g., producing tanning agents on the basis of oxalic The traditional concepts of circular economy have focused on
acid (Alfarisi et al., 2017; Collet 2018; Goswami and O’Haire, 2016; shifting away from end-of-life treatment options, such as waste-to-
Krishnaraj and Sani, 2019; Myers and Antonelli, 2014; Qua, 2019; energy valorization pathways, toward higher recovery rates in
Younes, 2017). In the testing and upscaling of biofabrication tech- textile recycling as well as upcycling textile wastes with durable
nologies, a common feature observed from emerging approaches is characteristic and high value-added potential for secondary prod-
that the materials are manufactured with an aim to mimic the uct platforms. Today, increasingly accepted definitions of circular
material properties of leather. This is done by cultivating eukaryotic economy are applied from a life cycle perspective. When incorpo-
cell tissues from yeast and bacteria cultures and of fungal mycelium rating life cycle management strategies and circular economy
composite materials (FMCM). The materials obtained include sub- design concepts into the life cycle stages of emerging bio-textile
strates, such as chitin structures, collagen proteins, and microbial industry chains, a more cascading oriented end-of-life (EOL)-
cellulose sheets, that can be further processed into the desired pathway is constructed, which furthers the concept of circularity by
fashion products (Andre a et al., 2017; Collet 2018; Ghalachyan, involving more efficient use of agricultural waste flows and
2018; Kim et al., 2017; Qua, 2019). The benchmark of environ- enhancing the design-for-recyclability of finished textile products.
mental footprints associated with circularity manufacturing pro- Major expansions of circular economy definitions are seen in the
cesses for more environmental friendly leather production and extension of the waste-management oriented principle of 4R
alternative leather substitutes continues to face a vast quantity of (reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover) toward 9R or even 10R
questions regarding inventory collection and validation, indicator frameworks (refuse, rethink, reduce, reuse, repair, refurbish,
completeness in multi-criteria assessment frameworks, and fair remanufacture, repurpose, recycle, and recover), which incorporate
baselines in equality-of-benefits comparisons (Blackburn, 2009a; product design and clean production perspectives (Kirchherr et al.,
Cayzer et al., 2017; Joseph and Nithya, 2009b; Laurenti et al., 2017; 2017; Reike et al., 2018). Concepts relying on the principles of
Qua, 2019). regenerative design, biomimicry, and strategies of industrial ecol-
Furthermore, for negating the option that impact decoupling is ogy especially contribute to a more holistic optimization of value-
compromised by problem shifting, either by rebound effects or chains in the fashion industry, leading them toward more nature-
hidden externalization from developed to developing countries based solutions (Geisendorf and Pietrulla, 2018). Using these
(Parrique et al., 2019), the circular design efforts of the fashion in- principles and their aim for decoupling environmental impacts
dustry must be evaluated to determine if they represent showcases from resource use and increasing demands for unsustainable raw
effective for public relation and marketing purposes, allowing the materials for specific design problems on the micro level of fashion
fast fashion business with high demands to exist in separated mass product design allows fashion companies to challenge their choices
market divisions, or if they really contribute to circularity by full- for basic materials, their functionality, and their upscaling of
line substitution on a mass market scale with durable, long last- disruptive manufacturing innovations aligned with collaborators in
ing products (Andre a et al., 2017; Choi and Li, 2015; Franco, 2017; their supply chains (Blackburn, 2009b; Franco, 2017; Koszewska,
Stål and Corvellec, 2018; Younes, 2017). It is still not clear whether 2018).
leather substitution and tanning agents with bio-based alternative
and biomass residue feedstocks (Andre a et al., 2017; Collet 2018; 2. Aim and scope of the circularity assessment
Goswami and O’Haire, 2016; Myers and Antonelli, 2014; Qua, 2019;
Younes, 2017) will contribute to impact the decoupling of the 2.1. Aim of the study
fashion industry in absolute figures in the mid-term perspective
(Choi and Li, 2015; Franco, 2017) and therefore, must be evaluated. This study aims to evaluate the circularity of bio-based com-
This assessment also relies heavily on valid benchmarking signals pounds by considering three case studies of alternative leather
in circularity assessments, which inform consumer choices about substitutes with two respective sub-scenarios, wherein each un-
the best practice materials and misleading green-labeled products, dergoes a comparative life cycle impacts assessment (LCIA). The
thereby promoting burden shifting instead of impact reduction. To results of the comparative LCIA are regarded as valuable support for
make informed decisions, there must exist benchmarking both in benchmarking the reduction potentials of the environmental
the production phase as well as the use phase before waste re- footprints of leather substitutes, thereby creating important data
covery occurs. Further, it must simultaneously identify the poten- support for product designers and sector innovation platforms that
tial impact reductions that can be achieved by introducing circular can identify areas where further impact reduction could be feasible
strategies on individual life cycle stages, and determine the by implementing more ambitious circular design options. In
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J. Hildebrandt, D. Thra Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125470

addition to these three product-based assessments, the study as- biodegradability and durability both get an ambivalent character
sesses each individual product case with a sub-scenario that re- whether being a desirable or an undesirable property for further
flects how further integration of circular design options would design preferences in product finishing.
contribute to an increased environmental impact reduction po- Biodegradability is a preferable property as it helps direct
tential. These sub-scenarios were defined in order to quantify alternative leather materials back into biological nutrient cycles.
further potentials for reduction of environmental impacts when Conversely, materials that are easily degradable often lack dura-
substituting biomass feedstocks, e.g., sugar crops, with lignocellu- bility and therefore a coating or impregnation process may be a
losic biomass or primary fiber resources with secondary fiber re- necessary design option. Moreover, the trade-offs between these
sources, e.g., hemp-flax-sisal materials with PALF-based natural two design choices and the natural durability of alternative mate-
fiber composites. All of these design strategies for leather substitute rials are important factors that must be reflected when comparing
products are still in the market introduction stage. However, impact factors and specific design options for each of the assessed
considering future market shares of bio-based leather substitutes products as their international benchmarks.
and the associated increase in material diversification the obtained
results are also expected to contribute to better assess the future 3. Materials and methods
circularity of more diversified markets for bio-based leather sub-
stitute products. The analytical framework and the sub-scenarios 3.1. System boundary, functional units, unit processes, and process
for the LCIA modeling are developed in a structured manner inventories of applied life cycle assessment (LCA) approach
alongside the research questions presented in section 3.1. The
analytical framework is discussed in section 3.2, the general spec- The LCA considers inventory data from cradle-to-gate system
ificities of the involved processes are described in section 3.3, and boundaries of particular process chains throughout the different
the LCIA modeling approach and datasets are evaluated in section material life cycle stages. On the upstream side of the processes, the
3.4. unit processes included in the assessment encompass all agricul-
tural provisioning processes for feedstock cultivation, harvesting,
2.2. Scope and analytical framework for the comparative LCIA and transport, such as the supply of pineapple fibers, wheat straw,
and husks from agricultural residues, and refined sugar for poly-
To derive a realistic sustainability benchmark framework of the lactic acid (PLA) production and microbial cellulose cultivation
current developments of alternative leather products and the from sugar beet, sugar cane, and lignocellulosic biomass. The unit
constraints and benchmarks they are facing during the optimiza- processes in the particular processing facility include all inventory
tion of their environmental impact profiles, the analytical frame- data for required heating demand and electricity in the fermenta-
work has to include all the life cycle stages. tion processes and polymer production. Herein, country-specific
As shown in Fig. 1, the scope of the LCIA is presented during the background emissions are not specified at the production sites.
production stages of the product alternatives in order to compare Rather, these data are used to evaluate the relative advantages
the three different alternative leather substitute materials with the against conventional leather products.
respective reference product of bovine leather.
Furthermore, Fig. 1 shows the analytical framework, which is
organized to cluster the research questions of the comparative LCIA 3.1.1. Functional units and the equality of benefits of the material
alongside the circular design options in each life cycle (LC) stage alternatives and their references
from feedstock choice to product design for durability and the end- The functional unit herein is 1 m2 of leather patches applied as
of-life scenarios. an upholstery leather substitute on armchairs. The statistical or
estimated product life time, which is individual for each product
2.3. Research questions type and its surface coating or impregnation type, is used as a
benchmark for comparison to evaluate if product replacement is
In general, the circularity assessment must structure the alter- required for products with lower life time expectancies than that of
native choices and the corresponding sub-scenarios for the conventional leather. The functional unit of the assessed alternative
comparative LCIA along the circular design choices, which can be leather substitutes has to be brought on to a common basis for
considered throughout the production stages. Thus, the research comparison. The equality of benefits is evaluated by identifying the
questions involved whether: a. they relate to the resource base, b. density, thickness, tensile strength, and durability, wherein the four
they relate to the sensitivity of the results against the variances of different materials need to be comparable regarding their material
the reference bovine leather production, or c. they relate to the properties.
sensitivity of the results against the variances during the use phase These properties are summarized in Table 3 for each assessed
and end-of-life treatment scenarios. alternative.
Only when the equality of benefits is ensured in definition of
2.3.1. Research questions regarding feedstock functional units for a set of product groups can more encompassing
Regarding feedstock, the following questions, which are sum- assessments be conducted, e.g., comparing full or partial market
marized in Table 1, were identified to determine the quality of substitution strategies or additional benefits in meeting future
circularity, as well as the definition of allocation rules for the later market demand with alternative leather substitutes in contrast to
impact assessment. further increasing bovine leather utilization.

2.3.2. Research questions regarding the influence of the finishing 3.1.2. Unit processes for biofabrication and nonwovens
treatment for the enhanced durability on the LCIA results manufacturing assessed in the LCA
When identifying the relevant specification factors for assessing The production processes for the alternative leather substitute
the life cycle impact potentials of product finishes, its potential for materials assessed herein involve mechanical needle fleece
durability enhancement and its associated influences on the use manufacturing and microbial production of microbial cellulose. In
phase and end-of-life management options become critical con- this section, the major features of the most relevant unit processes
siderations (Table 2). In particular, the material properties of involved in leather substitute manufacturing are briefly described.
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J. Hildebrandt, D. Thra Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125470

Fig. 1. Scope and analytical framework in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) of different leather substitutes.

Table 1
Research questions concerning aspects on the feedstock side.

Research question Description Motivation

1 How does the use of different fiber resources influence the This depends on if a resource is cultivated as a main crop, e.g., sisal, hemp, flax, or
comparative life cycle impacts assessment (LCIA)? kenaf, or if they are sourced as by-product from another main crop, such as fruit
cultivation for the juice, and fruit production of pineapples for their leaf fibers.
Regarding the case of pineapple leaf fibers (PALF), it is clear that they represent a type
of agricultural by-product under a business-as-usual scenario. When comparing the
order of magnitude this choice may have on the overall environmental impact
footprint, it is useful to compare whether other fiber crops may have a substantially
different environmental profile.
2 How does the feedstock choice, e.g., of wood-based sugar versus Sugar was identified as a major input substrate in alternative leather production
sugar-cane- or sugar beet-based sugar, influence the comparative systems. Similar to the previous question, sugar-based input substrates can either be
LCIA? grown as main crop, e.g., in the case of sugar-beet based sugar, or it can be produced
out of agricultural residues, such as lignocellulosic biomass.

3.1.2.1. Biofabrication of microbial cellulose. The biofabrication of higher water content, is free of lignin and hemicellulose, and has a
bacterial cellulose relies on a variety of possible bacterial strains far higher crystallinity (Gandini and Belgacem, 2008). The choice of
and symbiotic cultures of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). Microbial the feedstock for bacterial conversion is very important as it affects
organisms that have high yields of bacterial (nano-)cellulose exist the environmental footprint of the entire production process, as
in the acetic bacteria species, including Gluconacetobacter xylinus, well as the properties of the final products, e.g., flame retardancy
Komagataeibacter xylinus, Komagataeibacter hansenii, Komagataei- and hydrophobic properties. However, trade-offs between the
bacter kombuchae, Komagataeibacter intermedius, and the yeast choice of substrates and process stability as well as product yield
Zygosaccharomyces bailli (Belgacem, 2008; Niyazbekova et al., 2018; are also important factors that must be evaluated before substrate
Sederavi  te_ et al., 2019). Some major differences between plant
ciu _
selection (Jozala et al., 2015; Zywicka et al., 2018, 2018). Microbial
cellulose and microbial cellulose are that microbial cellulose has a cellulose is a very versatile platform technology for production of a

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Table 2
Research questions concerning the finishing treatment and the end-of-life treatment.

Research Description Motivation

question

5 How do different types of coating polymers and finishing agents influence the The alternative materials produced from microbial cellulose and fiber-based
end-of-life options and consequently the comparative life cycle impacts nonwoven materials not only face product design trade-offs between
assessment (LCIA)? durability and biodegradability but also face issues regarding soaking water
and lack of dimensional stability when prone to water. Therefore, impregnation
and/or coating for increased hydrophobicity may be necessary to achieve good
LCIA comparison results and reach internal design benchmarks.
6 How does the durability of the products vary concerning the application of When considering the finished products, whose leather-like properties were
different finishing agents and coating polymers, and consequently how does designed to exhibit durability similar to leather, it remains an important
this influence the comparative LCIA? question whether a particular product in day-to-day application will indeed
have the same product life expectancy as bovine leather products. In case of
doubts or verified deviation from the durability, the product life time must be
adjusted and a product replacement is introduced into the product-specific LCA
modeling in order to compare all products against one common baseline.

Table 3
Material properties of the assessed alternative upholstery materials.

Material property Alternative 1: pineapple leaf fibers (PALF) or flax-hemp-sisal Alternative 2: Reference material: References
nonwoven with polylactic acid (PLA) matrix and polyurethane (PU) Impregnated microbial Bovine leather
3
cover [density > 30 kg/m ] cellulose upholstery upholstery

1. Area of the upholstery 1 1 1 Definition of functional

[m2] unit
2. Thickness of 1.6 ± 1 1.7 2 Basis for equality of
upholstery sheets benefits regarding
[mm] tensile strength
3. Specific weight of the 400 480 4 oz per ft2 Calculated from 4.
upholstery sheet dry ¼ 141 g/ft2
tanned g/m2 ¼ 1517 g/m2
4. Density kg/m3 dry 250 ± 15.6 285.00 ± 15 758.0 ± 45 (Damsin, 2019; J.
output finished Buljan, G. Reich, J.
Ludvik, 2000)
5. Density kg/m3 wet n.a. 999.0 ± 10 with 85% 1433.0 ± 25 with (Damsin, 2019; J.
input water content 46% water content Buljan, G. Reich, J.
Ludvik, 2000)
Replacement factor Once every 5 years Twice every five years Once every five due to abrasion and
years a reduced durability

broad range of applications, including as stabilizers for emulsions, substitutes is often regarded as more environmentally friendly than
artificial textiles, sponges, water filtration devices, and medicinal synthetic fibers, fiberglass, or bovine leather, sustainability issues,
artificial tissues (Ashjaran, 2013; Belgacem, 2008). Therefore, the such as water resource depletion, pesticides use, and working
biofabrication of bacterial cellulose is regarded as a major bio- conditions, must be closely monitored before conclusive results for
economy technology, meaning its sustainability and associated individual products can be obtained (Rana et al., 2014). The retting
footprint in the downstream processing and finishing phases process involves mechanical, chemical, and biological processes
should be closely monitored. (Sisti et al., 2018). Once the natural fibers are extracted, separated,
and cleaned, the manufacturing of nonwovens includes various
processes, such as air laying, wet-laying, needle punching, stitch
3.1.2.2. Manufacturing of nonwovens from natural fibers with
bonding, hydro entanglement, thermal bonding, and adhesive
biopolymer matrix. Nonwovens are a group of bio-based materials
bonding, depending on both the intended application and the
that have a broad range of technical and fashion related applica-
additional fabrication materials used, such as thermoplastic fibers
tions. Nonwovens are utilized in filter application, environmental
and adhesives (Horrocks and Anand, 2000).
textiles, agricultural uses, such as mulching techniques and erosion
control, building processes for drainage and underlying systems,
and in fashion products, such as artificial leather products (Geus, 3.1.2.3. Using polylactic acid (PLA) polymers within nonwovens as
2016). The production of nonwovens begins with the cultivation biopolymer matrix. PLA monomers can be produced as L(þ) and
of fiber crops, followed by retting, decortication and/or fiber sep- D() stereoisomers through fermentation processes involving
aration processes, and finishes with the manufacturing of non- starch and sugar crops, as well as treated cellulosic and lignocel-
wovens using the extracted bast fibers. The natural fibers used in lulosic biomasses. Generally, through the condensation of lactic
nonwovens manufacturing can be sourced from different fiber acid, low-molecular-weight PLA can be derived and further con-
plants, such as sisal, hemp, flax, cotton, and pineapple (Karthik verted into L(þ) and D() stereoisomers through depolymeriza-
et al., 2016; Peças et al., 2018; Sisti et al., 2018). These plant fibers tion. It can then be further processed using chain growth reactions
can originate from bast, leaf, fruit, seed, wood, and grass fibers. The into a high-molecular-weight PLA. The main bacterial species that
origin of the plant tissues is highly decisive as it determines which are deployed in the fermentation processes are from the Lactoba-
retting process is applicable and what fiber length compositions cillus genus (Jamshidian et al., 2010).
can be extracted (Sisti et al., 2018). Although the use of natural fi- The resulting PLA polymers can be converted into polymers
bers in fiber reinforced composites, technical textiles, and leather granules for extrusion, injection molding, and blow molding
5
 Table 4

J. Hildebrandt, D. Thra
Specific input factors and conversion coefficients to produce 10 m2 of cover leather sheets.

Leather alternative 1: pineapple leaf fibers (PALF) or Flax- Leather alternative 2: Reference material: Bovine leather upholstery References
Hemp-Sisal Fleece with polylactic acid (PLA) matrix Impregnated Bacterial
cellulose

By-product 90% pineapple fruits from input 90% kombucha tea from Meat Supply chain parameter

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ratios input
Sugar mix 100% sugar beet vs. 100% wood-sugar 60% sugar beet vs. 40% sugar Not applicable Modeling parameter (relevant for sensitivity analysis
cane and internal benchmarking)
Transport 18301e24250 km by sea freight for nonwovens (Manila to 11500e16500 km by sea 31000 km as weighted average, global transport by sea www.sea-distance.org, freight of bio-based
distances Rotterdam or Hamburg) freight for tea from Kenya freight, BRICHS to China and Italy to Northern Europe, commodities from most important international
ports
Glucose 65%e85%, just applicable for PLA 45%e68% Not applicable (Chawla et al., 2009; Iffland et al., 2015)
conversion
efficiency
6

Table 5
Allocation rules applied in the life cycle modeling of the assessed leather substitute materials.

Assessed leather substitutes Involved material flows that demand for Allocation rules applied between by-products for the main scenario Allocation rules for the sub-scenario
allocation

Alternative 1: pineapple leaf fibers (PALF) or Flax- Pineapple fibers as by-product from Under the general assumption that there are no negative impacts allocated in the Allocation by price is applied for sugar-
Hemp-Sisal nonwoven with 20% polylactic acid Pineapple cultivation upstream chains of PALF provisioning, impacts of PALF- fibers can be balanced based input substrates supplied by
(PLA) matrix and polyurethane (PU)-Coating Industrial sugar feedstocks used for lactic through allocation by price as future system expansions of pineapple cultivation lignocellulosic feedstock biorefineries
Acid fermentation could be positively influenced by fiber prices, rather than by fruit prices
Alternative 2: Impregnated Microbial cellulose Industrial sugar feedstocks used as Allocation rules are applied for the marketing of kombucha tea as a main by- Allocation by price is applied for sugar
sheets from symbiotic cultures of bacteria and feedstock for yeast and bacterial growth product of microbial cellulose production. from lignocellulosic feedstock
yeast (SCOBY) fermentation processes and kombucha tea marketed as co-product The life cycle impacts assessment (LCIA) results are later compared considering biorefineries
allocation by price and mass.

Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125470

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Fig. 2. Overview of the unit processes, value-added chains, and sub-scenarios for production of alternative leather materials.

Table 6
Unit processes of the life cycle impacts assessment (LCIA) model, and datasets used for LCIA modeling and their references.

Product alternatives Process type Unit processes References of datasets

Upholstery from pineapple leaf fibers (PALF) Transport Transoceanic ship, bulk, 100e200 k dwt EMEP - CORINAIR Emissions Inventory
-nonwoven-with polylactic acid (PLA) matrix and Nonwovens Guidebook, 2011
polyurethane (PU) coating Production of PLA a. Ingeo PLA EcoInvent 3.5
b. PLA from life cycle biorefinery Budzinski und Nitzsche 2017
Cover material RER: Electricity grid mix Our modeling with GaBi Thinkstep
backing - EU-28: Polyurethane (PU) flexible foam - TDI- database 2019
based, no flame retardant, high density
PALF-PLA Electricity grid mix GaBi Thinkstep database 2019
Nonwovens
finishing
Sub-Scenario: Nonwovens from sisal-hemp-kenaf Production of a DE: Fleece from mixed fibre (flax, hemp, and sisal), GaBi Thinkstep database 2019
fleece mix sisal-hemp-kenaf agg.
needle fleece
Upholstery from Impregnated microbial cellulose Tea production Tea production, Kenia EcoInvent 3.5
Sub-Scenario Varying: Sugar supply mix Tap water input Tap water from groundwater GaBi Thinkstep database 2019
Sugar input for ROW: Beet sugar production GaBi Thinkstep database 2019
microbial cellulose BR: Cane sugar production with ethanol
production
Tea brewing for Heat input, tap water input and tea input Own modeling with GaBi Thinkstep
fermentation broth database 2019
Kombucha Input of fermentation broth and input of living Own modeling with yield factors and
Fermentation symbiotic cultures of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) material and energy flow balances as
material for inoculation depicted in Tables 3 and 4
Impregnation of GLO: Crude coconut oil (including LUC) ERASM Surfactant Life Cycle and Eco
SCOBY footprinting (SLE) Project: GaBi Thinkstep
database 2019

Abbreviations: Agg: Aggregated, ROW: Rest of the World, GLO: Global, DE:Germany, BR:Brazil, RER:Europe, LUC: Land-use change.

processes, or be spun into fiber PLA. Fiber PLA can then be pro- 2010). Herein, we assess the use of PLA polymers from both sugar
cessed into nonwoven materials in combination with both fossil- and lignocellulosic sources for thermal bonding with needle fleece
based non-biodegradable polymer fibers and natural fibers and/or materials from PALFs (Qua, 2019), hemp, sisal, and kenaf fibers
other bio-based biodegradable polymer fibers (Jamshidian et al., (Karthik, 2017).

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3.1.3. Main factors of the life cycle inventory analysis

Inventory data were collected to establish material and energy

~o and Bie, 2019; Qua, 2019; Reich

(Chawla et al., 2009; Damsin, 2019; Jayabalan et al., 2014;
flow balances and to specify the input substrates, input factors,
and conversion factors.
The main feedstocks on the input side include sugar beet based
and wood-based sugar for fermentation processes, nutritive
supplements and nitrogen sources for fermentation processes,
ao and Bie, 2019)

such as boiled tea, nutritive and amino acid supplements, and

agricultural by-products, such as PALFs. Regarding energy and fuel
input, transportation, including freight, truck, and train, and
treatment processes, such as boiling, heating, and drying, were
(Damsin, 2019; Faida, 2017)

(Laurenti et al., 2017; Mor~

Laurenti et al., 2017; Mora

included in these calculations. The sources used were the most

recent publications of manufacturers and researchers as well as
Jayabalan et al. (2014)

benchmark studies on bio-based processes and technologies

and Taeger, 2009)

(Table 4).
References

3.1.4. Compilation and justification of allocation rules applied in

life cycle inventory modeling
Reference material:

N/A, protein fodder

Between 0.030 and

For each of the resources involved in the production of the

Bovine leather

assessed bio-textiles, appropriate allocation rules need to be

for livestock
upholstery

defined, selected, and applied. In particular, when assessing the

2.8e16.0

material’s influence on reducing environmental impacts, strate-

0.350
N/A

gies for increasing the circularity within production chains might

require definition, defense, and outlining of the chosen allocation
26 kWh per kg of fermentation broth, including

rules (Table 5).

non-oxidized biogenic energy in fermentation
Leather alternative 2: Impregnated microbial

These allocations precisely differentiate between the main

resources, business-as-usual production systems, and coupled use
and co-production schemes that rely on agricultural residue and
waste flows, which would be prone to mineralization or underuse
in the absence of the proposed innovative production systems.
0.060 plus 0.2 for finishing

Furthermore, when assessing novel biorefinery production plat-

forms that produce tradeable feedstocks commodities, e.g.,
32 kg Tea input per FU
cellulose upholstery

lignocellulosic feedstocks, a clear statement and selection of

allocation rules may have a major influence on the outcome of the
corresponding LCIA.
Material input and energy demand per functional unit of 10 m2 and their respective variances.

products
100 g/l

3.2. LCIA modeling with the associated process modules and the
allocated to fruit use, 0.144e1.44 for PLA, depending if rain-fed or
Nonwovens from leaf fibers or flax-hemp-sisal with polylactic

used LCIA datasets

Water [m3/m2] For pineapple leaf fibers (PALF)-cultivation the water use is

1,77 total and 0.58 non-renewable for PLA-Matrix, 27.5 as

LCIA modeling is conducted using the Software GaBi 6 based

on the datasets of GaBi database Professional þ ecoinvent inte-
grated, the results of researchers from the UFZ Department of
Bioenergy, and our own inventory processes modeled according
to the systems analysis. The model includes all relevant unit
processes in the two major production lines of nonwoven based
and bacterial nano cellulose (BNC) based leather substitutes.
acid (PLA) matrix as upholstery

These substitutes different sub-scenarios in feedstock supply and

cumulative energy demand

resource allocation, the unit processes of the individual produc-

tion systems, and the by-products and their respective allocation
Leather alternative 1:

rules are shown in Fig. 2.

The allocation rules shown in Fig. 2 are the same as those listed
in Table 4. The resources for production of polyol and iscocyanate
0.256 kg/m2

remain fossil-based in this study, but feedstock substitution using

irrigated

biomass resources, such as castor oil, could be introduced. For the

N/A

LCIA modeling, which is conducted alongside the unit processes as

shown in Fig. 2, the datasets used in the GaBi®-Software are
supplements

summarized in Table 7.
Total energy

[kWh/m2]
Sugar input

Amino acid
demand

[kg/m2]

The transport datasets include transportation by ship and

truck, as listed in Table 6. The electricity grid mix applies to both
Table 7

Asian and European countries, which is where the fibers and

nonwoven fleeces are produced.
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Fig. 3. Relative comparison of Environmental Footprint (EF) 2.0 impact categories for four material compositions of fiber based nonwovens against bovine leather upholstery from
dataset EC, DG ENV 2018 (EC, 2018), Remark: Allocation rules in the upstream system were not compared as they mainly include low-value organic fertilizers.

Fig. 4. Relative comparison of Environmental Footprint (EF) 2.0 impact categories comparing case study three of microbial cellulose against bovine leather upholstery from dataset
EC, DG ENV 2018 considering allocation rules for microbial cellulose by price and by weight against kombucha tea sales.

3.3. Robustness of model with regard to variances and uncertainty retardants, and the avoidance of brittleness, e.g., through the use of
in the finishing processes softening agents. These desirable properties can be guaranteed by
certain biological, chemical, and physico-chemical material design
Further uncertainties are expected from variances in the fin- options that either utilize additives in the finishing phase or addi-
ishing stage of the production life cycle of the alternative leather tive shifts in the biological feedstock materials, or by physico-
substitutes. chemical treatment processes. Microbial cellulose sheet finishing
The main issue regarding product durability in different envi- requires additive materials for hydrophobic finishing, fire safety,
ronments and under product safety constraint is ensuring hydro- and softening agents. The possible materials which can be used
phobic properties, fire safety, e.g., through application of flame involve natural wax and/or fossil-based paraffin as a hydrophobic

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Fig. 5. Contribution analysis of the unit processes for flax-hemp-sisal leather substitute production.

agent and bio-based oils as a softening agent. processes to show the relative advantages compared with bovine
leather upholstery as derived from the dataset EC, DG ENV 2018,
4. Results which details finished leather for automotive and upholstery,
preservation and tanning, and consumption mixes (section 4.1), at
The LCIA compares the potential reduction of environmental tanning plant (de)“ (EC, 2018) in section 4.1.
impacts according to the Environmental Footprint (EF) 2.0 impact Furthermore, the contributions analysis helps to identify envi-
categories, and includes toxicity (tox) categories for individual ronmental hot spots concerning individual product-specific unit

Fig. 6. Contribution analysis for unit processes of microbial cellulose-leather production.

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process modules that cause negative environmental impacts, PLA matrix materials and flax-hemp-sisal fleece, and the upstream
thereby highlighting areas that require impact reduction. production systems of the PU based coating comprised the highest
Finally, all three alternative leather substitutes are compared shares of potential negative environmental impacts. Individually,
with an aggregated single score (Global equivalents) using EF 2.0 they contributed at varying degrees to the following categories:
with tox categories in section 4.2.
- Water scarcity is highly attributed to the land use system and
4.1. Energy and material flow balances and their variances pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass for PLA production,
whereas the land-use impacts category is dominated by the
The major material and energy flows associated with the bio- upstream cultivation systems of flax, hemp, and sisal fibers.
fabrication and manufacturing of leather, as compiled in Table 7, - The non-cancer health effects are attributed to the upstream
include the water footprint, the cumulative energy demand for production of raw materials for PU-coating, which is the largest
drying, boiling, pressing, and confectioning of the materials, and contributor to this category.
the upstream material and energy demands for supplementary - Concerning the resource use and energy carriers category, the
materials. shares between these three processes are nearly equal for the
fleece production and PU coating upstream systems.
4.2. Results of the LCIA for the three leather substitute materials
and their sub-scenarios When comparing the LCIA results of the flax-hemp-sisal based
leather substitute with the production system, which relies on PALF
The results show that the allocation rules matter significantly as a fiber feedstocks, one can observe a significantly diversified
for both microbial cellulose based leathers as well as nonwoven picture as the LC impacts of the PALF-based non-wovens product
based alternative leather substitute materials. are not dominated by the fiber production system. Regarding PALF
For the nonwoven based materials, the land-use impact differs nonwovens, wherein fiber production is not the dominant factor,
by almost 300% between the flax-hemp-sisal-based product and the shipping emissions and impact of the PU coating are the major
the bovine leather (greater than 200%) and PALF-based leather unit processes causing negative environmental impacts. Further,
(greater than 450%), as shown in Fig. 3. although the PLA polymer matrix comprises a significant fraction of
For microbial based cellulose, the different impact categories the material composition, the associated environmental impacts
differ between 10% and 30% between the allocation by price and the are not represented in a quantity directly corresponding to its
allocation by mass, and between 50% and 260% between the allo- weight fraction. The results of the LCIA show that the use of PU
cation by mass and the replacement factor of 2 with allocation by coating for PALF and flax-hemp-sisal based nonwovens results in a
price, as shown in Fig. 4. comparable life time for each substitute. However, the contribution
analyses dictate that a substantial fraction of the sensitivity (25%e
4.3. Results of the contribution analysis and the cumulated single 30%) of the LCIA contribution, e.g., resource use and energy carriers,
score assessment comparing the EF 2.0 global equivalents is a result of PU-coating application. Relying on the contribution
analysis for the microbial cellulose leather materials, as shown in
The results of the contribution analysis, which is presented in Fig. 6, a major finding was that upstream impacts of tea production,
Fig. 5, revealed that in all 16 impact categories, the production of the environmental impacts associated with the electricity and heat

Fig. 7. Comparison of the cumulated life cycle impacts for the three selected product compositions weighted according to Environmental Footprint (EF) 2.0 global equivalents.

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demand for the heating and pasteurisation of the fermentation approximately 40%e60% are achieved will the loss of life time
broth, and the impacts of sugar cane production are key impact hot through lower durability be outweighed by the environmental
spots. preferability of biodegradable coatings for more fast fashion
applications.
4.4. Results of the cumulated single score assessment comparing
the EF 2.0 global equivalents 5. Discussion

In this section, the results of the selected EF 2.0 impact cate- Considering the associated impacts of by-product flows, such as
gories are compared, as shown in Fig. 7. Weighting of the impact kombucha tea production and pineapple cultivation, clearly
categories allows for comparison against a baseline weighted single defined allocation rules are decisive factors for the accurate
score. Given this comparison, it is clear that the negative environ- modeling of the associated environmental impacts. Although pro-
mental impacts associated with microbial cellulose leather ducers claim that the environmental impacts of pineapple culti-
comprise only 80% of the total environmental impacts of PALF vation or kombucha tea production and their downstream
based leather, and that the leather-substitute based on flax-hemp- marketing can be neglected, the results herein show that under
sisal fiber nonwovens has a negative environmental impact of system expansion points of view, the actual market size and
approximately 10% higher than that of the PALF-based leather changes in agricultural management patterns induced by expanded
substitute during from the cultivation to factory gate stages. leather substitutes production must be considered.
Market oversaturation of kombucha tea can lead to decreasing
4.5. General results of the study with regard to the research kombucha tea prices, thereby influencing the allocation by price as
questions a higher share of revenues will be from alternative leather sales.
Conversely, the production of PALFs requires additional collection
In this section, the results of this study are evaluated with regard forces and treatment spaces, thereby occupying a share of the land
to the potential answers to the four initial research questions based that would be otherwise useful for pineapple cultivation. We
on the results of the LCIA, the contribution analysis, and the included these factors into our impact assessment by accounting
sensitivity analysis. for them according to the allocation rules described in the methods
Regarding research question 1, which discusses decoupling from section.
feedstock impacts, we determined that the influence of using The replacement factor and product life span are important
different fiber resources on the comparative LCIA must be factors for all leather products and substitutes in general. However,
addressed in a very differentiated manner for the individual impact the life span of leather upholstery is assumed to be considerably
categories. lower than other leather products.
Some of our findings were straightforward, such as that of the Consequently, herein we used for a rather conservative
PALF being a by-product of pineapple cultivation, wherein the land- replacement factor. Even for the less durable leather substitutes it
use impact for PALF-based nonwovens are considerably low, was assumed that a replacement factor between 1 and 2 was
whereas for the flax-hemp-sisal based nonwovens we found that reasonable. When expanding this assessment toward more durable
they have a significantly higher land-use impact and higher water leather product applications, this reference value had to be raised
consumption even compared to the reference bovine leather up- to a replacement factor of the assessed leather substitutes, between
holstery allocated by mass after diverging from meat production. 4 and 5. Meanwhile, due to the superior durability of the leather
Concerning research question 2, by comparing the environ- product in these cases no replacement would be accounted for in
mental advantages of deploying sugar-beet based saccharose, the the LCIA of the leather upholstery production.
LCIA for microbial cellulose clearly shows that for a broad variety of By evaluating our results in regard to the initial research ques-
impact categories the use of sugar-beet based sugars as a feedstock tions, we identified further options for enhancing the circularity of
has a lower environmental impact. On average, for every impact these fashion materials, which could contribute to further reduc-
category, the advantage would account for approximately 16%. For tion potentials of environmental impact during the life cycle stages.
the category with the highest impact reduction potential (human In sections 5.1 through 5.4, we discuss some of the most crucial
health, no-cancer), the impact is approximately 100% lower (1/2) findings and relevant intervention areas.
compared to the environmental impacts of sugar cane. The eutro-
phication potential, another major category, shows that sugar cane 5.1. Further options for increasing the circularity regarding
accounts for an approximately 75% lower environmental impact as feedstock
a result of the environmental footprint methodology.
Concerning research questions 3 and 4, the results support the To increase the circularity within microbial cellulose production,
finding that even though the type of coating influences the end-of- the use of waste substrates, e.g., from secondary brewing of waste
life options, and consequently the comparative LCIA, the overall substrates from tea brewing and instant tea production in the
sensitivity of the results against the coating is rather low compared €
beverage industry (Pelvan and Ozilgen, 2017) or pasteurized fruit
to the benefit of prolonging the durability of the product. The waste (Abol-Fotouh et al., 2020) e.g. from fruit jelly production,
replacement factor of 2, which is used to ensure the quality of could allow for a circular supply chain strategy (Jozala et al., 2015).
lifetime benefits, could cause an approximately 160% higher total Furthermore, integrating starch producing companies, such as po-
environmental impact regarding the chosen functional unit tato starch production, with enzymatic saccharification combined
compared with the approximately 10%e15% higher impact associ- with a later integration into existing wastewater infrastructures
ated with the enhanced durability from coating applications. should be considered.
Therefore, the biodegradability after its life time might be a However, note that when the allocation by price or by weight
company target for product claims and marketing, but long-term starts to become obsolete in the waste-based microbial cellulose
durability would have a better environmental impact. This trade- cultivation by losing the option for marketing of a valuable co-
off will continue to be controversial as it might underpin fast product, such as kombucha tea, the aqueous biowaste substrates
fashion claims without sufficiently reducing environmental im- will have to be treated as wastewater, resulting in a major drawback
pacts. Note that only when further impact reductions of for burden allocation. An intelligent loop back into the existing
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waste and wastewater treatment infrastructures, as described for applications do not compromise the attainable impact reductions
the case of potato starch, without further capacity increase could but instead embrace further impact reduction strategies.
help mitigate these additional burdens, which would otherwise We also conclude that the full potential of impact reduction is
have to be allocated to a single product instead of two co-products. still untapped, as the upscaling of beverage production lines and
further high-value added by-product use, as well as internal
5.2. Further options for increasing the circularity of production resource recovery loops, are still unexplored with regard to their
techno-economic performance and their impact on process stabil-
Circularity regarding production can be increased when co- ity or infrastructure trade-offs. Further, we can conclude that
products are derived. For example, using the short fibers and relying on the natural synthesis of leather as a natural and free by-
leave residues from the non-used PALF leaf fractions and flax- product of cost-intensive and high impact meat production is an
hemp-sisal stems for further valorization streams, such as biogas increasingly misleading assumption when considering a world of
co-substrates, including fungal cultivation co-substrates or further increasingly scarce land, fodder resources, and growing population
material use as biochar or composite supplements. Regarding demand for meat consumption in absolute numbers. Therefore,
kombucha brewing, further use of the spent tea substrate, such as allocation by price is an increasingly accurate allocation rule for
insect cultivation for biogas processes, or for second brewing in differentiating the impacts between meat and leather, especially
production lines for non-beverage producing microbial cellulose considering future cost drivers and land use pressures.
should be considered.
6.2. Further research demand
5.3. Further options for increasing the circularity from an end-of-
life perspective There exists major demands for future research that considers
even more holistic and integrated assessments by conducting
The durability of bovine leather is a major product benefit complementary LCC assessment studies and social life cycle
concerning the reference system. Equal durability for each of the assessment studies to evaluate the economic and social sustain-
substitutes can only be achieved through an additional input of ability of the presented value-added chains in nonwovens and
energy and supplemental materials, which is verified by the in- microbial cellulose materials.
ventory and impact analysis. The shift in resource base from bio- Furthermore, considering the technical and sectoral integration
based feedstocks for coating and impregnation agents does not perspective we identified herein, there exists further research de-
lead to a substantial impact reduction if these coating agents are mand for in-depth integration into existing facilities of starch
not derived from waste-based substrates. producing factories by means of industrial symbiosis, and the full
transition of the assessed value-added chains toward entirely bio-
5.4. General findings of this study based systems by also substituting fossil-based coating systems,
such as the fossil-based PU-coating assumed in this study.
The life cycle based assessment conducted in this study helped
strengthen the understanding of which life cycle stages in the CRediT authorship contribution statement
process of manufacturing alternative leather materials are hot spots
of environmental impacts. Furthermore, it revealed the challenges Jakob Hildebrandt: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
that should be solved as companies and the textile sector aim to Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Visualization, Vali-
upscale these bio-textile materials. The assessed materials herein €n: Writing - review &
dation, Writing - original draft. Daniela Thra
each have specific areas where upscaling might create positive or editing, Supervision, Validation, Resources, Funding acquisition.
negative spill-over effects, either in the beverage industry, fruit Alberto Bezama: Writing - review & editing, Project administra-
industry, or biotechnology supplement production. tion, Supervision, Resources, Validation, Funding acquisition.
Market uptake and the upscaling of by-products is a key factor
that must be closely considered, as well as the types of coatings
Declaration of competing interest
and/or impregnation agents applied to the substitute materials to
increase durability.
The authors declare that they have no known competing
Tea production and brewing for SCOBY biofabrication and PLA-
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
biopolymer and PU coating production are the major impact factors
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
identified along the value-added chains of alternative leather
manufacturing.
Acknowledgement
6. Conclusions and further research demand
We greatly acknowledge the support of the Helmholtz-Assso-
ciation for funding this research and the preliminary assessment of
The study revealed that minimizing the environmental impacts
our colleagues from the Leading-Edge Cluster BioEconomy for joint
of leather mimicking and substituting materials is a multi-facetted
studies on the preliminary assessment of non-wovens based on
and multi-factorial endeavor, showing that slightly different
natural fibers and from the DBFZ and UFZ which were assessing e.g.
changes in the processes can result in the offsetting of all the ad-
the biorefinery options for Ligno-cellulosic based PLA production.
vantages associated with the bio-based alternatives.
Furthermore we greatly appreciate the highly valuable, supportive,
and rigorous comments of the various anonymous reviewers
6.1. General conclusions
involved in the publication process.
In summary, we have determined that these alternative leather
substitutes contribute to potential long-term strategies for References
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