Document Title:

MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:

CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME ii

MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, POWER
ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC CONTROL ENGINEERING AND
SAFETY DEVICES
 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

OBJECTIVE

This section provides the background knowledge to support the tasks,

duties and responsibilities on board ship in the following:

 Managing operation of Electrical and Electronic Control

Equipment - Theoretical Knowledge
 Managing, Troubleshooting and Restoration of Electrical and
Electronic Control Equipment to operating condition - Practical
Knowledge

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME ii

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

INDEX

Compt. Topic Page

Marine Electro-Technology………………………………................... 01
i. Materials of Conductor – Single Wire and Multi Stranded………………………... 03
ii. Commonly used Insulation Material…………………………………….…………... 04
iii. Effect of Temperature, Oxidation, Fire, Oil, Seawater, Acids and Solvents on
Insulation Material………………………………………………………………..…... 07
iv. Sheathing of Electric Cables………………………………………………………... 08
v. Cable runs in Machinery Spaces, Cargo Holds and Cold Storage
Chambers………………………………………………….…………………………... 10
vi. Deck Machinery……………………………………………………………….………. 12
vii. Fail Safe and Coil Operated Brakes……………………………………….……….. 15
viii. Deck Winches and Capstans, Windlass and Deck Cranes………………….…... 16
ix. Electromagnetic Interference……………………………………………….……….. 21
x. Equipment susceptible to Electric Interference……………………….…………… 22
xi. Common Sources of Interference……………………………………….………….. 22
xii. Method of Suppression of Interference……………………………….……………. 22

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME iii

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

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Volume - I 1

Compt. Topic Page

Electronics, Power Electronics…………………………..…………… 25
i. Electron Theory 27
ii. Semiconductor theory 35
iii. Operation of Semiconductor Devices…………………………….………………… 42
a. Diode 45
b. Uni-Junction Transistor………………………………….……………………….. 75
c. Bipolar Transistor, Operation and Characteristics, Bias Circuits, AC and DC
Current Gain, Data Sheets…………………………………………..…………... 78
d. Field Effect Transistors…………………….…………………………………….. 82
e. Thyristor, SCR, GTO, DIAC and TRIAC - Operation and Characteristics ………. 84
f. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)………………….…………………… 90
g. Device Applications in Electronic Control, Surveillance and Recording System,
Power Supplies, Rectification, Smoothing Circuits, Stabilization, Switching,
Amplification, Pulse Shaping, Clipping and Clamping…….……... 96
h. Snubber Circuits, Commutation, Data Sheets…………………………….…… 103
iv. Integrated Circuits……………………………………………………….……………. 119
a. Characteristics, Types, Mounting Methods/Markings, and Advantages of
ICs.……………………………………………………………………………..…... 119
b. IC Applications and Common Circuits……………………….…………………. 123
c. Voltage Regulators, Multivibrators………………………………………………. 123
d. Practical Operational Amplifier, Circuit Configurations……………………….. 139
e. CMRR, Instrumentation Amplifier, 4-20mA Circuit…………………………….. 154
v. Electronic Fault Diagnosis on Board Ship………………………………………….. 160
a. Electronic Test Equipment……………………………………………………….. 160
b. Analysis of Measurement and Test Result on Components and Circuits…... 162
c. Oscilloscope as a Testing and Display Instrument……………………………. 172
d. Methods of Fault Detection………………………………………………………. 178
e. Interpretation and Use of Electronic Systems and Subsystem Circuit………. 178
f. Diagrams, Operation and Maintenance Manuals……………………………… 179

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME iv

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A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

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Compt. Topic Page

Automatic Control Engineering and Safety Devices……………… 183
i. Control System………………………………………………………………………... 185
a. Open and Closed Control Loops………………………………………………… 185
b. Process Control…………………………………………………………………… 187
c. Essential Components in Process Control Loops…….…………………..…… 187
ii. Operation and Use of Sensors and Transmitters ….……………………………… 189
a. Temperature Measurement ...................................................................... 191
b. Pressure Measurement ………..………………………………………………… 212
c. Flow Measurement ……………..………………………………………………… 224
d. Level Measurement …………….………………………………………………… 247
e. Ambient Temperature Compensation ..………………………………………… 258
f. Viscosity Measurement ….……….……………………………………………… 259
g. Torque Measurement ………….………………………………………………… 270
h. Telemetering .......................................................................................... 272
i. Oil/Water Interface and Monitoring Equipment ..……………………………… 285
j. Pneumatic Flapper/Nozzle System…..………………………………………… 290
k. Control Air Supply ………………………………………………………………… 304
l. Pneumatic 20 - 100 kPa, Analogue 4 to 20 mA signals, Pneumatic Pilot Relays 310
m. Operational Amplifiers …………………………………………………………… 314
n. Electrical Supply ………………..………………………………………………… 318
iii. Controllers and Basic Control Theory ……………………………………………… 326
a. Disturbances and Time Delays and Means to Reduce them ..….…………… 327
b. Two Step, Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control Actions …………… 329
iv. Operation and use of Final Control Elements ……..……………………………… 339
a. Diaphragm Operated Control Valves ……..…………….……………………… 343
b. Flow/Lift Characteristics of Control Valves …………….….…………………… 345
c. Control Valve Actuators and Positioners ……………….……………………… 347
d. “Fail – Safe”, “Fail – Set” Strategies…………………….……………………… 359
e. Electrically Operated Valves ….………………………………………………… 360
f. Wax Element Valves and Bimetalic Strip ……………………………………… 361
v. Control Loop Analysis ……………..………………………………………………… 364
a. Temperature Control Systems ……….…………………………………………. 364
b. Level Control Systems …………………………………………………………… 366
c. Pressure Control Systems………………………………………………..……… 367
d. Single, Two and Three Element Control ..……………………………………… 368
e. Cascade and Split Range Control ……………………………………………… 376
vi. Operation and use of Governors …………………………………………………… 383
a. Need for Governors ……………………………………………………………… 383
b. Governor Terms, Concepts and Operation ………….………………………… 383
c. Hydraulic Governors ………………………………………………...…………… 384
d. Digital Governors ………………………………………….……………………… 386
e. Power Sharing ……………………………………….…………………………… 393

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME v

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Record of Amendments
Serial Amendment Description Date Done By
No

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME vi

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
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A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME vii

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

2.1.1.1 MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 1 of 395

 Document Title:
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Volume - I 1

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MATERIALS OF CONDUCTOR – SINGLE WIRE AND MULTI STRANDED

Conductors

In the case of the conducting material, conductivity, mechanical strength, ductility,

and corrosion resistant properties are most important

Many factors determine the type of electrical conductor used to connect

components. Conductors may either be "solid" or "stranded" in nature. "Stranding"
makes cables more flexible, allows higher current carrying capacities, easy to
handle, and easy to solder. Some of the other factors are the physical size of the
conductor, the type of material used for the conductor, and the electrical
characteristics of the insulation. Other factors that can determine the choice of a
conductor are the weight, the cost, and the environment where the conductor is to
be used. Although silver is the best conductor, it is costly and hence is only used
in special circuits; it is used where a substance with low resistivity is needed (its
resistivity known to be as low as 1.64 x 10-8 ohm-metres at 20°C).

Legends:-

Extrude - Make by forcing through a mould

Ductile - Malleable enough to be drawn into wire or hammered into very thin sheets
Annealed - Heated and cooled slowly to make stronger and less brittle

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Copper is the next option for the following reasons:

1. It possesses low resistivity - for annealed (softened) copper it is 1.72 x 10-8
ohm/metre at 20°C.
2. It is more ductile (can be drawn out into fine strands).
It has relatively high tensile strength (the greatest stress a substance can bear
along its length without tearing apart) and it can also be easily soldered.
The copper conductor is tinned or alloy-coated to ensure compatibility with its
insulation. Conductors are normally made of annealed stranded copper, which
may be circular or specially shaped. Cables with shaped-conductors and cores are
usually smaller and lighter than cables with circular cores.

COMMONLY USED INSULATION MATERIAL

Insulation materials are generally organic plastic compounds. Butyl rubber, which
is tough and resilient, has good heat, ozone and moisture resistance. These
excellent properties enable butyl rubber to replace natural rubber as an insulating
material. Even so, butyl rubber has now been largely superseded by ethylene
propylene rubber (EPR) insulation. EPR has similar electrical and physical
properties to butyl rubber but with better resistance to moisture and ozone. It
should not, however, be exposed to oils and greases.

Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is also used as an insulating material, but has

inferior mechanical and thermal properties when compared with EPR. Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) is not used for ships cables, even it is common ashore. PVC tends
to soften and flow at high temperatures (melts at 150°C), and hardens and cracks
at low temperatures (8°C). Even at normal temperatures, PVC tends to flow and
become distorted under mechanical stress; for example, necking occurs at cable
glands causing the gland to lose its watertight properties. Multi-core ship wiring
cables have the cores identified by either colour printed numerals on un-taped
cores or numbered tapes on taped cores.

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Table 1 Temperature classes for insulating materials

Material Temperature
°C
Polyvinyl chloride or (PVC) 70
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) 90
Halogen free ethylene propylene rubber (HF EPR) 90
Hard grade ethylene propylene rubber (HEPR) 90
Halogen free hard grade ethylene propylene rubber (HF HEPR) 90
Cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) 90
Halogen free cross-linked polyethylene (HF XLPE) 90
Halogen free cross-linked polyolefin (HF 85) 90
Silicone rubber, (S 95) * 95
Halogen free silicone rubber (HF S 95) * 95
* Silicon rubber only to be used together with a varnished glass braid

Table 1A General insulation classes

Insulation class Maximum temperature

(thermal class) °C
A 105
B 130
E 120
F 155
H 180
220 220

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Classes of Insulation

Class A Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as cotton, silk, and paper
when suitably impregnated or coated or when immersed in a dielectric liquid such
as oil. Other materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class if
experience or accepted tests can reveal their capability to operate at 105°C
(221°F).

Class E Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials which, by experience or

accepted tests, can reveal their capability to operate at 120°C (248°F) (materials
possessing a degree of thermal stability allowing them to be operated at a
temperature 15°C (27°F) higher than Class A material).

Class B Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass, fibre, etc,
with suitable bonding substances. Other materials or combination of materials, not
necessarily inorganic; may be included in this class, if experience or accepted
tests can reveal their capability to operate at 130°C (266°F).

Class F Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass, fibre, etc,
with suitable bonding substances. Other materials or combination of materials, not
necessarily inorganic, may be included in this class if, experience or accepted
tests can show them shown to be capable of operation at 155°C (311°F).

Class H Insulation

These are materials or combinations of materials such as silicone, elastomer,

mica, glass, fibre, etc, with suitable bonding substances such as appropriate
silicone resins. Other materials or combination of materials, not necessarily
inorganic, may be included in this class if, experience or accepted tests can reveal
their capability to operate at 180°C (356°F).

Insulation for Temperature above 180°C (356°F)

These are materials or combination of materials which, by experience or accepted

tests, can reveal their capability to operate at temperatures over 180°C (356°F)
will also be considered. Supporting background experience or a report of tests
conducted with a recognised standard, ascertaining their suitability for the
intended application and temperature operation are to be submitted for review.
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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, OXIDATION, FIRE, OIL, SEAWATER, ACIDS

AND SOLVENTS ONINSULATION MATERIAL

Effects of Fire on Cables

All organic materials will eventually burn in a severe fire. Cable sheath materials
commonly in use are organic plastic compounds that are classed as flame
retardant, i.e. will not sustain a fire. Most cable materials now achieve this property
by developing chlorine gas and acid fumes to smother the flame. PVC is notorious
for its release of deadly acid fumes, but PCP and CSP also do the same. EPR and
XLPE do not. Some new materials do not produce acid fumes when burning — an
important feature for fire-fighting personnel. However, burning cable materials still
tend to produce dense black smoke.

Temperature

If the operating temperature exceeds the insulation class, i.e. the maximum
operational temperature permissible, the insulation can be severely damaged, and
lead to earth or short circuit fault.

For every rise in 100 C above the permissible limit, the life of the insulation can be
reduced by half.

Oil, Seawater, Acids and Solvents

They can deteriorate the cable insulation very rapidly, causing molecular break
down and compromising the insulation properties, and hence leading to electrical
faults.

Oxidation

Can have an effect of hardening the insulation material and causing it to be brittle,
and eventually, crumpling down.

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SHEATHING OF ELECTRIC CABLES

The sheath of a cable protects the insulation from damage and injury, but it is not
classed as an insulating material. Sheath materials are required to be heat, oil and
chemical resistant and flame retardant (HOFR). The sheath must also be tough
and flexible.

Polychloroprene (PCP or neoprene) is a common sheath material but has been

largely superseded by Chloro-Sulphonated polyethylene (CSP or Hypalon). CSP-
HOFR sheathing compound is well suited to shipboard conditions. It offers good
resistance to cuts and abrasions, resists weather and ozone, acid fumes and
alkalis, and is flexible.

Temperature Classes for Protective Sheaths

Material Temperature
°C
Thermoplastic based on polyvinylchloride or copolymer of vinyl- 60
chloride and vinyl-acetate, type ST 1
Thermoplastic:
 based on polyvinylchloride or copolymer of vinyl-chloride and vinyl- 85
acetate, type ST 2
 Halogen free, type SHF1
Elastomeric or Thermosetting:
 based on polychloroprene rubber, type SE 1
 based on chloro-Sulphonated-polyethylene or chlorinated 85
polyethylene rubber, type SH
 Halogen free, type SHF2

Cable Glanding

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MIMS Cables

Mineral Insulated, Metal Sheathed cables are very useful in high temperature,
fire-risk areas. These cables have a magnesium oxide powder as insulation with a
metal sheath — usually copper (MICC Mineral Insulated, Copper Covered) which
is further covered with PVC for weatherproofing where necessary. A special
termination is used with MIMS cables to provide a moisture-proof seal for the
hygroscopic insulation powder. For an MICC cable this is achieved by a
compound filled brass pot screwed directly on to the copper sheath.

The current rating of a cable is the current the cable can carry continuously
without the conductor exceeding 80°C with an ambient air temperature of 45°C
(i.e. a 35°C rise). This rating must be reduced (de-rated) if the ambient exceeds
45°C or when cables are bunched together or enclosed in a pipe, which reduces
the effective cooling.

Wire Braid and Armour

Extra mechanical protection is provided by armouring with basket-woven wire

braid of either galvanised steel or tinned phosphor bronze. The non-magnetic
properties of phosphor bronze are preferred for single-core cables. A protective
outer sheath of CSP compound covers the wire braid. The wire braiding also acts
as a screen to reduce interference (caused by magnetic fields) in adjacent
communication and instrumentation circuits.

a) Cables designated as copper, copper alloy, aluminium alloy or galvanised

steel wire braided shall comply with clause 3.8 of IEC 60092-353.

b) Braid and/or armour shall be separated from the core insulation by an inner
non-metallic sheath, by tape or fibrous braid or groves.

c) Irrespective of the metal used, the nominal diameter of the braid wire shall be
in accordance with the following table:

Nominal Diameter of Braided Wire

Diameter of Core Assembly under Minimum Diameter of Threads in

Braid (mm) Braid (mm)
D ≤ 10 0.2
10 < D < 30 0.3
D ≥ 30 0.4

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Wire Braiding

Wire Armour

MICC Cable Termination

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CABLE RUNS IN MACHINERY SPACES, CARGO HOLDS AND COLD

STORAGE CHAMBERS

Machinery Spaces

Heat sources such as boilers, hot pipes etc. shall be bypassed, so that the cables
are not subjected to additional heating. If this is not possible, the cables are to be
shielded from thermal radiation.

The routes of cables shall be such that cables are laid as straight as possible and
are not exposed to mechanical damage.

The tensile stress of the cables at long cable runs caused by thermal expansion
and/ormovement of ship structure shall not damage the cables, cable runs or
cable penetration systems.

Cables for supply of essential equipment and emergency consumers, e.g. lighting
and importantcommunications and signalling systems shall, wherever possible,
bypass galleys, laundries, category ‘A’ engine rooms and their casings and areas
with a high fire risk.

Penetrations shall meet the fire and watertight integrity of the bulkhead or deck.
The penetrations shall be carried out either with a separate gland for each cable,
or with boxes or pipes filled with a suitable flame retardant packing or moulded
material. The installation shall bein accordance with the manufacturers' installation
instructions.

Penetrations of bulkheads and decks shall be such that the cables are not chafed .

Cargo Holds

Cables in cargo holds, on open decks and at positions where they are exposed to
a particularly high risk of mechanical damage shall be protected by pipes, covers
or closed cable ducts

Cables passing through decks shall be protected against damage by pipe sockets
or casings extending to a height of about 200 mm over deck.

If cables are installed in pipes or ducts, attention shall be paid that the heat from
the cable shall be dissipated into the environment.

The inside of the pipes or ducts shall be smooth, and their ends shaped in such a
way as toavoid damage to the cable sheath.

They shall be effectively protected inside against corrosion. The accumulation of

condensation water shall be avoided.

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Cold Storage Chambers

Only cables with outer sheaths resistant to corrosion and cold-resistant shall be
laid in refrigerated rooms.

Only cables without hull return are permitted in refrigerated rooms and in the
associated aircooler spaces. The earthing conductors shall be run together with
the other cables from the relevant distribution panel.

The maximum loading of the cables does not exceed 70 % of their current carrying
capacity.

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DECK MACHINERY

This section contains the requirements for electrical equipment of shipboard lifting
appliances and,where applicable, also of loose gear.

Driving Power

All motors shall be dimensioned in accordance with their envisaged purpose and
expected use.

In the case of shipboard lifting appliances, the working speeds laid down for the
nominal load shallbe maintained, also at the vessel's prescribed minimum
inclinations.

The required power for winches is calculated from the rated pull, and the rated
rope speed, of thefirst layer of rope on the drum, taking gearing efficiency into
account.

Winch Drives

For winch drives, the following operating modes are defined:

For drives up to about 5 TLNe, started very frequently (about 160-400 starts per
hour) with shortload travel and lifting periods: duty type S5, i.e. intermittent
periodic duty with electric braking, with thestarting process and electrical braking
influencing the heating-up of the motor.

For drives with long load travel and lifting periods and less frequent starts (up to
about 160 startsper hour): duty type S3, i.e. intermittent periodic duty without the
starting and braking processes having anynoticeable effect on the heating-up of
the motor.

For heavy loads with prolonged load handling and lengthy intervals: duty type S2,
i.e. short-time duty with an ensuing interval long enough for the driving motor to
cool down approximately to the ambient temperature. Preferred duration of duty is
30 min.

In the case of hydraulic drives, the electric motors driving the pumps shall be
matched to the given conditions. Possible operating modes are S1 (continuous
running) or S6 (continuous operation periodic duty).

In the case of mode S6, particular regard shall be paid to the mode of operation of
the hydraulic unit, e.g. the power required during idling.

The driving motors shall be capable of running-up at least 1.3 times against the
rated torque.

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When designing the motors, the moment of inertia of the gearing shall be taken
into account. The moment of inertia of the driven masses shall be based on an
inertia factor FJ of at least 1.2.

The duty types S1 to S3, S5 and S6 are defined in IEC 60034-1. In addition, the
following applies:

When operating in type S5, at least 160 starts per hour shall be possible. This is
based on theassumption that 50% of the starts will be without load.

Where the requirements are more stringent, the drives shall be designed for240,
320 or 400 starts per hour.

For operating modes S5 and S3, differing duty times shall be assumed, depending
on the serviceconditions. For the operating steps, a total operating period of 25%
of the overall total shall be considered. Inaddition, the following applies:

In the case of more stringent requirements, given in (shorter intervals betweenthe

separate hoisting operations), duty times of 40%, 60% or 75% shall be chosen.

In the case of pole changing motors, where all the speed steps are designed for
the rated loadand where generally the top speed step is reached by switching
through the individual lower steps, theoverall operating period shall be shared out
between the individual switching steps.

If one of the speed steps is intended for light-hook operation only, the overall
operating periodapplies only to the operating steps. However, the light hook step
shall be designed for at least 15% of theoverall operating period.

Cables and Lines

As a matter of principle, power shall be supplied via suitable cables, possibly using
cable trolleys or cable drums with integral slip rings.

All cables and lines shall be flame-resistant and self-extinguishing. Furthermore,

all cables shall be approved by the Society, possibly UV radiation resistant and,
where hydraulic systems are concerned, oil resistant.

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Protective measures and Safety Devices

In general, the operating voltage for motor drives should not exceed 690 volts and
for controls, heating and lighting systems, 250 volts. Insulation shall be for
allpoles.

All equipment with a working voltage exceeding 50 volts, connected via movable
cable, shall be earthed via a protective conductor inside the cable. The following
shall be observed:

For cable cross-sections up to 16 mm2, its cross-section shall match that of the
main conductors; for those exceeding 16 mm 2, it shall be at least half that of the
main conductors.

If power is supplied via slip rings, the protective conductor shall be provided with a
separate slip ring.

For motors, monitoring of the winding temperatures is recommended as protection

against inadmissible heating. If the admissible temperature or load is exceeded,
power shall be switched off.

Switch off due to thermal overload should be indicated. Lowering of the load shall
be still possible after the electric drive has been switched off due to overheating.

Switches, switchgear and control cabinets shall be located in such a way that work
on them, and operational tests, can be performed safely. For arrangements inside
the crane column, gratings or platforms shall be provided.

The service passage in front of switchgear and control cabinets shall not be less
than 0.5 m wide with 1.80 m headroom. If this headroom cannot be maintained, it
may be reduced to 1.40 m if the passage is at least 0.7 m wide.

As a minimum, the following protective systems (contact, foreign body and water
protection) shall be provided:

For electrical installations below deck or in the enclosed spaces of shipboard lifting
appliances, the protective system shall be at least IP44, in dry spaces at least
IP20.

For electrical installations on deck, the protective system shall be at least IP56;
under certain circumstances, e.g. where there is a heightened risk of dust, even
IP66.

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FAIL SAFE AND COIL OPERATED BRAKES

The frequency of operation of the brakes shall correspond to that of the associated
motor. It isassumed that when operating, braking will only ever be affected from a
low-speed step.

The braking equipment shall function automatically and arrest the load with the
minimum possible impact.

Winches shall be equipped with safety brakes, which brake the load safely, at any
speed if the power supply fails.

Fail Safe Braking Mechanism

Operation
When the brake current is switched on, an electromagnetic field is built up and the
spring tension of the brake is overcome by the armature plate. When the spring
tension is released,the corresponding sub-assemblies, including the motor shaft,
are allowed to move freely. Now the brake is released. When the brake current is
switched off, or when the power circuit experiences a failure, the brake’s
electromagnetic field collapses. When the field collapses, the spring tension
pushes the armature plate away from the brake coil, securing the friction disc and
motor shaft. Now the brake is set.

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DECK WINCHES AND CAPSTANS, WINDLASS AND DECK CRANES

The threesquirrel-cage type induction motor, because of its robust construction

and relatively low cost, is the most commonly used machine for application of
above equipment. The simplest form of control is the direct-on-line contactor
starter, with built-in over load protection.

It can also be provided with single-phase protection which detects any unbalance
in its three supply lines, and disconnects the motor before damage is done.
Reversing requires a second contactor to transpose any two of the supply phases.
It is good practice to interlock electrically and mechanically the two contactors
used for reversing as the simultaneous closing of both, for example by manual
operation of the de-energized contactor, could result in a short circuit between the
transposed phases, causing severe damage.

For capstan or windlass applications, the motor speed is too high for direct drive,
thus it is usual to operate through a large gear reduction unit.

Small single-speed drives which operate through a large gear reduction to

giveslow movement are generally arranged. As all the motor torque is lost when
the power supply is interrupted, it is usual to provide fail safe brakingequipment.
The brake is applied by spring pressure and released by an electro-magnet, which
is connected directly across two motor terminals and may be released by an A.C.
solenoid; an additional rectifier is required if a DC brake solenoid is used.

Single-Speed A.C. Motor Reversing Drive

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One disadvantage of the squirrel cage induction motor is that it is essentially a

constant-speed machine and only a small reduction in speed occurs between no-
load and full load.

The fixed-speed disadvantage may be partly overcome by using a motor which is

wound for two speeds. This is accomplished either by providing two separate
windings in the motor stator or by arranging the winding connections in such away
as to make it possible to change the number of poles in use by switching the
winding externally.

Both types are designed to accelerate smartly to their rated speed. If prevented
from accelerating, the high slip losses will cause rapid overheating and damage.
Consequently, overload devices used in conjunction with squirrel cage types are
closely matched to the motors' thermal characteristics and should not be changed
for a different rating without reference to the manufacturer. Generally, such
techniques are used on large motors, such as, windlass and capstan drives.

Contactors are needed to select the winding connections for each speed in
addition to the reversing contactors. Mechanical and electrical inter-locks are
necessary, to prevent inadvertent short circuits between lines.

These arrangements readily give a 2:1 speed range and can be designed for
constant torque or constant horsepower, as required. But such a speed range is
not thought to be sufficient for hoist control.

Wound Rotor Induction Motors

Here, the rotor winding is arranged in three phases and brought out by means of
slip rings and brushes to stationary terminals. This arrangement allows resistance
to be added to, or subtracted from, the rotor circuit when the motor is running. The
effect of such changes is to alter the torque/speed characteristics of the motor.
This is similar in many respects to the resistance control of the A.C. motor from
fixed-voltage bus-bars.

First step speed is obtained when the directional contactor is energized as the
maximum rotor resistance is permanently connected. Subsequent steps are
obtained by closing contactors 1 to 4 in sequence. An over-rapid sequence is
prevented by a series of timing contacts. In this case an additional relay, sensitive
to current, detects an overload condition and switches the control back to the first
step condition.

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This type of drive is not so readily adapted to electrical braking as the

D.C.resistance-controlled motor and it is not commonly used for hoisting duties on
ships. Some schemes do permit controlled lowering, generally by energizing the
motor in a hoisting sense and allowing sufficiently high rotor resistance so that the
motor is hauled backwards by the descending load.

Naturally, with this system it is essential that the minimum load should be a
significant proportion of full load as in the case of grabs unloading loose bulk
cargo. Even so, this type of drive is more commonly used with large shore-based
cranes which are purpose built for grabbing duty.

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Ward Leonard Controls for A.C. Ships:

The Ward Leonard system has yet to be surpassed for all-round flexibility and
reliability. The D.C. drive motor has its armature supplied by an individual
generator circuit and on A.C. ships the generator in turn is driven, at substantially
constant speed, by a squirrel cage induction motor. A common A.C. motor is often
used to drive a specially designed generator with dual, independent outputs from a
common armature to supply two D.C. motors.

This is particularly advantageous when the motors are of similar ratings, as the
judicious application of diversity factors and permissible overload ratings allows
considerable savings in materials, and hence cost. A more sophisticated design of
generator will give three independent outputs which permits further savings if the
three drive powers are evenly matched.

Such groups of three drives are required by some swinging derrick cranes and by
slewing deck cranes. When luff (derricking) and slew (swing) motions are similar
and of appreciably lower power than the hoist motion, the drives may be grouped,
two to a dual output generator and one to a separate generator using a common
A.C. driving motor to give economy of material and greater flexibility in design.

The field strength of the motor is pre-set and continuously energized when the set
is running. The motor speed is controlled by the armature voltage which is in turn
controlled by the excitation current of the constant speed generator. In this basic
configuration the motor speed is substantially constant at the set value and the
speed change from no load to full load is only a few percent.

When the load torque reverses, there is a slight rise in speed as the generator
driving motor must accelerate to a super-synchronous speed in order to develop a
braking torque but again the motor speed is substantially constant with changing
load. Thus, the system gives full control of speed in both the motoring and braking
modes.

The prime disadvantage is the rapidity with which the armature current builds up if
the load speed is restricted externally as would occur if an anchor was caught on
the sea bed. Then the A.C. drive motor would overload and burn out rapidly.

In marine practice, it is normal to modify both motor and generator characteristics

by compounding.

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The motor has a series winding added in such a way that, as load current builds
up, the motor field is strengthened to increase the torque. In hoisting the load
torque is unidirectional and the winding is arranged to suit this. If the rope is
inadvertently wound on a winch barrel in the wrong direction, the load current will
weaken the motor field and the winch will run faster, draw considerably more
current and have reduced overload capacity. Where the drive is required to have
strengthened field in either direction of rotation, series field-reversing contactors or
steering diodes are required.

The generator is modified by adding a negative series winding arranged to reduce

the field strength as the load current increases. This ensures that, in the event of
stalling, the armature current will be limited to a safe value. It also has the effect of
limiting the power in the Ward Leonard system to ensure that the A.C.driving
motor does not stall and suffer damage.

When power flow is reversed during lowering of the load, the effect of the
generator’s negative series winding is also reversed and the voltage at the
generator rises, permitting a higher lowering speed.

(a) Ward-Leonard Speed Control System

(b) Ward-Leonard Speed Control System

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE

In the electrical environment, the equipment are exposed to electromagnetic

interference (EMI), originated by physical phenomena or generated by various
equipment. EMI is somewhat arbitrarily defined to cover the frequency spectrum
from about 10 Hz to 100 GHz. For radiated emissions, a lower frequency limit of
10 kHz is often used, although EMI can exist in many equipment and systems
below this frequency. Except for electrostatic discharge (ESD) there rarely exists a
pure DC EMI problem.

The EM environment will be variable from place to place, ship to ship and between
locations. Estimation of EMI environment in any situation is required before
adequate protection methods can be selected which will enable equipment to
operate without error in all environments. For example, if control valve operation is
initiated automatically by a microcomputer during cargo discharge, the equipment
must be capable of continuous operation in harbour electromagnetic environment.
EM interference can be defined as the undesirable effect of noise voltage. The
noise voltage causes unsatisfactory operation of a circuit, due to its interference.
Usually noise voltage cannot be eliminated but only reduced in magnitude until it
no longer causes interference.

Susceptibility is the characteristic of electronic equipment that results in

undesirable responses when subjected to electromagnetic energy. The
susceptibility level of a circuit or device is the noise environment in which the
equipment can operate satisfactorily.

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the ability of either equipment or

systems to function as designed without degradation or malfunction in their
intended operational electromagnetic environment. Further, the equipment or
system should not adversely affect the operation of, or be adversely affected by
any other equipment or system.

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) is a phenomenon that is becoming an

increasingly important concern with today's integrated circuit technology. The
basic phenomenon is the build-up of static charge on a person's body or furniture
with subsequent discharge to the product when the person or furniture touches the
product. In dry atmosphere and especially where carpets are used in a computer
room, the operator can be charged to high voltage. When the discharge occurs,
relatively large currents momentarily course through the product. These currents
can cause IC memories to clear, machines to reset, etc. If a computer unit is
touched by such a charged operator, a discharge spark can occur and result in
malfunctioning. In unfavourable condition, the static discharge can approach 25 kV
in magnitude, but normally not more than 6 kV by contact and 8 kV in air.

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EQUIPMENT SUSCEPTIBLE TO ELECTRIC INTERFERENCE

The equipment which is more prone to Electric Interference on board a ship are,
the Navigational Equipment, the Electronics used for various Control Equipment in
Cargo operation as well as Main propulsion machinery, and the Radio Equipment
employed for communication.

COMMON SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE

A number of electric products as typewriters, printers and robotic devices use

small electromechanical devices such as DC motors, stepper motors AC motors
and solenoids to translate electrical energy into mechanical motion. These devices
can create significant EMC problems. DC motors create high-frequency spectra
due to arcing at the brushes as well as providing paths for common-mode currents
through their frames. The spectral content tends to create radiated emission
problems in the radiated emission regulatory limit frequency range between
200MHz and 1GHz, depending on the motor type. In order to suppress this arcing
resistors or capacitors may be placed across the commutator segments.

For AC motors, the rotor and stator consist of closely spaced inductors, the
problem of large parasitic capacitance between the rotor and stator exits. If high-
frequency noise is present on the AC-wave form feeding these motors then it is
likely that this noise will be coupled to the chassis or to the AC power cord, where
its potential for radiated or conducted emissions will usually be enhanced.

METHOD OF SUPPRESSION OF INTERFERENCE

Shielding

The term 'shield' usually refers to a metallic enclosure that completely encloses an
electronic product or portion of that product. The perfect shield is a barrier to
transmission of electromagnetic fields. The effectiveness of a shield is the ratio of
the magnitude of electric (magnetic) field, that is incident on the barrier to the
magnitude of the electric (magnetic) field, that is transmitted through the barrier. A
shield effectiveness of 100 dB means that the incident field has been reduced by a
factor 100.000 as it exits the shield.

Electric fields are much easier to guard against than magnetic fields. EMI resulting
from electric field coupling becomes a great concern as frequency increases.
Thus, cables operating at frequencies of 1 MHz or higher, are prone to emit this
type of EMI, resulting in 'crosstalk' when it occurs between adjacent cables.

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Component Design and Selection

The primary objective of EMC should be given to the task of minimising the
amount of noise generated by the equipment, since the noise may interfere with
other equipment. It is always desirable to control as much noise at the source as
possible, since that approach can avoid an interference problem for countless
number of receiver circuits. By selecting the proper noise reduction method and
components, EMI can in many instances by reduced considerably.

Capacitors

Capacitors are generally effective noise de-couplers. Use of parallel capacitors in

low-impedance circuits is usually insufficient. They are most effective with high-
impedance loads. Whenever a parallel suppression component is used, the
impedance levels of not only the element but also the parallel path should be
computed or estimated at the desired frequency.

Inductors

Whereas capacitors are used to divert noise currents, inductors are placed in
series with wire to block noise currents. This will be effective if the impedance of
the inductor at the frequency of the noise current is larger than an original series
impedance seen looking into the wire. Series inductors are most effective in low-
impedance circuits.

FerriteComponents

Ferrite materials are basically nonconductive ceramic materials, consisting mainly

of iron oxide that is blended with other metallic oxides, calcinated, then sintered,
resulting in a polycrystalline, spinal structured ceramic. The material differs from
other ferromagnetic materials such as iron in that they have low eddy-current
losses at frequencies up to hundreds of MHz.Thus, they can be used to provide
selective attenuation of high-frequency signals that we may wish to suppress from
the standpoint of EMC and not affect the more important lower-frequency
components of the functional signal.

Cabling and Connectors

Cables and connectors should be designed to achieve a system's specified levels

of emission suppression and resistance to outside EMI. Cable assemblies should
also deliver the required undistorted signals while achieving proper mechanical
performance. It is necessary to give special attention to the cable-connector
interface and the environment in which the cable assembly must perform.

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2.1.1.2 ELECTRONICS, POWER ELECTRONICS

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OPERATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Power Electronics refers to the process of controlling the flow of current and
voltage and converting it to a form that is suitable for user loads. The most
desirable power electronic system is one whose efficiency and reliability is 100%.
Take a look at the following block diagram. It shows the components of a Power
Electronic system and how they are interlinked.

A power electronic system converts electrical energy from one form to another and
ensures the following is achieved:

 Maximum efficiency
 Maximum reliability
 Maximum availability
 Minimum cost
 Least weight
 Small size

Applications of Power Electronics are classified into two types:

 Static Applications and

 Drive Applications.

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Static Application
This utilizes mechanical parts such as welding, heating, cooling, and electro-
plating and DC power.
DC Power Supply

Drive Application
Drive applications have rotating parts such as motors. Examples include compressors,
pumps, conveyer belts and air conditioning systems.

An example: Air Conditioning System

Power electronics is extensively used in air conditioners to control elements such
as compressors. A schematic diagram that shows how power electronics is used
in air conditioners is shown below.

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A power electronic switching device is a combination of active switchable power

semiconductor drivers that have been integrated into one. The main
characteristics of the switch are determined by internal correlation of functions and
interactions of its integrated system. The figure given below shows how a power
electronic switch system works.

The

external circuit of the above diagram is usually held at a high potential relative to
the control unit. Inductive transmitters are used to support the required potential
difference between the two interfaces.

Power switching devices are normally selected based on the rating at which they
handle power, that is, the product of their current and voltage rating instead of
their power dissipation rate. Consequently, the major attractive feature in a power
electronic switch is its capability to dissipate low or almost no power. As a result,
the electronic switch able to achieve a low and continuous surge of power.

Linear circuit elements refer to the components in an electrical circuit that exhibit a
linear relationship between the current input and the voltage output. Examples of
elements with linear circuits include;

 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductors
 Transformers

Legends:
Galvanic Isolation is a design technique that separates electrical circuits to eliminate
stray currents. Signal can pass between galavanically isolated circuit, but stray currents
such as differences in ground potentials and currents induced by AC power are blocked.

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UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device

with only one junction that acts exclusively as an electrically controlled switch.

The UJT is not used as a linear amplifier. It is used in free-running oscillators,

synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse generation circuits at low to
moderate frequencies (hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in the triggering
circuits for silicon controlled rectifiers. The low cost per unit, combined with its
unique characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like
oscillators, pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase
control, timing circuits, and voltage or current regulated supplies. The original
unijunction transistor types are now considered obsolete, but a later multi-layer
device, the programmable unijunction transistor (PUT), is still widely available.

Electrical Symbol

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Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the

1960s and 1970s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one
active device. For example, they were used for relaxation oscillators in variable-
rate strobe lights. Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators
such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.

In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most
important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger THYRISTORS (silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR), TRIAC, etc.). A DC voltage can be used to control a
UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC
control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control.

UJTs can also be used to measure magnetic flux. The Hall Effect modulates the
voltage at the PN junction. This affects the frequency of UJT relaxation
oscillators. This only works with UJTs. PUTs do not exhibit this phenomenon.

The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2) and so is
sometimes known a "double-base diode". The base is formed by a
lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Twoohmic contacts, B1 and B2 are attached at
its ends. The emitter is of p-type is heavily doped; this single PN junction gives the
device its name. The resistance between B1 and B2 when the emitter is open-
circuit is called inter-base resistance. The emitter junction is usually located closer
to base-2 (B2) than base-1 (B1) so that the device is not symmetrical, because a
symmetrical unit does not provide optimum electrical characteristics for most of
the applications.

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If no potential difference exists between its emitter and either of its base leads,
there is an extremely small current (flow of charge) from B1 to B2. On the other
hand, if an adequately large voltage relative to its base leads, known as the trigger
voltage, is applied to its emitter, then a very large current from its emitter joins the
current from B1 to B2, which creates a larger B2 output current.

The schematic diagram symbol for a unijunction transistor represents the emitter
lead with an arrow, showing the direction of conventional current when the emitter-
base junction is conducting a current. A complementary UJT uses a p-type base
and an n-type emitter, and operates the same as the n-type base device but with
all voltage polarities reversed.

The device has a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, its emitter current
increases re-generatively until it is restricted by emitter power supply. It exhibits a
negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an oscillator.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a
potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven
approximately above one diode voltage, the voltage at the point where the P
diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base
region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current
(actually charges in the base region) causes conductivity modulation which
reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and
the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is
more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a
negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful,
especially in simple oscillator circuits.

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Volume - I 1

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (Bipolar Transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor

that uses both electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors,
such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier. For their
operation, BJTs use two junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and
p-type.

BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as
individual components, or fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers.
The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs to be used
as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide applicability in electronic equipment,
including computers, televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial
control, and radio transmitters.

PNP Type NPN Type

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NPN Transistor

Electrical Symbol of a NPN BJT.

A Mnemonic for the Symbol is "Not Pointing In".

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-

doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current
entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current.
That is, when there is a positive potential difference measured from the base of an
NPN transistor to its emitter (that is, when the base is high relative to the emitter),
as well as a positive potential difference measured from the collector to the
emitter, the transistor becomes active. In this "on" state, current flows from the
collector to the emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons
moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To
allow for greater current and faster operation, most bipolar transistors used today
are NPN because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

A mnemonic device for the NPN transistor symbol is "not pointing in", based on
the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name.

PNP Transistor

Electrical Symbol of a PNP BJT.

A Mnemonic for the Symbol is "Points In Proudly".

The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor
between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is
amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is
pulled low relative to the emitter. In a PNP transistor, the emitter–base region is
forward biased, so holes are injected into the base as minority carriers.

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The base is very thin, and most of the holes cross the reverse-biased base–
collector junction to the collector.

The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and
point in the direction of the conventional current when the device is in forward
active or forward saturated mode.

A mnemonic device for the PNP transistor symbol is "pointing

in(proudly/permanently)”,based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the
name.

Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT

junction biases.
a) Forward-active (or simply active)

The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is

reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest
common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the
collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but
many times larger, for small base current variations.

b) Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted)

By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar

transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector
regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current
gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several times smaller
(2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is
seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some
types of bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be
an order of magnitude lower in this region.

c) Saturation

With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates

high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction
in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to
collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

d) Cut-off

In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse

biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical
"off", or an open switch.

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Table: Bipolar Transistors –Regionsof Operation

B-E JunctionBias B-C JunctionBias Mode

Applied Voltages
(NPN) (NPN) (NPN)

E<B<C Forward Reverse Forward-active

E<B>C Forward Forward Saturation

E>B<C Reverse Reverse Cut-off

E>B>C Reverse Forward Reverse-active

B-E JunctionBias B-C JunctionBias Mode

Applied voltages
(PNP) (PNP) (PNP)

E<B<C Reverse Forward Reverse-active

E<B>C Reverse Reverse Cut-off

E>B<C Forward Forward Saturation

E>B>C Forward Reverse Forward-active

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FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to

control the electrical behaviour of the device. FETs are also known as unipolar
transistors since they involve single-carrier-type operation. Many different
implementations of field effect transistors exist. Field effect transistors generally
display very high input impedance at low frequencies. The conductivity between
the drain and source terminals is controlled by an electric field in the device, which
is generated by the voltage difference between the body and the gate of the
device.

The FET's three terminals are:

1. Source(S), through which the carriers enter the channel. Conventionally,

current entering the channel at S is designated by IS.

2. Drain(D), through which the carriers leave the channel. Conventionally,

current entering the channel at D is designated by I D. Drain-to-source
voltage is VDS.

3. Gate(G), the terminal that modulates the channel conductivity. By applying

voltage to G, one can control ID.

The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the source to drain
by affecting the size and shape of a 'conductive channel' created and influenced
by voltage (or lack of voltage) applied across the gate and source terminals. This
conductive channel is the "stream" through which electrons flow from source to
drain.

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The channel of a FET is doped to produce either an n-type semiconductor or a p-

type semiconductor. The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the
channel, in the case of enhancement mode FETs, or doped of similar type to the
channel as in depletion mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also distinguished
by the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types of FETs include:

 The JFET (junction field-effect transistor) uses a reverse biased p–n junction
to separate the gate from the body.

 The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) utilizes

an insulator (typically SiO2) between the gate and the body.

 The MNOS Metal-Nitride-Oxide-Semiconductor transistor utilizes an nitride-

oxide layer insulator between the gate and the body.

JFET

The junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET or JUGFET) is the simplest type
of field-effect transistor. They are three-terminal semiconductor devices that can
be used as electronically-controlled switches, amplifiers, or voltage-controlled
resistors.

Unlike bipolar transistors, JFETs are exclusively voltage-controlled in that they do

not need a biasing current. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting
channel between source and drain terminals. By applying a reverse bias voltage to
a gate terminal, the channel is "pinched", so that the electric current is impeded or
switched off completely. A JFET is usually on when there is no potential difference
between its gate and source terminals. If a potential difference of the proper
polarity is applied between its gate and source terminals, the JFET will be more
resistive to current flow, which means less current would flow in the channel
between the source and drain terminals. Thus, JFETs are sometimes referred to
as depletion-mode devices.

JFETs can have an n-type or p-type channel. In the n-

type, if the voltage applied to the gate is less than that
applied to the source, the current will be reduced (similarly
in the p-type, if the voltage applied to the gate
is greater than that applied to the source). A JFET has a
large input impedance (sometimes on the order of
1010 ohms), which means that it has a negligible effect on
external components or circuits connected to its gate.

Electrical Symbols

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THYRISTOR, SCR, GTO, DIAC, TRIAC-OPERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS

DIAC

The DIAC, or diode for alternating current, is a trigger diode that conducts
current only after its breakdown voltage has been exceeded momentarily. When
this occurs, the resistance of the diode abruptly decreases, leading to a sharp
decrease in the voltage drop across the diode and usually, a sharp increase in
current flow through the diode. The diode remains "in conduction" until the current
flow through it drops below a value characteristic for the device, called the holding
current. Below this value, the diode switches back to its high-resistance (non-
conducting) state. This behaviour is bidirectional, meaning typically the same for
both directions of current flow.

Most DIACs have a breakdown voltage around 30 V. In this way, their behaviour is
somewhat similar to (but much more precisely controlled and taking place at lower
voltages than) a neon lamp.

DIACs have no gate electrode, unlike some other thyristors, and are commonly
used to trigger, such as TRIACs. Some TRIACs contain a built-in DIAC in series
with the TRIAC's "gate" terminal for this purpose.

DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger diodes due to the symmetry of their
characteristic curve. Because DIACs are bidirectional devices, their terminals are
not labelled as anode and cathode but as A1 and A2 or MT1 ("Main Terminal")
and MT2.

Symbol of DIAC
The basic arrangement of the semiconductor layers of the DIAC is shown in the
figure:

Figure: DIAC

Where: T1: Main Terminal 1; T2: Main Terminal 2

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DIAC is basically a two-terminal parallel inverse combination of semiconductor

layer that permits triggering in either direction. The characteristic of the device
clearly demonstrated that there is breakdown voltage in either direction.
DIAC Characteristics:

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Silicon Controlled Rectifier

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer

solid-state current-controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is
General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor.

SCRs are mainly used in electronic devices that require control of high voltage
and power. This makes them applicable in medium and high AC power operations
such as motor control function.

An SCR conducts when a gate pulse is applied to it, just like a diode. It has four
layers of semiconductors that form two structures namely; NPNP or PNPN. In
addition, it has three junctions labelled as J1, J2 and J3 and three terminals
(anode, cathode and a gate). An SCR is diagrammatically represented as shown
below.

The anode connects to the P-type, cathode to the N-type and the gate to the P-
type as shown below.

In a SCR, the intrinsic semiconductor is silicon to which the required doping is

infused. However, doping a PNPN junction is dependent on the SCR application.

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Modes of Operation in SCR

a) OFF state (forward blocking mode) –Here the anode is assigned a positive
voltage, the gate is assigned a zero voltage (disconnected) and the cathode is
assigned a negative voltage. As a result, Junctions J1 and J3 are in forward
bias while J2 is in reverse bias. J2 reaches its breakdown avalanche value and
starts to conduct. Below this value, the resistance of J1 is significantly high and
is thus said to be in the off state.

b) ON state (conducting mode) –An SCR is brought to this state either by

increasing the potential difference between the anode and cathode above the
avalanche voltage or by applying a positive signal at the gate. Immediately the
SCR starts to conduct, gate voltage is no longer needed to maintain the ON
state and is, therefore, switched off by:
 Decreasing the current flow through it to the lowest value called holding
current.
 Using a transistor placed across the junction.

c) Reverse blocking – This compensates the drop in forward voltage. This is due
to the fact that a low doped region in P1 is needed. It is important to note that
the voltage ratings of forward and reverse blocking are equal.

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TRIAC

The acronym TRIAC stands for Triode for Alternating Current. A TRIAC is a
semiconductor device with three terminals that control the flow of current, thus the
name TRIAC. Unlike SCR, TRIAC is bi-directional while SCR is unidirectional. It is
ideal for operation utilizing AC power for switching purposes since it can control
current flow for both halves in an alternating current cycle. This is explained clearly
in the diagram below.

TRIAC Symbol

The circuit diagram for a TRIAC is shown below. It resembles two thyristors placed
back to back.

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TRIAC Structure

The TRIAC structure is regarded as a DIAC having an extra gate contact

incorporated to ensure device control. Similar to other power devices, the TRIAC
is manufactured from silicon. Consequently, the process of fabricating the silicon
leads to the production of cheaper devices. As indicated below, the TRIAC has six
areas namely; four N-type regions and two P-type regions.

TRIAC Operation

The operation of the TRIAC is based on the THYRISTOR. It facilitates the

switching function in AC electrical components and systems. They are widely used
in light dimmers because they allow both halves of the AC cycle to be utilized. As
a result, this makes them more efficient in power usage. As much as it is possible
to use THYRISTORS to function as TRIAC, it is not cost efficient for operations
that require low power. It is possible to view a TRIAC in terms of two
THYRISTORS.

TRIACs are normally used in applications that do not require very high power
because they exhibit non-symmetrical switching in their operation. This is
disadvantageous for applications utilizing high power as it causes electromagnetic
interference. As a result, TRIACs are used in motor controls, light residential light
dimmers and small electric fans to control speed.

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INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (I.G.B.T.)

The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a semiconductor device with three
terminals and is used mainly as an electronic switch. It is characterized by fast
switching and high efficiency, which makes it a necessary component in modern
appliances such as lamp ballasts, electric cars and variable frequency drives
(VFDs).

Its ability to turn on and off, rapidly, makes it applicable in amplifiers to process
complex wave-patterns with pulse width modulation. IGBT combines the
characteristics of MOSFETs and BJTs to attain high current and low saturation
voltage capacity respectively. It integrates an isolated gate using FET (Field Effect
Transistor) to obtain a control input.

IGBT Symbol

The amplification of an IGBT is computed by the ratio of its output signal to its
input signal. In conventional BJTs, the degree of gain (β) is equal to the ratio of its
output current to the input current.

IGBT has a very low value of ON state resistance (RON) than a MOSFET. This
implies that the voltage drop (I2R) across the bipolar for a particular switching
operation is very low. The forward blocking action of the IGBT is similar to that of a
MOSFET.

When an IGBT is used as controlled switch in a static state, its current and voltage
ratings equal to that of BJT. On the contrary, the isolated gate in IGBT makes it
easier to drive BJT charges and hence less power is required.

IGBT is switched ON or OFF based on whether its gate terminal has been
activated or deactivated. A constant positive potential difference across the gate
and the emitter maintains the IGBT in the ON state. When the input signal is
removed, the IGBT is turned OFF.

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IGBT requires only a small voltage to maintain conduction in the device unlike in
BJT. The IGBT is a unidirectional device, that is, it can only switch ON in the
forward direction. This means current flows from the collector to the emitter unlike
in MOSFETs, which are bi-directional.

Figure 1: Equivalent circuit model of an IGBT

Based on the structure, a simple equivalent circuit model of an IGBT can be drawn
as shown in Figure 1. It contains MOSFET, JFET, NPN and PNP transistors. The
collector of the PNP is connected to the base of the NPN and the collector of the
NPN is connected to the base of the PNP through the JFET. The NPN and PNP
transistors represent the parasitic THYRISTOR which constitutes a regenerative
feedback loop. The resistor RB represents the shorting of the base-emitter of the
NPN transistor to ensure that the THYRISTOR does not latch up, which will lead
to the IGBT latch up. The JFET represents the constriction of current between any
two neighbouring IGBT cells. It supports most of the voltage and allows the
MOSFET to be a low voltage type and consequently have a lowRDS(on) value.

The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:

1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has
superior on-state current density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost
can be reduced.
2. Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate
structure. It can be easily controlled as compared to current controlled devices
(thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current applications.
3. Wide SOA (Safe Operating Area). It has superior current conduction capability
compared with the bipolar transistor. It also has excellent forward and reverse
blocking capabilities.

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The main drawbacks are:

1. Switching speed is inferior to that of a Power MOSFET and superior to that of a

BJT. The collector current tailing due to the minority carrier causes the turnoff
speed to be slow.
2. There is a possibility of latch up due to the internal PNPN THYRISTOR
structure. The IGBT is suitable for scaling up the blocking voltage capability. In
case of Power MOSFET, the on-resistance increases sharply with the
breakdown voltage due to an increase in the resistively and thickness of the
drift region required to support the high operating voltage. For this reason, the
development of high current Power MOSFET with high-blocking voltage rating
is normally avoided. In contrast, for the IGBT, the drift region resistance is
drastically reduced by the high concentration of injected minority carriers
during on-state current conduction. The forward drop from the drift region
becomes dependent upon its thickness and independent of its original
resistivity.

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Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a type of
transistor used to switch electronic signals. It has four terminals namely; source
(S), Drain (D), Gate (G) and Body (B). The MOSFET’s body is normally connected
to the terminal of the Source(S), which results in three-terminal device similar to
other field effect transistors (FET). Since these two main terminals are usually
interconnected via short circuit, only three terminals are visible in electrical
diagrams.

It is the most common device in circuits that are both digital and analogue.
Compared to the regular transistor, a MOSFET needs low current (less than one
mill-ampere) to switch ON. At the same time, it delivers a high current load of
more than 50 Amperes.

Operation of a MOSFET

MOSFET has a thin layer of silicon dioxide, which acts as the plate of a capacitor.
The isolation of the controlling gate raises the resistance of the MOSFET to
extremely high levels (almost infinite).

The gate terminal is barred from the primary current pathway; thus, no current
leaks into the gate.

MOSFETs exist in two main forms:

Depletion state –This requires the gate-source voltage (VGB) to switch the
component OFF. When the gate is at zero (VGB) the device is usually ON,
therefore, it functions as a load resistor for given logic circuits. For loading devices
with N-type depletion, 3V is the threshold voltage where the device is switched
OFF by switching the gate at negative 3V.

Enhancement state –The gate-source voltage (VGB) is required in this state to

switch the component ON. When the gate is at zero (VGB) the device is usually
OFF and can be switched ON by ensuring the gate voltage is higher than the
source voltage.

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Symbol and Basic Construction

Where, D – Drain; G – Gate; S – Source; and Sub – Substrate

Gate Turn off Thyristor (G T O)

A gate turn-off THYRISTOR is a PNPN device. In which it can be turned ON like

an ordinary SCR by a positive gate current. However, it can be easily turned off by
a negative gate pulse of appropriate magnitude.

Conventional SCR are turned on by a positive gate signal but once the SCR is
turned on gate loses control over it. So, to turn it off we require external
commutation circuit. These commutation circuits are bulky and costly. So due to
these drawbacks GTO comes into existence.

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The salient features of GTO are:

1. GTO turned on like conventional SCR and is turned off by a negative gate
signal of sufficient magnitude.

2. It is a non-latching device.

3. GTO reduces acoustic and electromagnetic noise

4. It has high switching frequency and efficiency.

5. A gate turnoff THYRISTOR can turn on like an ordinary THYRISTOR, but it is

turned off by negative gate pulse of appropriate magnitude.

Disadvantage
The negative gate current required to turn off a GTO is quite large that is 20% to
30 % of anode current.

Advantage
It is compact and costs less.

Switching Performance
Gate Turn-On Characteristics
The gate turn-on characteristics is similar to a thyristor. Total turn on time consists
of delay time, rise time, spread time.

The turn ON time can be reduced by increasing its forward gate current.

Gate Turn- Off Characteristics

Turn off time is different from SCR.Turn off characteristics is divided into 3 parts
1. Storage time
2. Fall time
3. Tail Time Tq=ts+tf+tt

At normal operating condition GTO carries a steady state current. The turn off
process starts as soon as negative current is applied after t=0.

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DEVICE APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRONIC CONTROL, POWER SUPPLIES

Choppers

A chopper uses high speed to connect and disconnect from a source load. A fixed
DC voltage is applied intermittently to the source load by continuously triggering
the power switch ON/OFF. The period of time for which the power switch stays ON
or OFF is referred to as the chopper’s ON and OFF state times, respectively.

Choppers are mostly applied in electric cars, conversion of wind and solar energy,
and DC motor regulators.

Symbol of a Chopper

Classification of Choppers

Depending on the voltage output, choppers are classified as:

 Step Up Chopper (Boost converter)

 Step Down Chopper (Buck converter)
 Step Up/Down Chopper (Buck-boost converter)

Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The concept of switch mode power supply (SMPS) is explained below using a DC
to DC converter. The load is given a constant voltage supply (VOUT) that is
obtained from a primary source of voltage supply VIN. The value of VOUT is
regulated by varying resistor in series (RS) or the current source connected in
shunt (RL). By controlling VOUT through varying and ensuring RS is kept constant,
a considerable amount of power is lost in the converter.

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Switch mode power supply

An SMPS (switched mode power supply) refers to an electronic device that uses a
switching regulator for the purpose of converting electrical power in an efficient
manner. SMPS takes power from the main power lines and transfers it to a load.
For example, a computer while ensuring the voltage and current characteristics
are converted.

The difference between an SMPS and a linear supply of power is that the former
keeps switching ON and OFF during low dissipation and uses less time during
high dissipation regions. This ensures less energy is wasted. Actually, an SMPS
does not dissipate any power.

Switch mode power supply

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The size of an SMPS is smaller and very light, compared to a normal linear supply
power device of the same size and shape.

Block Diagram of a voltage controlled SMPS

The figure below shows the circuit diagram for an SMPS. When the switching
frequency is varied, the stored energy can be varied for each cycle and hence the
voltage output is varied.

Basic Circuit Diagram of SMPS

Topologies of Switch Mode Power Supply

There are different types of topologies for SMPS, among those, a few are as follows:

 DC to DC converter
 AC to DC converter
 Fly Back Converter
 Forward Converter

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1. DC to DC Converter SMPS

In a DC-to-DC converter, primarily a high-voltage DC power is directly obtained from a DC

power source. Then, this high-voltage DC power is switched at a very high switching
speed usually in the range of 15 KHz to 50 KHz.

DC to DC converter SMPS

And then it is fed to a step-down transformer which is comparable to the weight and size
characteristics of a transformer unit of 50Hz. The output of the step-down transformer is
further fed into the rectifier. This filtered and rectified output DC power is used as a source
for loads, and a sample of this output power is used as a feedback for controlling the
output voltage. With this feedback voltage, the ON time of the oscillator is controlled, and
a closed-loop regulator is formed.

The output of the switching-power supply is regulated by using PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation). As shown in the circuit above, the switch is driven by the PWM oscillator,
such that the power fed to the step-down transformer is controlled indirectly, and hence,
the output is controlled by the PWM, as this pulse width signal and the output voltage are
inversely proportional to each other.

If the duty cycle is 50%, then the maximum amount of power is transferred through the
step-down transformer, and, if duty cycle decreases, then the amount of power
transferred will decrease by decreasing the power dissipation.

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2. AC to DC Converter SMPS

The AC to DC converter SMPS has an AC input. It is converted into DC by rectification

process using a rectifier and filter. This unregulated DC voltage is fed to the large-filter
capacitor or PFC (Power Factor Correction) circuits for correction of power factor as it is
affected. This is because around voltage peaks, the rectifier draws short current pulses
having significantly high-frequency energy which affects the power factor to reduce.

AC to DC converter SMPS

It is almost similar to the above discussed DC to DC converter, but instead of direct DC

power supply, here AC input is used. So, the combination of the rectifier and filter, shown
in the block diagram is used for converting the AC into DC and switching is done by using
a power MOSFET amplifier with which very high gain can be achieved. The MOSFET
transistor has low on-resistance and can withstand high currents. The switching frequency
is chosen such that it must be kept inaudible to normal human beings (mostly above 20
kHz) and switching action is controlled by a feedback utilizing the PWM oscillator.

This AC voltage is again fed to the output transformer shown in the figure to step down or
step up the voltage levels. Then, the output of this transformer is rectified and smoothed
by using the output rectifier and filter. A feedback circuit is used to control the output
voltage by comparing it with the reference voltage.

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3. Fly-Back Converter Type SMPS

The SMPS circuit with very low output power of less than 100W (watts) is usually of Fly-
back converter type SMPS, and it is very simple and low-cost circuit compared to other
SMPS circuits. Hence, it is frequently used for low-power applications.

Fly-Back Converter Type SMPS

The unregulated input voltage with a constant magnitude is converted into a desired
output voltage by fast switching using a MOSFET; the switching frequency is around 100
kHz. The isolation of voltage can be achieved by using a transformer. The switch
operation can be controlled by using a PWM control while implementing a practical fly-
back converter.

Fly-back transformer exhibits different characteristics compared to general transformer.

The two windings of the fly-back transformer act as magnetically coupled inductors. The
output of this transformer is passed through a diode and a capacitor for rectification and
filtering. As shown in the figure, the voltage across this filter capacitor is taken as the
output voltage of the SMPS.

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4. Forward Converter type SMPS

Forward converter type SMPS is almost similar to the Fly-back converter type SMPS, but
in the forward converter type, a control is connected for controlling the switch and at the
output of the secondary winding of the transformer, the rectification and filtering circuit is
complicated as compared to the fly-back converter.

It can be called as a DC to DC buck converter, along with a transformer used for isolation
and scaling. In addition to the diode D1 and capacitor C, a diode D2 and an inductor L are
connected at the output end. If switch S gets switched ON, then the input is given to the
primary winding of the transformer, and hence, a scaled voltage is generated at the
secondary winding of the transformer.

Forward Converter type SMPS

Thus, the diode D1 gets forward biased and scaled voltage is passed through the low-
pass filter preceding the load. If the switch S is turned off, then the currents through the
primary and secondary winding reach to zero, but the current through the inductive filter
and load cannot be change abruptly, and a path is provided to this current by the
freewheeling diode D2. By using the filter inductor, the required voltage across the diode
D2 and to maintain the EMF required for maintaining the continuity of the current at
inductive filter.

Even though the current is diminishing against the output voltage, approximately the
constant output voltage is maintained with the presence of the large capacitive filter. It is
frequently used for switching applications with a power in the range of 100 W to 200 W.

Different types of topologies are there in which SMPS can be realized such as Buck
converter, Boost converter, Self Oscillating fly-back converter, Buck-boost converter,
Boost-buck, Cuk, Sepic. But only a few are discussed in this article, namely DC to DC
converter, AC to DC converter, Fly-back converter and Forward converter.

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SNUBBER CIRCUITS

Power semiconductors are the heart of power electronics equipment. Snubbers

are circuits which are placed across semiconductor devices for protection and to
improve performance. Snubbers can do many things:

1. Reduce or eliminate voltage or current spikes

2. Limit di/dt or dv/dt
3. Shape the load line to keep it within the safe operating area (SOA)
4. Transfer power dissipation from the switch to a resistor or a useful load
5. Reduce total losses due to switching
6. Reduce EMI by damping voltage and current ringing

There are many different kinds of snubbers but the two most common ones are
the resistor-capacitor (RC) damping network and the resistor-capacitor-diode
(RCD) turn-off snubber. This application note will show you how to design these
two snubbers.

Switching waveforms

Before getting into the design of snubbers, it is important to understand the

waveforms which occur naturally in power circuits. These provide both the
motivation for using snubbers and the information needed for their design. There
are many different types of circuits used in power converters, motor drives, lamp
ballasts and other devices. Fortunately, all of these different circuits have a
common network and waveforms associated with the switches. Figure 1 shows
four widely used circuits. All of these circuits, and in fact most power electronics
circuits, have within them the same switch-diode-inductor network shown within
the dotted lines. The behaviour of this network is the same in all these circuits
which means that we only have to solve the snubber design problem for one
circuit to apply it to all of the others. This tremendously simplifies the problem and
allows generalized snubber design techniques.

A typical boost converter is shown in figure 1a. For snubber design we are
concerned with circuit behaviour during the switch transition time which is much
shorter than the switching period. This allows us to simplify the analysis. In normal
operation the output voltage is DC with very little ripple. This means that we can
replace the load and filter capacitor with a battery since the output voltage
changes very little during switch transitions. The current in the inductor will also
change very little during a transition and we can replace the inductor with a current
source. The simplified circuit is given in figure 1b. The voltage (E) and current (I)
waveforms are given in figure 1c.

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(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1: Boost Converter

At the beginning of the switching cycle the switch is open and all of the current (I o)
will be flowing through the diode into the battery. As the switch turns on, the
current will gradually shift from the diode to the switch. However, as long as there
is current in the diode, the switch voltage will remain at E o. Once all of the current
has been transferred to the switch, the switch voltage can begin to fall. At turn-off
the situation is reversed. As the switch turns off, the voltage across it will rise. The
current in the switch will however, not begin to fall until the switch voltage reaches
Eo because the diode will be reverse biased until that point. Once the diode begins
to conduct the current in the switch can fall.

This type of switching arrangement, commonly referred to as “hard switching”,

exposes the switch to high stress because the maximum voltage and maximum
current must be supported simultaneously. This also leads to high switching loss.

In practical circuits, the switch stress will be even higher due to the unavoidable
presence of parasitic inductance (Lp) and capacitance (Cs) as shown in figure 2a.
Cp includes the junction capacitance of the switch and stray capacitance due to
circuit layout and mounting. Lp is due to the finite size of the circuit layout and lead
inductance. Lp can be minimized with good layout practice but there may be some
residual inductance which may cause a ringing voltage spike at turn-off.

The most common reasons for using a snubber are, to limit the peak voltage
across the switch and to reduce the switching loss during turn-off.

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Figure 2

RC Snubber Design
An RC snubber, placed across the switch as shown in figure 3, can be used to
reduce the peak voltage at turn-off and to damp the ringing. In most cases a very
simple design technique can be used to determine suitable values for the snubber
components (Rs and Cs). In those cases where a more optimum design is needed,
a somewhat more complex procedure is used.

Figure 3

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RCD Snubber Design

The RCD snubber as shown in figure 4 has several advantages over the RC
snubber:

 In addition to peak voltage limiting, the circuit can reduce the total circuit
loss, including both switching and snubber losses.
 Much better load lines can be achieved, allowing the load line to pass well
within the SOA.
 For a given value of Cs, the total losses will be less
 The shunt capacitance across the switch (Cp) is a useful part of the
snubber.

There is one disadvantage however. Because of the diode across R s, the effective
value for Rs, during the charging of Cs, is essentially zero. This is not the optimum
value and, for a given Cs, E1 will be higher than it would be in an optimized RC
snubber.

Typical turn-off waveforms for this snubber are given in figure 5. These waveforms
assume that Lp = 0. The effect of Lp will be considered shortly. The key feature of
these waveforms is that the switch voltage rises slowly as the switch current falls.
This means that the high peak power associated with simultaneous maximum
voltage and current is eliminated. The net result is much lower peak stress and
switching loss. Voltage waveforms for two different values of C s are shown. In this
example Io = 10 A and Eo = 300 V. As Cs is made larger the peak power and the
switching loss will be lower. However, larger Cs means greater loss in Rs when the
switch turns on and Cs is discharged through Rs and the switch. Again, we see the
trade-off between snubber efficacy and loss.

Figure 4 Figure 5

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Semiconductor Device Applications

A power semiconductor device is a semiconductor device used as a switch or

rectifier in power electronics; a switch-mode power supply is an example. Such a
device is also called a power device.

A power semiconductor device is usually used in "commutation mode" (i.e., it is

either on or off), and therefore has a design optimized for such usage; it should
usually not be used in linear operation. Linear power circuits are widespread as
voltage regulators, audio amplifiers, and radio frequency amplifiers.

Power semiconductors are found in systems delivering as little as a few tens of

milliwatts for a headphone amplifier, up to around a giga watt in a high voltage
direct current transmission line.

A power device may be classified as one of the following main categories

 A two-terminal device (e.g., a diode), whose state is completely dependent

on the external power circuit to which it is connected.

 A three-terminal device (e.g., a triode), whose state is dependent on not

only its external power circuit, but also the signal on its driving terminal (this
terminal is known as the gate or base).

 A four-terminal device (e.g. Silicon Controlled Switch -SCS). SCS is a type

of thyristor having four layers and four terminals called anode, anode gate,
cathode gate and cathode. the terminals are connected to the first, second,
third and fourth layer respectively.

Another classification is less obvious, but has a strong influence on device

performance:

 A majority carrier device (e.g., a Schottky diode, a MOSFET, etc.); this

uses only one type of charge carriers.
 A minority carrier device (e.g., a thyristor, a bipolar transistor, an IGBT,
etc.); this uses both majority and minority carriers (i.e., electrons and
electron holes).

A majority carrier device is faster, but the charge injection of minority carrier
devices allows for better on-state performance.

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Diodes

An ideal diode should have the following characteristics:

 When forward-biased, the voltage across the end terminals of the diode
should be zero, no matter the current that flows through it (on-state).
 When reverse-biased, the leakage current should be zero, no matter the
voltage (off-state).
 The transition (or commutation) between the on-state and the off-state
should be instantaneous.

In reality, the design of a diode is a trade-off between performance in on-state, off-

state, and commutation. Indeed, the same area of the device must sustain the
blocking voltage in the off-state and allow current flow in the on-state; as the
requirements for the two states are completely opposite, a diode has to be either
optimized for one of them, or time must be allowed to switch from one state to the
other (i.e., the commutation speed must be reduced).

These trade-offs are the same for all power devices; for instance, a Schottky
diode has excellent switching speed and on-state performance, but a high level of
leakage current in the off-state. On the other hand, a PIN diode is commercially
available in different commutation speeds (what are called "fast" and "ultrafast"
rectifiers), but any increase in speed is necessarily associated with a lower
performance in the on-state.

Semiconductor as Switches

The trade-offs between voltage, current, and frequency ratings also exist for a
switch. In fact, any power semiconductor relies on a PIN diode structure in order to
sustain voltage. The power MOSFET has the advantages of a majority carrier
device, so it can achieve a very high operating frequency, but it cannot be used
with high voltages; as it is a physical limit, no improvement is expected in the
design of a silicon MOSFET concerning its maximum voltage ratings. However, its
excellent performance in low voltage applications make it the device of choice
(actually the only choice, currently) for applications with voltages below 200 V. By
placing several devices in parallel, it is possible to increase the current rating of a
switch. The MOSFET is particularly suited to this configuration, because its
positive thermal coefficient of resistance tends to result in a balance of current
between the individual devices.

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The IGBT is a recent component, so its performance improves regularly as

technology evolves. It has already completely replaced the bipolar transistor in
power applications; a power module is available in which several IGBT devices
are connected in parallel, making it attractive for power levels up to several
megawatts, which pushes further the limit at which thyristors and GTOs become
the only option. Basically, an IGBT is a bipolar transistor driven by a power
MOSFET; it has the advantages of being a minority carrier device (good
performance in the on-state, even for high voltage devices), with the high input
impedance of a MOSFET (it can be driven on or off with a very low amount of
power).

The major limitation of the IGBT for low voltage applications is the high voltage
drop it exhibits in the on-state (2-to-4 V). Compared to the MOSFET, the operating
frequency of the IGBT is relatively low (usually not higher than 50 kHz), mainly
because of a problem during turn-off known as current-tail: The slow decay of the
conduction current during turn-off results from a slow recombination of a large
number of carriers that flood the thick 'drift' region of the IGBT during conduction.
The net result is that the turn-off switching loss of an IGBT is considerably higher
than its turn-on loss. Generally, in datasheets, turn-off energy is mentioned as a
measured parameter; that number has to be multiplied with the switching
frequency of the intended application in order to estimate the turn-off loss.

At very high-power levels, a thyristor-based device (e.g., a SCR, a GTO, a MCT,

etc.) is still the only choice. This device can be turned on by a pulse provided by a
driving circuit, but cannot be turned off by removing the pulse. A thyristor turns off
as soon as no more current flows through it; this happens automatically in
an alternating current system on each cycle, or requires a circuit with the means to
divert current around the device. Both MCTs and GTOs have been developed to
overcome this limitation, and are widely used in power distribution applications.

A few applications of power semiconductors in switch mode include lamp

dimmers, switch mode power supplies, induction cookers, automotive ignition
systems, and AC and DC electric motor drives of all sizes.

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DIAC Applications

As stated above, the DIAC is commonly used as a solid state triggering device for
other semiconductor switching devices, mainly SCR’s and TRIACs. TRIACs are
widely used in applications such as lamp dimmers and motor speed controllers
and as such the DIAC is used in conjunction with the TRIAC to provide full-wave
control of the AC supply as shown.

DIAC AC Phase Control

As the AC supply voltage increases at the beginning of the cycle, capacitor, C is

charged through the series combination of the fixed resistor, R1 and the
potentiometer, VR1 and the voltage across its plates increases. When the
charging voltage reaches the break over voltage of the DIAC (about 30 V for the
ST2), the DIAC breaks down and the capacitor discharges through the DIAC.

The discharge produces a sudden pulse of current, which fires the TRIAC into
conduction. The phase angle at which the TRIAC is triggered can be varied using
VR1 , which controls the charging rate of the capacitor. Resistor, R1 limits the gate
current to a safe value when VR1 is at its minimum. Once the TRIAC has been
fired into conduction, it is maintained in its “ON” state by the load current flowing
through it, while the voltage across the resistor–capacitor combination is limited by
the “ON” voltage of the TRIAC and is maintained until the end of the present half-
cycle of the AC supply.

At the end of the half cycle the supply voltage falls to zero, reducing the current
through the TRIAC below its holding current, IH turning it “OFF” and the DIAC
stops conduction. The supply voltage then enters its next half-cycle, the capacitor

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voltage again begins to rise (this time in the opposite direction) and the cycle of
firing the TRIAC repeats over again.

TRIAC Conduction Waveform

Then we have seen that the DIAC is a very useful device which can be used to
trigger TRIACs and because of its negative resistance characteristics this allows it
to switch “ON” rapidly once a certain applied voltage level is reached. However,
this means that whenever we want to use a TRIAC for AC power control, we will
need a separate DIAC as well. Fortunately, the individual DIAC and TRIAC is
replaced with a single switching device called a QUADRAC.

The QUADRAC

The QUADRAC is basically a DIAC and TRIAC fabricated together within a single
semiconductor package and as such are also known as “internally triggered
TRIACs”. This all in one bi-directional device is gate controlled using either polarity
of the main terminal voltage which means it can be used in full-wave phase-control
applications such as heater controls, lamp dimmers, and AC motor speed control,
etc.

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Like the TRIAC, QUADRACs are a three-terminal semiconductor switching device

labeled MT2 for main terminal one (usually the anode), MT1 for main terminal two
(usually the cathode) and G for the gate terminal.

The QUADRAC is available in a variety of package types depending upon their

voltage and current switching requirements with the TO-220 package being the
most common as it is designed to be an exact replacement for most TRIAC
devices.

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TRIAC Applications

The TRIAC is most commonly used semiconductor device for switching and power
control of AC systems as the TRIAC can be switched “ON” by either a positive or
negative Gate pulse, regardless of the polarity of the AC supply at that time. This
makes the TRIAC ideal to control a lamp or AC motor load with a very basic
TRIAC switching circuit given below.

TRIAC Switching Circuit

The circuit above shows a simple DC triggered TRIAC power switching circuit.
With switch SW1 open, no current flows into the Gate of the TRIAC and the lamp
is therefore “OFF”. When SW1 is closed, Gate current is applied to the TRIAC
from the battery supply VG via resistor Rand the TRIAC is driven into full
conduction acting like a closed switch and full power is drawn by the lamp from the
sinusoidal supply.

As the battery supplies a positive Gate current to the TRIAC whenever switch
SW1 is closed, the TRIAC is therefore continually gated in modes Ι+ and ΙΙΙ+
regardless of the polarity of terminal MT2.

Of course, the problem with this simple TRIAC switching circuit is that we would
require an additional positive or negative Gate supply to trigger the TRIAC into
conduction. But we can also trigger the TRIAC using the actual AC supply voltage
itself as the gate triggering voltage. Consider the circuit below.

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TRIAC Switching Circuit

The circuit shows a TRIAC used as a simple static AC power switch providing an
“ON”-“OFF” function similar in operation to the previous DC circuit. When switch
SW1 is open, the TRIAC acts as an open switch and the lamp passes zero
current. When SW1 is closed the TRIAC is gated “ON” via current limiting resistor
R and self-latches shortly after the start of each half-cycle, thus switching full
power to the lamp load.

As the supply is sinusoidal AC, the TRIAC automatically unlatches at the end of
each AC half-cycle as the instantaneous supply voltage and thus the load current
briefly falls to zero but re-latches again using the opposite thyristor half on the next
half cycle as long as the switch remains closed. This type of switching control is
generally called full-wave control due to the fact that both halves of the sine wave
are being controlled.

As the TRIAC is effectively two back-to-back connected SCR’s, we can take this
TRIAC switching circuit further by modifying how the gate is triggered as shown
below.

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Modified TRIAC Switching Circuit

As above, if switch SW1 is open at position A, there is no gate current and the
lamp is “OFF”. If the switch is moved to position B gate current flows at every half
cycle the same as before and full power is drawn by the lamp as the TRIAC
operates in modes Ι+ and ΙΙΙ–.

However this time when the switch is connected to position C, the diode will
prevent the triggering of the gate when MT2 is negative as the diode is reverse
biased. Thus the TRIAC only conducts on the positive half-cycles operating in
mode I+ only and the lamp will light at half power. Then depending upon the
position of the switch the load is OFF, at Half Power or Fully ON.

TRIAC Phase Control

Another common type of TRIAC switching circuit uses phase control to vary the
amount of voltage, and therefore power applied to a load, in this case a motor, for
both the positive and negative halves of the input waveform. This type of AC motor
speed control gives a fully variable and linear control because the voltage can be
adjusted from zero to the full applied voltage as shown.

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TRIAC Phase Control

This basic phase triggering circuit uses the TRIAC in series with the motor across
an AC sinusoidal supply. The variable resistor, VR1 is used to control the amount
of phase shift on the gate of the TRIAC which in turn controls the amount of
voltage applied to the motor by turning it ON at different times during the AC cycle.

The TRIAC’s triggering voltage is derived from the VR1 – C1combination via the
DIAC (The DIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor device that helps provide a
sharp trigger current pulse to fully turn-ON the TRIAC).

At the start of each cycle, C1 charges up via the variable resistor, VR1. This
continues until the voltage across C1 is sufficient to trigger the DIAC into
conduction which in turn allows capacitor, C1 to discharge into the gate of the
TRIAC turning it “ON”. Once the TRIAC is triggered into conduction and saturates,
it effectively shorts out the gate triggering phase control circuit connected in
parallel across it and the TRIAC takes control for the remainder of the half-cycle.

As we have seen above, the TRIAC turns-OFF automatically at the end of the half-
cycle and the VR1 – C1 triggering process starts again on the next half cycle.
However, because the TRIAC requires differing amounts of gate current in each
switching mode of operation, for example Ι+ and ΙΙΙ–, a TRIAC is therefore
asymmetrical meaning that it may not trigger at the exact same point for each
positive and negative half cycle.

This simple TRIAC speed control circuit is suitable for not only AC motor speed
control but for lamp dimmers and electrical heater control and in fact is very similar
to a TRIAC light dimmer used in many homes. However, a commercial TRIAC
dimmer should not be used as a motor speed controller as generally TRIAC light
dimmers are intended to be used with resistive loads only such as incandescent
lamps.

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MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

An MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a voltage-controlled fully controllable

thyristor. It was invented by V.A.K. Temple. MCTs are similar in operation to GTO
thyristors, but have voltage controlled insulated gates. They have two MOSFETs
of opposite conductivity types in their equivalent circuits. One is responsible for
turn-on and the other for turn-off. A thyristor with only one MOSFET in its
equivalent circuit, which can only be turned on (like normal SCRs), is called an
MOS-gated thyristor.

Schematic of a MOSFET-Controlled Thyristor

Positive voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the cathode turns the thyristor
to the ON state.

Negative voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the anode, which is close to
cathode voltage during the on state, turns the thyristor to the off state.

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Semiconductors as Amplifiers

Amplifiers, operate in the active region, where both device current and voltage are
non-zero. Consequently, power is continually dissipated and its design is
dominated by the need to remove excess heat from the semiconductor device.
Power amplifier devices can often be recognized by the heat sink used to mount
the devices. Multiple types of power semiconductor amplifier device exist, such as
the bipolar junction transistor, the vertical MOS field effect transistor, and others.
Power levels for individual amplifier devices range up to hundreds of watts, and
frequency limits range up to the lower microwave bands. A complete audio power
amplifier, with two channels and a power rating on the order of tens of watts, can
be put into a small integrated circuit package, needing only a few external passive
components to function. Another important application for active-mode amplifiers
is in linear regulated power supplies, when an amplifier device is used as
a voltage regulator to maintain load voltage at a desired setting. While such a
power supply may be less energy efficient than a switched mode power supply,
the simplicity of application makes them popular, especially in current ranges up to
about one ampere.

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Characteristics, Types, mounting methods and markings, advantages of IC

An Integrated Circuit is one in which circuit components such as transistors,

diodes, resistors, capacitors etc. are automatically part of a small semiconductor
chip. An integrated circuit consists of a number of circuit components (e.g.
transistors, diodes, resistors etc.) and the inter connections in a single small
package to perform a complete electronic function. These components are formed
and connected within a small chip of semi- conductor material.

1. In anIC, the various components are automatically part of a small semi-

conductor chip and the individual components cannot be removedor re-placed.
This is in contrast to discrete assembly in which individual components can be
removed or replaced if necessary.
2. The size of anICis extremely small. In fact,ICsare so small that you normally
need amicroscope to see the connections between the components. Figure1
shows a typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm× 0.2 mm ×
0.001mm. It is possible to produce circuits containing many transistors, diodes,
resistors etc. on the surface of this small chip.
3. No components of anICare seen to project above the surface of the chip. This
is because all the components are formed within the chip.

Figure 1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the need to construct circuits
with individual discrete components such as transistors, diodes and resistors. With
the exception of a few very simple circuits, the availability of a large number of
low-cost integrated circuits have largely rendered discrete circuitry obsolete. It is,
therefore, desirable to mention the significant advantages of integrated circuits
over discrete circuits. However, integrated circuits have some disadvantages and
continuous efforts are on to overcome them.

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Advantages:

Integrated circuits possess the following advantages over discrete circuits:

1. Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections

2. Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various circuit elements in a
single chip of semi- conductor material.
3. Lesser weight and space requirement due to miniaturized circuit.
4. Low power requirements.
5. Greater ability to operate at extreme values of temperature.
6. Low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of alike circuits on a
small semi-conductor wafer.
7. The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because integrated circuits are
constrained to use minimum number of external connections.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of integrated circuits are:

1. If any component in an IC goes out of order, the whole IC has to be replaced

by the new one.
2. In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitances
exceeding 30pF. Therefore, for high values of capacitance, discrete
components exterior to IC chip are connected.
3. It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of semi-
conductor chip. Therefore, these components are connected exterior to the
semi-conductor chip.
4. It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater than 10 W).
5. There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally not possible to modify the
parameters within which an integrated circuit will operate.

Inside an IC Package

The IC units are fast replacing the discrete components in all electronic
equipment. These are similar to the discrete circuits that they replaced. However,
there are some points to be noted. An integrated circuit (IC) usually contains only
transistors, diodes and resistors. It is usually very difficult to form inductors in an
IC. Also, only very small capacitors, in the pico-farad range, can be included.
When inductors and large values of C are needed, they are connected externally
to an IC. The various components in an IC are so small that they cannot be seen
with a naked eye. Therefore, individual components cannot be removed or
replaced. If a single component within an IC fails, the complete IC is replaced.
When studying circuits using ICs, we are more concerned with the external

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connections to the ICs than with what is actually going on inside. We cannot get
into an IC to repair its internal circuitry.

IC Packings
In order to protect ICs from external environment and to provide mechanical
protection, various forms of encapsulation are used for integrated circuits. Just as
with semi-conductor devices, IC packages are of two types viz.

Figure 2

(i) Hermetic (metal or ceramic with glass) (ii) Non-Hermetic (plastics)

Plastics are cheaper than Hermetic, but are still not regarded as satisfactory in
extremes of temperature and humidity. Although ICs appeared in the market
several years ago, yet the standardisation of packages started only in the recent
years.

The three most popular types of IC packages are shown in Figure 2

1. Fig. 2 (i) showsTO-5 package which resembles a small signal transistor in both
appearance and size but differs in that it has either 8, 10 or 12 pigtail-type
leads. The close leads spacing and the difficulty of removal from a printed
circuit board has diminished the popularity of this package with the users.
2. Fig. 2 (ii) shows a flat pack container with 14 leads, seven on each side.
3. Fig. 2 (iii) shows the dual-in-line (DIL) pack in 14-lead version.

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IC Symbols
In general, no standard symbols exist for ICs. Often the circuit diagram merely
shows a block with numbered terminals. However, sometimes standard symbols
are used for operational amplifiers or digital logic gates. Some of the symbols
used with ICs are shown below.

Figure 3 Figure 4

Fig. 3 shows the symbol of an IC R-F amplifier containing 3 transistors, 3 resistors

and 8 terminals. Similarly, Fig. 4 shows an IC audio amplifier which contain 6
transistors, 2 diodes, 17 resistors and has 12 terminals.

Scale of Integration
An IC chip may contain as large as 100,000 semiconductor devices or other
components. The relative number of these components within the chip is given by
referring to its scale of integration. The following terminology is commonly used.

Scale of integration Abbreviation Number of components

Small SSI 1 to 20

Medium MSI 20 to 100

Large LSI 100 to 1000

Very large VLSI 1000 to 10,000

Super large SLSI 10,000 to 100,000

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IC APPLICATIONS AND COMMON CIRCUITS

Integrated circuits are fairly complex because they contain a large number of
circuit components within a small semiconductor chip. While studying circuits
using ICs, we are more concerned with the external connections to the IC, rather
than what is actually going on inside.

Voltage Regulators, Multivibrators

Fixed 5-volt Voltage Regulator.

The IC voltage regulator is a device that is used to hold the output voltage from a
DC power supply constant as the input voltage or load current changes. For
example, LM 309 (fixed positive) provides a + 5 V DC output. This regulator is
frequently used in digital circuits. Fig. 5 shows the circuit of the voltage regulator
using LM 309. It is a three-terminal device with terminals labelled as input, output
and ground terminal. It provides a fixed 5 V between the output and ground
terminals.

Figure 5

The LM 309 has a number of advantages over the Zener Diode. First, it is much
more accurate than the Zener Diode. Secondly, there is built-in overload
protection. The LM 309 also has overheating protection. If the internal temperature
becomes excessive, it shuts off until the temperature is reduced, at which point it
will start up again.

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Adjustable Voltage Regulator.

Sometimes, we want a voltage regulator whose voltage we can vary. An example

of such a voltage regulator is LM 317 whose schematic diagram is shown in Fig 6.
By varying the value of R2, the output voltage of the regulator can be adjusted.

Figure 6

The Timer IC 555 - as a Mono-stable Multi-vibrator.

Fig. 7 shows the circuit of the 555 timer as a Mono-stable Multi-vibrator. The R
and C are the external components whose values determine the time T (in
seconds) for which the circuit is on. This time is given by;

T = 1.1 RC

Figure 7

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The Timer IC 555 - as an Astable Multi-vibrator

Fig. 8 shows the 555 timer as an Astable Multi-vibrator. Note that the circuit
contains two resistors (R1 and R2) and one capacitor (C) and does not have an
input from any other circuit. The lack of a triggering signal from an external source
is the circuit recognition feature of the Astable Multi-vibrator.

Figure 8

The time T1 for which the output is ‘high’ is given by:

T1 = 0.694 (R1 + R2) C

The time T2 for which the output is ‘low’ is given by:

T2 = 0.694 R2C

∴ Total period T for the oscillation is:

T1 + T2 = 0.694 (R1 + 2 R2) C

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Monostable Multivibrator

Multivibrators are Sequential regenerative circuits either synchronous or asynchronous

and are used extensively in electronic timing applications. Multivibrators produce an
output wave shape resembling that of a symmetrical or asymmetrical square wave and as
such are the most commonly used of all the square wave generators. Multivibrators
belong to a family of oscillators commonly called “Relaxation Oscillators“.

MOSFET Monostable

Generally speaking, discrete multivibrators consist of a two transistor cross coupled

switching circuit designed so that one or more of its outputs are fed back as an input to
the other transistor with a resistor and capacitor ( RC ) network connected across them to
produce the feedback tank circuit. Multivibrators have two different electrical states, an
output “HIGH” state and an output “LOW” state giving them either a stable or quasi-stable
state depending upon the type of multivibrator. One such type of a two state pulse
generator configuration are called Monostable Multivibrators.

Monostable Multivibrators have only ONE stable state (hence their name: “Mono”), and
produce a single output pulse when it is triggered externally. Monostable Multivibrators
only return back to their first original and stable state after a period of time determined by
the time constant of the RC coupled circuit. Consider the MOSFET circuit on the left. The
resistor R and capacitor C form an RC timing circuit. The N-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET is switched “ON” due to the voltage across the capacitor with the drain
connected LED also “ON”. When the switch is closed the capacitor is short circuited and
therefore discharges while at the same time the gate of the MOSFET is shorted to
ground. The MOSFET and therefore the LED are both switched “OFF”. While the switch is
closed the circuit will always be “OFF” and in its “unstable state”.

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When the switch is opened, the fully discharged capacitor starts to charge up through the
resistor, R at a rate determined by the RC time constant of the resistor-capacitor network.
Once the capacitors charging voltage reaches the lower threshold voltage level of the
MOSFETs gate, the MOSFET switches “ON” and illuminates the LED returning the circuit
back to its stable state. Then the application of the switch causes the circuit to enter its
unstable state, while the time constant of the RC network returns it back to its stable state
after a preset timing period thereby producing a very simple “one-shot” or Monostable
Multivibrator MOSFET circuit.

Monostable Multivibrators or “One-Shot Multivibrators” as they are also called, are used to
generate a single output pulse of a specified width, either “HIGH” or “LOW” when a
suitable external trigger signal or pulse T is applied. This trigger signal initiates a timing
cycle which causes the output of the monostable to change its state at the start of the
timing cycle and will remain in this second state.

The timing cycle of the monostable is determined by the time constant of the timing
capacitor, CT and the resistor, RT until it resets or returns itself back to its original (stable)
state. The monostable multivibrator will then remain in this original stable state indefinitely
until another input pulse or trigger signal is received. Then, Monostable Multivibrators
have only ONE stable state and go through a full cycle in response to a single triggering
input pulse.

Monostable Multivibrator Circuit

The basic collector-coupled transistor Monostable Multivibrator circuit and its associated
waveforms are shown above. When power is firstly applied, the base of transistor TR2 is
connected to Vcc via the biasing resistor, RTthereby turning the transistor “fully-ON” and
into saturation and at the same time turning TR1 “OFF” in the process. This then
represents the circuits “Stable State” with zero output. The current flowing into the
saturated base terminal of TR2 will therefore be equal to Ib = (Vcc – 0.7)/RT.

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If a negative trigger pulse is now applied at the input, the fast decaying edge of the pulse
will pass straight through capacitor, C1 to the base of transistor, TR1 via the blocking
diode turning it “ON”. The collector of TR1 which was previously at Vcc drops quickly to
below zero volts effectively giving capacitor CT a reverse charge of -0.7v across its
plates. This action results in transistor TR2 now having a minus base voltage at point X
holding the transistor fully “OFF”. This then represents the circuits second state, the
“Unstable State” with an output voltage equal to Vcc.

Timing capacitor, CT begins to discharge this -0.7v through the timing resistor RT,
attempting to charge up to the supply voltage Vcc. This negative voltage at the base of
transistor TR2 begins to decrease gradually at a rate determined by the time constant of
the RT CT combination. As the base voltage

of TR2 increases back up to Vcc, the transistor begins to conduct and doing so turns
“OFF” again transistor TR1 which results in the monostable multivibrator automatically
returning back to its original stable state awaiting a second negative trigger pulse to
restart the process once again.

Monostable Multivibrators can produce a very short pulse or a much longer rectangular
shaped waveform whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied trigger
pulse and whose trailing

edge is dependent upon the RC time constant of the feedback components used. This RC
time constant may be varied with time to produce a series of pulses which have a
controlled fixed time delay in relation to the original trigger pulse as shown below.

Monostable Multivibrator Waveforms

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The time constant of Monostable Multivibrators can be changed by varying the values of
the capacitor, CT the resistor, RT or both. Monostable multivibrators are generally used to
increase the width of a pulse or to produce a time delay within a circuit as the frequency
of the output signal is always the same as that for the trigger pulse input, the only
difference is the pulse width.

TTL/CMOS Monostable Multivibrators

As well as producing Monostable Multivibrators from individual discrete components such

as transistors, we can also construct monostable circuits using commonly available
integrated circuits. The following circuit shows how a basic monostable multivibrator
circuit can be constructed using just two 2-input Logic “NOR” Gates.

NOR Gate Monostable

Suppose initially that the trigger input is LOW at a logic level “0” so that the output from
the first NOR gate U1 is HIGH at logic level “1”, (NOR gate principals). The resistor, RT is
connected to the When a positive trigger pulse is applied to the input at time t0, the output
of the first NOR gate U1 goes LOW taking with it the left hand plate of capacitor CT
thereby discharging the capacitor. As both plates of the capacitor are now at logic level
“0”, so too is the input to the second NORgate, U2 resulting in an output equal to logic
level “1”. This then represents the circuits second state, the “Unstable State” with an
output voltage equal to +Vcc.

The second NOR gate, U2 will maintain this second unstable state until the timing
capacitor now charging up through resistor, RT reaches the minimum input threshold
voltage of U2 (approx. 2.0V) causing it to change state as a logic level “1” value has now
appeared on its inputs. This causes the output to be reset to logic “0” which in turn is fed
back (feedback loop) to one input of U2. This action automatically returns the monostable
back to its original stable state and awaiting a second trigger pulse to restart the timing
process once again.

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NOR Gate Monostable Waveforms

This then gives us an equation for the time period of the circuit as:

Where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.

We can also make monostable pulse generators using special IC’s and there are already
integrated circuits dedicated to this such as the 74LS121 standard one shot monostable
multivibrator or the 74LS123 or the 4538B re-triggerable monostable multivibrator which
can produce output pulse widths from as low as 40 nanoseconds up to 28 seconds by
using only two external RC timing components with the pulse width given as: T = 0.69RC
in seconds.

74LS121 Monostable Generator

This monostable pulse generator IC can be configured to produce an output pulse on

either a rising-edge trigger pulse or a falling-edge trigger pulse. The 74LS121 can
produce pulse widths from about 10ns to about 10ms width a maximum timing resistor of
40kΩ and a maximum timing capacitor of 1000uF.

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Bistable Multivibrator

Bistable Multivibrators operate in a similar fashion to flip-flops producing one of two stable
outputs which are the complement of each other. The Bistable Multivibrator is another
type of two state device similar to the Monostable Multivibrator we looked at in the
previous tutorial but the difference this time is that BOTH states are stable.

Bistable Multivibrators have TWO stable states (hence the name: “Bi” meaning two) and
maintain a given output state indefinitely unless an external trigger is applied forcing it to
change state.

The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from one stable state to the other by the
application of an external trigger pulse thus, it requires two external trigger pulses before
it returns back to its original state. As bistable multivibrators have two stable states they
are more commonly known as Latches and Flip-flops for use in sequential type circuits.

The discrete Bistable Multivibrator is a two state non-regenerative device constructed

from two cross-coupled transistors operating as “ON-OFF” transistor switches. In each of
the two states, one of the transistors is cut-off while the other transistor is in saturation,
this means that the bistable circuit is capable of remaining indefinitely in either stable
state.

To change the bistable over from one state to the other, the bistable circuit requires a
suitable trigger pulse and to go through a full cycle, two triggering pulses, one for each
stage are required. Its more common name or term of “flip-flop” relates to the actual
operation of the device, as it “flips” into one logic state, remains there and then changes
or “flops” back into its first original state. Consider the circuit below.

Bistable Multivibrator Circuit

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The Bistable Multivibrator circuit above is stable in both states, either with one transistor
“OFF” and the other “ON” or with the first transistor “ON” and the second “OFF”. Let us
suppose that the switch is in the left position, position “A”. The base of transistor TR1 will
be grounded and in its cut-off region producing an output at Q. That would mean that
transistor TR2 is “ON” as its base is connected to Vcc through the series combination of
resistors R1 and R2. As transistor TR2 is “ON” there will be zero output at Ǭ, the opposite
or inverse of Q.

If the switch is now move to the right, position “B”, transistor TR2 will switch “OFF” and
transistor TR1 will switch “ON” through the combination of resistors R3 and R4 resulting in
an output at Ǭ and zero output at Q the reverse of above. Then we can say that one
stable state exists when transistor TR1 is “ON” and TR2 is “OFF”, switch position “A”, and
another stable state exists when transistor TR1 is “OFF” and TR2 is “ON”, switch position
“B”.

Then unlike the monostable multivibrator whose output is dependent upon the RC time
constant of the feedback components used, the bistable multivibrators output is
dependent upon the application of two individual trigger pulses, switch position “A” or
position “B”.

So Bistable Multivibrators can produce a very short output pulse or a much longer
rectangular shaped output whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied
trigger pulse and whose trailing edge is dependent upon a second trigger pulse as shown
below.

Bistable Multivibrator Waveform

Manually switching between the two stable states may produce a bistable multivibrator
circuit but is not very practical. One way of toggling between the two states using just one
single trigger pulse is shown below.

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Sequential Switching Bistable Multivibrator

Switching between the two states is achieved by applying a single trigger pulse which in
turn will cause the “ON” transistor to turn “OFF” and the “OFF” transistor to turn “ON” on
the negative half of the trigger pulse. The circuit will switch sequentially by applying a
pulse to each base in turn and this is achieved from a single input trigger pulse using a
biased diodes as a steering circuit.

Then on the application of a first negative pulse switches the state of each transistor and
the application of a second pulse negative pulse resets the transistors back to their
original state acting as a divide-by-two counter. Equally, we could remove the diodes,
capacitors and feedback resistors and apply individual negative trigger pulses directly to
the transistor bases.

Bistable Multivibrators have many applications producing a set-reset, SR flip-flop circuit

for use in counting circuits, or as a one-bit memory storage device in a computer. Other
applications of bistable flip-flops include frequency dividers because the output pulses
have a frequency that are exactly one half ( ƒ/2 ) that of the trigger input pulse frequency
due to them changing state from a single input pulse. In other words the circuit produces
Frequency Division as it now divides the input frequency by a factor of two (an octave).

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TTL/CMOS Bistable Multivibrators

As well as producing a bistable multivibrator from individual discrete components such as

transistors, we can also construct bistable circuits using commonly available integrated
circuits. The following circuit shows how a basic bistable multivibrator circuit can be
constructed using just two 2-input Logic “NAND” Gates.

NAND Gate Bistable Multivibrator

The circuit above shows us how we can use two NAND gates connected together to form
a basic bistable multivibrator. This type of bistable circuit is also known as a “Bistable Flip-
flop”. The manually controlled bistable multivibrator is activated by the single-pole double-
throw switch (SPDT) to produce a logic “1” or a logic “0” signal at the output.

You may have noticed that this circuit looks a little familiar, and you would be right!. This
type of bistable switching circuit is more commonly called a SR NAND Gate Flip-flop
being almost identical to the one we looked at back in the sequential logic tutorials. In that
particular tutorial we saw that this type of NAND gate bistable makes an excellent “switch
debounce” circuit allowing only one switching action to control its output.

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Astable Multivibrator

Astable Multivibrators are free running oscillators which oscillate between two states
continually producing two square wave output waveforms. Regenerative switching circuits
such as Astable Multivibrators are the most commonly used type of relaxation oscillator
because not only are they simple, reliable and ease of construction they also produce a
constant square wave output waveform.

Unlike the Monostable Multivibrator or the Bistable Multivibrator we looked at in the

previous tutorials that require an “external” trigger pulse for their operation, the Astable
Multivibrator has automatic built in triggering which switches it continuously between its
two unstable states both set and reset.

The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching circuit that
has NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all the time. The
astable circuit consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network,
and two time delay capacitors which allows oscillation between the two states with no
external triggering to produce the change in state.

In electronic circuits, astable multivibrators are also known as Free-running Multivibrator

as they do not require any additional inputs or external assistance to oscillate. Astable
oscillators produce a continuous square wave from its output or outputs, (two outputs no
inputs) which can then be used to flash lights or produce a sound in a loudspeaker.

The basic transistor circuit for an Astable Multivibrator produces a square wave output
from a pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors either NPN or
PNP, in the multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are operated as Common
Emitter Amplifiers with 100% positive feedback.

This configuration satisfies the condition for oscillation when: ( βA = 1∠ 0o ). This results
in one stage conducting “fully-ON” (Saturation) while the other is switched “fully-OFF”
(cut-off) giving a very high level of mutual amplification between the two transistors.
Conduction is transferred from one stage to the other by the discharging action of a
capacitor through a resistor as shown below.

Basic Astable Multivibrator Circuit

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Assume that transistor, TR1 has just switched “OFF” (cut-off) and its collector voltage is
rising towards Vcc, meanwhile transistor TR2 has just turned “ON”. Plate “A” of capacitor
C1 is also rising towards the +6 volts supply rail of Vccas it is connected to the collector of
TR1 which is now cut-off. Since TR1 is in cut-off, it conducts no current so there is no volt
drop across load resistor R1.

The other side of capacitor, C1, plate “B”, is connected to the base terminal of transistor
TR2 and at 0.6v because transistor TR2 is conducting (saturation). Therefore, capacitor
C1 has a potential difference of +5.4 volts across its plates, (6.0 – 0.6v) from point A to
point B.

Since TR2 is fully-on, capacitor C2 starts to charge up through resistor R2towards Vcc.
When the voltage across capacitor C2 rises to more than 0.6v, it biases transistor TR1
into conduction and into saturation.

The instant that transistor, TR1 switches “ON”, plate “A” of the capacitor which was
originally at Vcc potential, immediately falls to 0.6 volts. This rapid fall of voltage on plate
“A” causes an equal and instantaneous fall in voltage on plate “B” therefore plate “B” of
C1 is pulled down to -5.4v (a reverse charge) and this negative voltage swing is applied
the base of TR2 turning it hard “OFF”. One unstable state.

Transistor TR2 is driven into cut-off so capacitor C1 now begins to charge in the opposite
direction via resistor R3 which is also connected to the +6 volts supply rail, Vcc. Thus the
base of transistor TR2 is now moving upwards in a positive direction towards Vcc with a
time constant equal to the C1 x R3combination.

However, it never reaches the value of Vcc because as soon as it gets to 0.6 volts
positive, transistor TR2 turns fully “ON” into saturation. This action starts the whole
process over again but now with capacitor C2 taking the base of transistor TR1 to -5.4v
while charging up via resistor R2 and entering the second unstable state.

Then we can see that the circuit alternates between one unstable state in which transistor
TR1 is “OFF” and transistor TR2 is “ON”, and a second unstable in which TR1 is “ON” and
TR2 is “OFF” at a rate determined by the RC values. This process will repeat itself over
and over again as long as the supply voltage is present.

The amplitude of the output waveform is approximately the same as the supply voltage,
Vcc with the time period of each switching state determined by the time constant of the
RC networks connected across the base terminals of the transistors. As the transistors
are switching both “ON” and “OFF”, the output at either collector will be a square wave
with slightly rounded corners because of the current which charges the capacitors. This
could be corrected by using more components as we will discuss later.

If the two time constants produced by C2 x R2 and C1 x R3 in the base circuits are the
same, the mark-to-space ratio ( t1/t2 ) will be equal to one-to-one making the output
waveform symmetrical in shape. By varying the capacitors, C1, C2 or the resistors, R2,
R3 the mark-to-space ratio and therefore the frequency can be altered.

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We saw in the RC Discharging tutorial that the time taken for the voltage across a
capacitor to fall to half the supply voltage, 0.5Vcc is equal to 0.69 time constants of the
capacitor and resistor combination. Then taking one side of the astable multivibrator, the
length of time that transistor TR2 is “OFF” will be equal to 0.69T or 0.69 times the time
constant of C1 x R3. Likewise, the length of time that transistor TR1 is “OFF” will be equal
to 0.69T or 0.69 times the time constant of C2 x R2 and this is defined as.

Astable Multivibrators Periodic Time

Where, R is in Ω’s and C in Farads.

By altering the time constant of just one RC network the mark-to-space ratio and
frequency of the output waveform can be changed but normally by changing both RC time
constants together at the same time, the output frequency will be altered keeping the
mark-to-space ratios the same at one-to-one.

If the value of the capacitor C1 equals the value of the capacitor, C2, C1 = C2 and also
the value of the base resistor R2 equals the value of the base resistor, R3, R2 = R3 then
the total length of time of the Multivibrators cycle is given below for a symmetrical output
waveform.

Frequency of Oscillation

Where, R is in Ω’s, C is in Farads, T is in seconds and ƒ is in Hertz, and this is known as

the “Pulse Repetition Frequency”. So, Astable Multivibrators can produce TWO very short
square wave output waveforms from each transistor or a much longer rectangular shaped
output either symmetrical or non-symmetrical depending upon the time constant of the RC
network as shown below.

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Astable Multivibrator Waveforms

Astable Multivibrators Driving Circuit

An output with a square leading edge is now produced from the third transistor, TR3
connected to the emitter of transistor, TR2. This third transistor switches “ON” and “OFF”
in unison with transistor TR2. We can use this additional transistor to switch Light Emitting
Diodes, Relays or to produce a sound from a Sound Transducer such as a speaker or
piezo sounder as shown above.

The load resistor, Rx needs to be suitably chosen to take into account the forward volt
drops and to limit the maximum current to about 20mA for the LED circuit or to give a total
load impedance of about 100Ω for the speaker circuit. The speaker can have any
impedance less than 100Ω.

By connecting an additional transistor, TR4 to the emitter circuit of the other transistor,
TR1 in a similar fashion we can produce an astable multivibrator circuit that will flash two
sets of lights or LED’s from one to the other at a rate determined by the time constant of
the RC timing network.

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PRACTICAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER, CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

Operational Amplifier Basics

Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties required for
nearly ideal DC amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal
conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations such as add, subtract,
integration and differentiation.

An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally a voltage

amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback components such
as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals. These
feedback components determine the resulting function or “operation” of the
amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations whether resistive,
capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different operations,
giving rise to its name of “Operational Amplifier”.

An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two

high impedance inputs. One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked with
a negative or “minus” sign, (–). The other input is called the Non-inverting Input,
marked with a positive or “plus” sign (+).

A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both
sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear operational amplifier, the
output signal is the amplification factor, known as the amplifiers gain (A) multiplied
by the value of the input signal and depending on the nature of these input and
output signals, there can be four different classifications of operational amplifier
gain.

 Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”

 Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
 Trans-conductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
 Trans-resistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”

Since most of the circuits dealing with operational amplifiers are voltage amplifiers,
we will limit the tutorials in this section to voltage amplifiers only, (Vin and Vout).
The output voltage signal from an Operational Amplifier is the difference between
the signals being applied to its two individual inputs. In other words, an op-amps
output signal is the difference between the two input signals as the input stage of
an Operational Amplifier is in fact a differential amplifier as shown below.

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Differential Amplifier

The circuit below shows a generalized form of a differential amplifier with two
inputs marked V1 and V2. The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both
biased at the same operating point with their emitters connected together and
returned to the common rail, -Vee by way of resistor Re.

Differential Amplifier

The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -Vee which ensures a constant
supply. The voltage that appears at the output, Vout of the amplifier is the
difference between the two input signals as the two base inputs are in anti-phase
with each other.

So as the forward bias of transistor, TR1 is increased, the forward bias of

transistor TR2 is reduced and vice versa. Then if the two transistors are perfectly
matched, the current flowing through the common emitter resistor, Re will remain
constant.

Like the input signal, the output signal is also balanced and since the collector
voltages either swing in opposite directions (anti-phase) or in the same direction
(in-phase) the output voltage signal, taken from between the two collectors is,
assuming a perfectly balanced circuit, the zero difference between the two
collector voltages.

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This is known as the Common Mode of Operation with the common mode gain of
the amplifier being the output gain when the input is zero. Operational Amplifiers
also have one output (although there are ones with an additional differential
output) of low impedance that is referenced to a common ground terminal and it
should ignore any common mode signals that is, if an identical signal is applied to
both the inverting and non-inverting inputs there should no change to the output.

However, in real amplifiers there is always some variation and the ratio of
the change to the output voltage with regards to the change in the common
mode input voltage is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR for
short.

Operational Amplifiers on their own have a very high open loop DC gain and by
applying some form of Negative Feedback we can produce an operational
amplifier circuit that has a very precise gain characteristic that is dependant only
on the feedback used. Note that the term “open loop” means that there are no
feedback components used around the amplifier so the feedback path or loop is
open.

An operational amplifier only responds to the difference between the voltages on

its two input terminals, known commonly as the “Differential Input Voltage” and not
to their common potential. Then if the same voltage potential is applied to both
terminals the resultant output will be zero. An Operational Amplifiers gain is
commonly known as the Open Loop Differential Gain, and is given the symbol
(Ao).

Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Operational Amplifier

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Op-Amp Parameter and Idealised Characteristic

Open Loop Gain, (Ao)

Infinite – The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify the input signal
and the more open loop gain it has, the better. Open-loop gain is the gain of the
op-amp without positive or negative feedback and for such an amplifier the gain
will be infinite but typical real values range from about 20,000 to 200,000.

Input Impedance, (ZIN)

Infinite – Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and is
assumed to be infinite to prevent any current flowing from the source supply into
the amplifiers input circuitry ( IIN = 0 ). Real op-amps have input leakage currents
from a few pico-amps to a few milli-amps.

Output Impedance, (ZOUT)

Zero – The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be

zero acting as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that
it can supply as much current as necessary to the load. This internal resistance is
effectively in series with the load thereby reducing the output voltage available to
the load. Real op-amps have output impedances in the 100-20kΩ range.

Bandwidth, (BW)

Infinite – An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can
amplify any frequency signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is
therefore assumed to have an infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the
bandwidth is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal to the
frequency where the amplifiers gain becomes unity.

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Offset Voltage, (VIO)

Zero – The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference between the
inverting and the non-inverting inputs is zero, the same or when both inputs are
grounded. Real op-amps have some amount of output offset voltage.

From these “idealized” characteristics above, we can see that the input resistance
is infinite, so no current flows into either input terminal (the “current rule”) and that
the differential input offset voltage is zero (the “voltage rule”). It is important to
remember these two properties as they will help us understand the workings of the
Operational Amplifier with regards to the analysis and design of op-amp circuits.

However, real Operational Amplifiers such as the commonly available uA741, for
example do not have infinite gain or bandwidth but have a typical “Open Loop
Gain” which is defined as the amplifiers output amplification without any external
feedback signals connected to it and for a typical operational amplifier is about
100dB at DC (zero Hz). This output gain decreases linearly with frequency down
to “Unity Gain” or 1, at about 1MHz and this is shown in the following open loop
gain response curve.

Open-loop Frequency Response Curve

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From this frequency response curve we can see that the product of the gain
against frequency is constant at any point along the curve. Also that the unity gain
(0dB) frequency also determines the gain of the amplifier at any point along the
curve. This constant is generally known as the Gain Bandwidth Product or GBP.

Therefore:

GBP = Gain x Bandwidth = A x BW

For example, from the graph above the gain of the amplifier at 100kHz is given as
20dB or 10, then the gain bandwidth product is calculated as:

GBP = A x BW = 10 x 100,000Hz = 1,000,000.

Similarly, the operational amplifiers gain at 1kHz = 60dB or 1000, therefore the
GBP is given as:

GBP = A x BW = 1,000 x 1,000Hz = 1,000,000.

The Voltage Gain (AV) of the operational amplifier can be found using the
following formula:

and, in Decibels or (dB) is given as:

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An Operational Amplifiers Bandwidth

The operational amplifiers bandwidth is the frequency range over which the
voltage gain of the amplifier is above 70.7% or -3dB (where 0dB is the maximum)
of its maximum output value as shown below.

Here we have used the 40dB line as an example. The -3dB or 70.7% of Vmax
down point from the frequency response curve is given as 37dB. Taking a line
across until it intersects with the main GBP curve gives us a frequency point just
above the 10kHz line at about 12 to 15kHz. We can now calculate this more
accurately as we already know the GBP of the amplifier, in this particular case
1MHz.

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Operational Amplifiers Summary

We know now that an Operational amplifiers is a very high gain DC differential

amplifier that uses one or more external feedback networks to control its response
and characteristics. We can connect external resistors or capacitors to the op-amp
in a number of different ways to form basic “building Block” circuits such as,
Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and
Differentiator type amplifiers.

An “ideal” or perfect operational amplifier is a device with certain special

characteristics such as infinite open-loop gain AO, infinite input resistance RIN,
zero output resistance ROUT, infinite bandwidth 0 to ∞and zero offset (the output
is exactly zero when the input is zero).

Operational Amplifier symbol

There are a very large number of operational amplifier IC’s available to suit every
possible application from standard bi-polar, precision, high speed, low noise, high
voltage, etc., in either standard configuration or with internal Junction FET
transistors.

Operational amplifiers are available in IC packages of either single, dual or quad

op-amps within one single device. The most commonly available and used of all
operational amplifiers in basic electronic kits and projects is the industry standard
μA-741.

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Operational Amplifier Building Blocks

Operational Amplifiers are used to amplify signals from DC to tens of megahertz

and can do so in a variety of different op-amp configurations. We have seen that
we can connect resistors to a basic operational amplifier to produce various
inverting and non-inverting outputs and configurations along with their respective
gains.

The Voltage Follower

The Voltage Follower, also called a buffer dose not amplify or invert the input
signal but instead provides isolation between two circuits. The input impedance is
very high while the output impedance is low avoiding any loading effects within the
circuit. As the output is connected back directly to one of the inputs, the overall
gain of the buffer is +1 and Vout = Vin.

The Voltage Follower Op-amp Circuit

The Op-amp Inverter

The Inverter, also called an inverting buffer is the opposite to that of the previous
voltage follower. The inverter does not amplify if both resistances are equal but
does invert the input signal. The input impedance is equal to Rand the gain is -1
giving Vout = -Vin.

The Op-amp Inverter Circuit

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The Non-Inverting Amplifier

The Non-inverting Amplifier does not invert the input signal or produce an inverting
signal but instead amplifies it by the ratio of: (RA + RB)/RB or commonly
1+(RA/RB). The input signal is connected to the non-inverting (+) input.

The Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

The Inverting Amplifier

The Inverting Amplifier both inverts and amplifies the input signal by the ratio of -
RA/RB. The gain of the amplifier is controlled by negative feedback using the
feedback resistor RA and the input signal is fed to the inverting (–) input.

The Inverting Op-amp Circuit

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The Bridge Amplifier

The inverting and non-inverting amplifier circuits from above can be connected
together to form a bridge amplifier configuration. The input signal is common to
both op-amps with the output voltage signal taken across the load resistor, RL
which floats between the two outputs. If the magnitudes of the two op-amp gains,
A1 and A2 are equal to each other, then the output signal will be doubled as it is
effectively the combination of the two individual amplifier gains.

The Bridge Op-amp Circuit

The Voltage Adder

The Adder, also called a summing amplifier, produces an inverted output voltage
which is proportional to the sum of the input voltages V1 and V2. More inputs can
be summed. If the input resistors are equal in value (R1 = R2 = R) then the
summed output voltage is as given and the gain is +1. If the input resistors are
unequal then the output voltage is a weighted sum and becomes:

Vout = -(V1(RA/R1) + V2(RA/R2) + etc.)

The Voltage Adder Op-amp Circuit

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The Voltage Subtractor

The Subtractor also called a differential amplifier, uses both the inverting and non-
inverting inputs to produce an output signal which is the difference between the
two input voltages V1 and V2 allowing one signal to be subtracted from another.
More inputs can be added to be subtracted if required.

If resistances are equal (R = R3 and RA = R4) then the output voltage is as given
and the voltage gain is +1. If the input resistance are unequal the circuit becomes
a differential amplifier producing a negative output when V1 is higher than V2 and
a positive output when V1 is lower than V2.

The Voltage Subtractor Op-amp Circuit

The Op-Amp Comparator

The Comparator has many uses but the most common is to compare the input
voltage to a reference voltage and switch the output if the input voltage is above
the reference voltage. If the input goes more positive than the reference voltage
set by the voltage divider, Vin > Vref, the output changes state.

When the input voltage drops below the preset reference voltage and Vin < Vref,
the output switches back. By using positive feedback the basic comparator circuit
can easily be converted into a Schmitt Trigger to reduce oscillations around the
switching point.

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The Comparator Op-amp Circuit

Here are just some of the more common and basic operational amplifier building
block configurations discussed in this section that we can use in electronic circuits.
All the above circuits can be constructed using a variety of different op-amps
including the famous 741 op-amp. I hope that this short tutorial about basic op-
amp building blocks will help you to understand the different basic op-amp circuit
configurations.

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Operational-Amp Half-Wave Rectifier using an IC.

Fig. 9 shows the half-wave rectifier using anOp-Amp. The use of Op-Amp greatly
reduces the effect of diode offset voltage and allows the circuit to be used in the
millivolt region.

Figure 9

When the input signal goes positive, the output of Op-Amp goes positive and turns
on the diode. The circuit then acts like a voltage follower and the positive half-
cycle appears across the load resistor RL. On the other hand, when the input goes
negative, the Op-Amp output goes negative and turns off the diode. Since the
diode is open, no voltage appears across the load resistor R L. Therefore, the
voltage across RL is almost a perfect half-wave signal.

Logarithmic Amplifier using an IC.

Alogarithmic amplifier produces an out-put voltage that is proportional to the

logarithm of the input voltage. If you place a diode in the feedback loop of an Op-
Amp as shown in Fig. 10, you have a log amplifier. The output is limited to a
maximum value of about 0.7V because the diodes logarithmic characteristic is
limited to voltages below 0.7V.

Vout

Figure 10

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Also, the input must be positive, when the diode is connected in the direction
shown in Fig. 10. To handle negative inputs, you should reverse the direction of
the diode.

Constant-current source (Op-Amplifier) using an IC.

A constant current source delivers a load currentILthat remains constant when the
load resistance RL changes. Fig. 11 shows the basic circuit of a constant current
source. Since the inverting (–ve) input of the Op-Amp is at virtual ground (0V), the
value of Ii is determined by Vin and Ri i.e.

The internal impedance of Op-Amp is extremely high (ideally infinite).

Figure 11

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COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (C.M.R.R.)

An instrumentation amplifier is typically the first stage in an instrumentation

system. It is used to amplify the signal produced by a transducer such as a
thermocouple or a strain gauge. An instrumentation amplifier is a difference
amplifier i.e., it amplifies the voltage difference between its two input terminals,
neither of which is required to be a signal ground. An instrumentation amplifier
should have the following characteristics: high input resistance, high voltage gain,
and high common-mode-rejection-ratio (CMRR).

Common-Mode signals and CMRR

A common-mode signal is a signal that is common to both input terminals of an

amplifier. In an instrumentation system, the wires leading from the transducer to
the amplifier can pick up common mode interference. The common-mode signal
can be of the order of a few volts, while the difference signal to be amplified can
be much smaller e.g., in the millivolt range. Instrumentation amplifiers must be
able to amplify the desirable difference signal (denoted vd) and reject the
undesirable common-mode signal (denoted vcm). The CMRR is a figure of merit of
an amplifier that specifies how good it is at rejecting common mode signals. Let A d
be the differential voltage gain of the amplifier and Acm be the common-mode
voltage gain. The CMRR is defined as follows: CMRR = | Ad | / |Acm|.

As differential gain should exceed common-mode gain, this will be a positive

number, and the higher the better.

The CMRR is a very important specification, as it indicates how much of the

common-mode signal will appear in your measurement. The value of the CMRR
often depends on signal frequency as well, and must be specified as a function
thereof.

It is often important in reducing noise on transmission lines. For example, when

measuring the resistance of a thermocouple in a noisy environment, the noise
from the environment appears as an offset on both input leads, making it a
common-mode voltage signal. The CMRR of the measurement instrument
determines the attenuation applied to the offset or noise.

Common mode and Difference mode signals

Figure 1

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Instrumentation Amplifier

An Instrumentation (or Instrumentational) Amplifier is a type of differential

amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the
need for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly
suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics
include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high
common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation
amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and
long-term are required.

Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a

standard operational amplifier (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation amp is
almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps. These are arranged so that
there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+,−), and one to produce the desired
output with adequate impedance matching for the function.

The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure.
The gain of the circuit is:

Vout
------------------- = ( 1 + 2R1/Rgain ) * R3/R2
V2 – V1

Typical Instrumentation Amplifier Schematics

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The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled R2 and R3 is just the
standard differential amplifier circuit, with gain = R3/R2 and differential input
resistance = 2•R2. The two amplifiers on the left are the buffers. With Rgain
removed (open circuited), they are simple unity gain buffers; the circuit will work in
that state, with gain simply equal to R3/R2 and high input impedance because of
the buffers. The buffer gain could be increased by putting resistors between the
buffer inverting inputs and ground to shunt away some of the negative feedback;
however, the single resistor Rgain between the two inverting inputs is a much
more elegant method: it increases the differential-mode gain of the buffer pair
while leaving the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and also enables the buffers to handle
much larger common-mode signals without clipping, than would be the case if they
were separate and had the same gain. Another benefit of the method is that it
boosts the gain using a single resistor rather than a pair, thus avoiding a resistor-
matching problem, and very conveniently allowing the gain of the circuit to be
changed by changing the value of a single resistor. A set of switch-selectable
resistors or even a potentiometer can be used for Rgain , providing easy changes
to the gain of the circuit, without the complexity of having to switch matched pairs
of resistors.

The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit

shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatch in the resistor ratios R2/R3
and by the mismatch in common mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining
very closely matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits,
as is optimizing the common mode performance. An instrumentation amp can also
be built with two op-amps to save on cost, but the gain must be higher than two
(+6 dB).

Instrumentation amplifiers can be built with individual op-amps and precision

resistors, but are also available in integrated circuit form from several
manufacturers (including Texas Instruments, Analog Devices, Linear Technology
and Maxim Integrated Products). An IC instrumentation amplifier typically contains
closely matched laser-trimmed resistors, and therefore offers excellent common-
mode rejection. Examples include AD8221, MAX4194, LT1167 and INA128.

Instrumentation Amplifiers can also be designed using "Indirect Current-feedback

Architecture", which extend the operating range of these amplifiers to the negative
power supply rail, and in some cases the positive power supply rail. This can be
particularly useful in single-supply systems, where the negative power rail is
simply the circuit ground (GND). Examples of parts utilizing this architecture are
MAX4208/MAX4209 and AD8129/AD8130.

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Feedback-Free Instrumentation Amplifier is the high input impedance

differential amplifier designed without the external feedback network. This allows
reduction in the number of amplifiers (one instead of three), reduced noise (no
thermal noise is brought on by the feedback resistors) and increased bandwidth
(no frequency compensation is needed). Chopper stabilized (or zero drift)
instrumentation amplifiers such as the LTC2053 use a switching input front end to
eliminate DC offset errors and drift.

Current Loop

The 4 to 20mA current loop is a very robust sensor signalling standard. Current
loops are ideal for data transmission. All the signalling current flows through all
components; the same current flows even if the wire terminations are less than
perfect. All the components in the loop drop voltage due to the signalling current
flowing through them. The signalling current is not affected as long as the power
supply voltage is greater than the sum of the voltage drops around the loop at the
maximum signalling current of 20mA.

Figure 1 shows a schematic of the simplest 4- 20mA current loop. There are four
components:

1. A DC power supply;
2. A 2-wire transmitter;
3. A receiver resistor that converts the current signal to a voltage;
4. The wire that interconnects it all. Two R wires exist since you have a wire out
to the sensors and another back.

Current supplied from the power supply flows through the wire to the transmitter.
The transmitter regulates the current flow. The transmitter only allows a current
proportional to the measured parameter to flow, called the loop current. The
current flows back to the controller through the wire.

The current flowing through the Receiver produces a voltage that is easily
measured by an analogue input. For a 250Ω resistor the voltage will be 1 VDC at
4 mA and 5 VDC at 20mA.

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Current Loop Components

Power Supply
Power supplies for 2-wire transmitters must always be DC. Since changing current
flow represents the parameter being measured, AC cannot be used. If AC were
used, the current would be changing all the time and the signal representing the
measured parameter could not be distinguished from that caused by the AC
power.

Common power supply voltages are 36 VDC, 24 VDC, 15 VDC and 12 VDC.

Power supplies for 3- wire transmitters can be either AC or DC. The most common
AC voltage supply is the 24 VAC control transformer.

Figure 1: Basic Current Loop Schematic

Transmitter
The transmitter is the heart of the 4-20mA signalling system. It changes a physical
property such as temperature, humidity or pressure into an electrical signal. The
signal is a current proportional to the physical property being measured. 4mA
represents the low end of the measurement range and 20mA represents the high
end.

The transmitter consumes 7 to 15 VDC of loop voltage, depending on model, to

power itself. The power to current transmitters is in a range of 15 to 24 VDC or 7
to 40 VDC. The lower voltage is the minimum voltage necessary to guarantee
proper transmitter operation. The higher voltage is the maximum voltage the
transmitter can withstand and operate to its stated specifications.

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Receiver Resistor
It is much easier for to measure voltage than current. Running the loop current
through a resistor converts the current into a voltage. In Figure 1, Receiver is a
precision resistor that has well defined characteristics, the chief of which is
resistance. The most common resistance used is 250Ω. Depending upon
application resistances of 100Ω to 750Ω may be used.

Wire
Sending current through a wire produces voltage drops proportional to the wire
length. All wire has resistance, usually expressed in Ohms per 1000 feet. The
voltage drop can be calculated using Ohm’s law. In 1825 Georg Simon Ohm
discovered that the current through electrically conductive materials is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across the material. In 1827 when
Ohm published his findings the Experts of the day said that Ohm’s findings were a
“web of naked fancies.” Today, we know Ohm’s work as Ohm’s Law, the formula
states; current times resistance is voltage. The formula can be written as:

E=I*R
Where E is the voltage across the resistance in volts, I is the current flowing
through the conductor in amperes and R is the conductor’s resistance in Ohms.
(The Greek letter capital omega, Ω, commonly represents Ohms.)

Insensitivity to Electrical Noise

The greatest advantage is a current loop’s inherent insensitivity to electrical noise.
Every current transmitter has some output resistance associated with it. Ideally,
from elementary electronics theory, the current transmitters output resistance
should be infinite. Since real world transmitters are made from electronics parts
and not textbooks, they have very large but not infinite output.

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ELECTRONIC FAULT DIAGNOSIS ON BOARD SHIP

Electronic Test Equipment

Multimeter

A Multimeter can be used as an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter; by operating

a multi-position knob on the meter. They can measure DC as well as AC voltages.
There are also special functions in a multimeter like ‘Detecting a Short Circuit’,
testing transistors and some have additional features for measuring capacitance &
frequency.

There are two types of Multimeter:

a) Analogue Multimeter

Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their
pointer.

They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the
circuit under test and give an incorrect reading.

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b) Digital Multimeter

All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtually no
power from the circuit under test.

They have a digital display as shown.

 The DC voltage ranges have a very high resistance (usually called input
impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10 M, and they are very unlikely to
affect the circuit under test.
 There are three sockets of wire, the black lead is always connected into the
socket marked COM, short form for COMMON. The red lead is connected
into the socket labelled V, mA. The 10A socket is very rarely used.

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ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT AND TEST RESULT ON COMPONENTS AND

CIRCUITS

Measuring resistance with a Multimeter

 To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a

circuit. If you try to measure resistance of components in a circuit you will
obtain false readings (even if the supply is disconnected) and you may
damage the multimeter.
 The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are
treated separately.

Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL Multimeter

 Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance
to be.
 Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except for
a 1 on the left). Don't worry, this is not a fault, it is correct - the resistance of
air is very high!
 Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero. If it
doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and try
again.
 Put the probes across the component.
 Avoid touching more than one contact at a time or your resistance will upset
the reading!
 If the meter reads 1, this means that the resistance is more than the
maximum which can be measured on this range and you may need to
switch to a new position, 2000 k OHMS or so, to take a reading.
 Note: It is recommended purchasing a multimeter with a 'continuity' feature
built in. This mode allows us to 'tone' out circuits. In this mode, if you touch
the two probes together (or there is a short circuit), you should hear a tone
indicating that there is a direct connection between one probe and the other
(obviously - you have them touching!). This feature is used countless times
during trouble shooting.

Measuring Voltage with a Voltmeter

 Select a voltage range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading
to be. If the reading goes off the scale immediately disconnect and select a
higher range.
 Connect the red (positive +) lead to the point you where you need to
measure the voltage.

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 The black lead can be left permanently connected to 0V while you use the
red lead as a probe to measure voltages at various points. (The black lead
can be fitted by using a crocodile clip.)
 Similarly, you can measure the current by choosing a suitable range. If it
displays a ‘1’ at left, choose a higher current range.

Testing a diode with a DIGITAL Multimeter

 Digital Multimeter has a special setting for testing a diode, usually labelled
with the diode symbol.
 Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).

 Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way, so the
meter will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).

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Testing a transistor with a Multimeter

Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low

resistance range such as × 10 ohm as described above for testing a diode.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

 The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
 The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct
one-way only.
 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

NOTE: Conducting in one way simply means it will behave as a short circuit and
the diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

Some Multimeter have a 'transistor test' function; please refer to the instructions
supplied with the meter for details.

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Clamp Meter

Clamp meters are electrical testers featuring wide jaws that are able to clamp
around an electrical conductor. Originally designed as a single-purpose tool for
measuring AC current, clamp meters now include inputs for accepting test leads
and other probes that support a wide range of electrical measurements.
Indispensable as a test tool, the jaws of a clamp meter facilitate work in tight
spaces and permits current measurements on live conductors without circuit
interruption.

Though clamp meters are closely related to multimeters, they are not simply
multimeters with inductive jaws replacing test leads. Generally, multimeters can be
seen as voltage-measuring instruments with some current-measuring ability while
clamp meters are current-measuring instruments with some voltage-measuring
ability.

Clamp Meter Technology

Clamp meters rely on the principle of magnetic induction to make non-contact AC

current measurements. Electric current flowing through a wire produces a
magnetic field. Since alternating current frequently reverses polarity, it causes
dynamic fluctuations in the magnetic field which are proportional to the current
flow. A current transformer inside the clamp meter senses the magnetic
fluctuations and converts the value to an AC current reading. This type of
measurement is convenient for measuring very high AC currents.

Direct current, however, flows through conductors in a fixed polarity.

Consequently, the magnetic field around the conductor does not change and
conventional clamp meters will register no reading. DC clamp meters work on the
principle of the Hall Effect. Hall effect sensors sense the magnetic field caused by
current flow which causes a small voltage across the Hall effect sensor. That
voltage, which is proportional to current is then amplified and measured.

Clamp meters often include other sensors such as voltmeters, ohmmeters, etc.
which increase the versatility of the instrument. These other sensors use test
leads which plug into the clamp meter. As only current measurements can be
made with the clamp, other measurements do not benefit from the non-contact
nature of the clamp.

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Clamp Meter Measurements

Though the clamp is designed solely for current measurement, most clamp meters
accept input from test leads or other probes which greatly increases the types of
measurements of which they are capable and making the clamp meter a much
more versatile instrument.

 AC/DC current: Current, measured in amperes, is the flow of an electric

charge and is the most basic measurement of a clamp meter. Current can
be used to generate heat as well as magnetic fields, which are widely used
for motors, inductors, and generators. Most modern clamp meters can
measure both AC and DC current.

 AC/DC voltage: Voltage, measured in volts, is the difference in electrical

potential of a unit charge transported between two points, or more simply,
how much electrical energy is delivered if a certain number of electrons are
transmitted through a circuit. Voltage can represent either a source of
energy or energy used, stored, or lost.

 Resistance: Resistance, measured in ohms, is the opposition to passage

of an electrical current through a conductor. Resistance is determined by
the material and shape of the conductor.

 Continuity: Continuity is a quick "pass/fail" resistance test that

distinguishes between an open or closed circuit. Generally, a continuity test
emits a beep when a closed circuit is detected eliminating the need to look
at the meter as the test is performed.

 Capacitance: Capacitance, measured in farads, is the ability of an object to

store an electrical charge. Any object that can be electrically charged
exhibits capacitance.

 Frequency: Frequency, measured in hertz, refers to the rate at which

oscillations of alternating current occur in an electric power grid. Generally,
power systems in North America use a 60 Hz frequency.

 Power Factor: Power factor is an advanced measurement defined as the

ratio of real power flowing to the load, to apparent power in the circuit. In an
electrical system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a
load with a high-power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred.

 Temperature: Many clamp meters accept input from temperature probes or

thermocouples for contact temperature measurements.

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Clamp Meter

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Live-Line Testers

When equipment is to be inspected for maintenance, it is important that supplies

are switched OFF and locked OFF. The equipment must then be PROVED to be
dead to eliminate the danger of electric shock. A live-line (or voltage) tester is a
simple device that checks only whether or not a voltage exists at terminals.

Live-line testers, up to 500 V, are of various types. Some light up (e.g.

screwdriver type with a neon indicator), some make a warning sound, others (as
shown in Figure) operateLEDs to indicate the approximate value of voltage.

ltis important that voltage testers themselvesare PROVED to operate correctly

before use. Thiscan be conveniently carried out at the electrical workshop test
panel.

Homemade test lamps should not be used as they can be dangerous ifprotective
equipment, e.g. fuses and finger guards, is not fitted.

Testerswith either damaged casingorscratchedinsulationonthetestleadsshouldnev

erbeusedas theycan be dangerous topersonnel.

Great care is required with high voltage circuits, where a special HV test probe
must be used.

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Insulation Resistance Tester (Megohmmeter)

Megohmmeter is a special type of ohmmeter used to measure the electrical

resistance of insulators. Insulating components, for example cable jackets, must
be tested for their insulation strength at the time of commissioning and as part of
maintenance of high voltage electrical equipment and installations. For this
purpose, megohmmeters, which can provide high DC voltages (typically in ranges
from 500 V to 5 kV, some are up to 15 kV) at specified current capacity, are used.
Acceptable insulator resistance values are typically 1 to 10 megaohms, depending
on the standards referenced.

Resistance to be measured is connected across the terminals i.e. connected in

series with the deflecting coil and across the generator. When the current is
supplied to the coils then they have torque in opposite directions.

If resistance to be measured is high, no current will flow through the deflecting coil,
the controlling coil, will therefore, set itself perpendicular to the magnetic axis and
hence set the pointer to the infinity.

If the resistance to be measured is small, a high current flow through the deflecting
coil and the resulting torque sets the pointer to zero.

For intermediate value of resistance, depending upon the torque production, the
pointer is set at a point between zero and infinity.

The hand driven generator is of permanent magnet type and it is designed to

generate from 500 to 2500 volts

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FLUKE Electronic Insulation Tester

Insulation Resistance Test

This test is to measure the total resistance of a product’s insulation by applying a

voltage of 500 V – 1000 V for low voltage systems. The minimum acceptable
value of resistance for a product to pass an insulation resistance test is
1 megaohm (1000 kΩ). The insulation resistance test is not a substitute for the
high voltage test. Many standards and safety agencies have specified this is a
universal test for all products. This test may also be carried out after every
maintenance procedure or repair.

Earth Continuity Test

This test is performed by measuring the resistance between the third pin (ground)
and outside metal body of the product under test. The maximum acceptable value
is generally 0.5 ohms although certain standards may specify 0.1 ohms. This test
is generally carried out at a slightly higher current (e.g. 25–60 A) so that the
ground bond circuit maintains safe voltages on the chassis of the product, even at
a high current, before the circuit breaker trips. This test is essential so that the
product does not cause an electric shock resulting from insulation failure. In India
current specified is 16 A so the test is done at double of the current i.e. 32 A.

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Leakage Current Test (Line Leakage Test)

This test is to measure the undesirable leakage current that flows through or
across the surface of the insulation or the dielectric of a capacitor. This test is
generally carried out at 100%-110% of the rated input voltage of the product under
test. The maximum acceptable limit of a leakage current is generally 210 micro
amperes.

IR Test Connections

IR Log and Trend

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OSCILLOSCOPEAS A TESTING AND DISPLAY INSTRUMENT

Electronic Signals
The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to display electronic signals. By viewing
signals displayed on an oscilloscope you can determine whether a component of
an electronic system is behaving properly. So, to understand how an oscilloscope
operates, it is important to understand basic signal theory.

Wave properties
Electronic signals are waves or pulses. Basic properties of waves include:

Amplitude:

Two main definitions for amplitude are commonly used in engineering

applications. The first is often referred to as the peak amplitude and is defined as
the magnitude of the maximum displacement of a disturbance. The second is
called the root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude. To calculate the RMS voltage of a
waveform, square the waveform, find its average voltage and take the square root.

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For a sine wave, the RMS amplitude is equal to 0.707 times the peak amplitude.

Figure 1. Peak amplitude and RMS amplitude for a sine wave.

Phase shift refers to the amount of horizontal translation between two otherwise
identical waves. It is measured in degrees or radians. For a sine wave, one cycle
is represented by 360 degrees. Therefore, if two sine waves differ by half of a
cycle, their relative phase shift is 180 degrees.

Period

Figure 2. The period of a triangular wave

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Frequency
Every periodic wave has a frequency. The frequency is simply the number of times
a wave repeats itself within one second (if you are working in units of Hertz). The
frequency is also the reciprocal of the period.

Waveforms
A waveform is the shape or representation of a wave. Waveforms can provide
you with a great deal of information about your signal. For example, it can tell you
if the voltage changes suddenly, varies linearly, or remains constant. There are
many standard waveforms, but this section will cover the ones you will encounter
most frequently.

Sine Waves
Sine waves are typically associated with alternating current (AC) sources such as
an electrical outlet in your house. A sine wave does not always have a constant
peak amplitude. If the peak amplitude continually decreases as time progresses,
we call the waveform a damped sine wave.

Square/ Rectangular Waves

A square waveform periodically jumps between two different values such that the
lengths of the high and low segments are equivalent. A rectangular waveform
differs in that the lengths of the high and low segments are not equal.

Figure 3. A square Wave.

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Pulses
A pulse is a sudden single disturbance in an otherwise constant voltage. Imagine
flipping the switch to turn the lights on in a room and then quickly turning them off.
A series of pulses is called a pulse train. To continue our analogy, this would be
like quickly turning the lights on and off over and over again.

Pulses are the common waveform of glitches or errors in your signal. A pulse
might also be the waveform if the signal is carrying a single piece of information.

Figure 4. A pulse.

Display Horizontal Control Section

Trigger

Control Section

Soft Keys Channel Inputs

Figure 5. Front panel on the Keysight Infinii-Vision 2000 X-Series Oscilloscope.

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Operation of an Oscilloscope
You send your signals into the oscilloscope via the channel inputs, which are
connectors for plugging in your probes. The display is simply the screen where
these signals are displayed. The horizontal and vertical control sections have
knobs and buttons that control the horizontal axis (which typically represents time)
and vertical axis (which represents voltage) of the signals on the screen display.
The trigger controls allow you to tell the oscilloscope under what conditions you
want the time base to start an acquisition.

An example of what the back panel of an oscilloscope looks like is seen in Fig 6.
As you can see, many oscilloscopes have the connectivity features found on
personal computers. Examples include CD-ROM drives, CD-RW drives, DVD-RW
drives, USB ports, serial ports, and external monitor, mouse, and keyboard inputs.

Figure 6. Rear panel on the Keysight Infiniium 9000 Series oscilloscope

An Oscilloscope’s Purpose
An oscilloscope is a measurement and testing instrument used to display a certain
variable as a function of another. For example, it can plot on its display a graph of
voltage (y-axis) versus time (x-axis). Figure 7 shows an example of such a plot.
This is useful if you want to test a certain electronic component to see if it is
behaving properly. If you know what the waveform of the signal should be after
exiting the component, you can use an oscilloscope to see if the component is
indeed outputting the correct signal. Notice also that the x and y-axes are broken
into divisions by a graticule. The graticule enables you to make measurements by
visual estimation, although with modern oscilloscopes, most of these
measurements can be made automatically and more accurately by the
oscilloscope itself.

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An oscilloscope can also do more than plot voltage versus time. An oscilloscope
has multiple inputs, called channels, and each one of these acts independently.
Therefore, you could connect channel 1 to a certain device and channel 2 to
another. The oscilloscope could then plot the voltage measured by channel 1
versus the voltage measured by channel 2. This mode is called the XY-mode of an
oscilloscope. It is useful when graphing I-V plots or Lissajous patterns where the
shape of these patterns tells you the phase difference and the frequency ratio
between the two signals.

Figure 7. An oscilloscope’s voltage versus time display of a square wave.

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METHODS OF FAULT DETECTION

Fault Finding

Generally, fault finding is not an easy task and it is essential to have a good
understanding of the operation of the particular equipment and a general insight
into some of the diagnostic skills used to solve the problem.

Planning

A good fault-finder has a well plan strategy. The evidence is carefully considered
before deciding what action to take.

A good diagnostician will use:

 Memory
 Logical thinking
 Perception
 Spatial/ Mechanical ability
 Persistence

INTERPRETATION AND USE OF ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND SUBSYSTEM

CIRCUIT

Background (Underpinning) knowledge

Knowledge and experience are essential, including a knowledge of components,

methods and systems together with their operational characteristics.

Fault Charts

A list of typical symptoms and faults for a particular equipment plus suggested
remedies. These lists should be updated according to experience to show the
most probable fault.

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DIAGRAMS, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUALS

There are three different kind of electrical faults.

Figure 1: Circuit faults

Earth fault
An earth fault is caused by loss of insulation allowing the current to flow to earth
potential. Causes of earth faults are typically breakdown or wear of insulation. The
majority of earth faults occur within electrical equipment due to an insulation failure
or a loose wire, which allows a live conductor to come into contact with its earthed
metal enclosure.

To protect against the dangers of electric shock and injuries that may result from
earth faults, the metal enclosures and other non-current carrying metal parts of
electrical equipment must be earthed. The earthing connector connects the metal
enclosure to earth (the ship's hull) to prevent it from attaining a dangerous voltage
with respect to earth. Such earth bonding of equipment ensures that its voltage in
reference to earth always remains at zero.

Open circuit fault

An open circuit fault occurs when a phase conductor is completely or even
partially interrupted. Causes of open circuit faults are bad connections or a break
in the wire. Open circuit faults when intermittent can cause ashes. Open circuit
faults when not completely open (bad connection) can cause a lot of heat and are
a hazard. Open circuits in three phase circuits can cause motors to run on only
two phases and create a motor overload.

Short circuit fault

Short circuit faults occur where two different phase conductors are connected
together. This can be caused by double break loss of insulation, human error or
another abnormal situation. A large amount of current is released in a short circuit,
often accompanied by an explosion.

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Significance of Earth Faults

If a single earth fault occurs on the live line of an earthed distribution system it
would be the equivalent to a short-circuit fault across the generator through the
ship's hull. The resulting large current would immediately cause the line protective
device (fuse or circuit breaker) to trip out the faulty circuit. The faulted electric
equipment would be immediately isolated from the supply and so rendered safe.
However, the loss of power supply, could create a hazardous situation, especially
if the equipment was classed essential (ABS part 4, chapter 8, table 1 and 2), e.g.
steering gear. The large fault current could also cause arcing damage at the fault
location. In contrast a single earth fault occurring on one line of an insulated
distribution system will not cause any protective trip to operate and the system
would continue to function normally. This is the important point: equipment
continues to operate with a single earth fault as it does not provide a closed circuit
so no earth fault current will flow. More important is that if a second earth fault
occurs on another line of the insulated system, the two faults together would be
equivalent to a short- circuit fault (via the ship's hull) and the resulting large current
would operate protection devices and cause disconnection of perhaps essential
services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.

An insulated distribution system therefore requires two earth faults on two different
lines to cause an earth fault current to flow.

In contrast, an earthed distribution system requires only one earth fault to cause
an earth fault current to flow.

An insulated system is, therefore more effective than an earthed system in

maintenance continuity of supply to essential services. Hence its adoption for most
marine electrical systems.

Note: Double-pole switches with fuses in both lines are necessary in an

insulated single-phase circuit.

Sectioning of circuits

Essential equipment can take their power from the main or emergency switch-
board. This way a fault which affects a secondary circuit doesn't influence a circuit
with high priority. Sectioning of circuits is done as demanded by The Rules and
the demands of exploitation, providing at least two power sources for all essential
equipment.

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Selectivity
If a fault occurs at any point in an electrical distribution circuit, it is essential that it
does not interrupt the supply to essential services. This obvious requirement leads
to the necessity of rapidly isolating the defective section without depriving the
other users of electrical energy; this is in fact the principle of selective tripping.

The protective element (circuit breaker or fuses) which is placed immediately up-
stream from the part of the circuit where the fault has occurred, and this alone
element, must then operate; the other protecting elements must not trip.
Conventional selectivity processes (over current and time lag) fulfil these
requirements to a more or less satisfactory degree.

Figure 2: Circuit faults

Over current Selectivity

This makes use of protective equipment operating instantaneously (rapid circuit
breakers or fuses). The selectivity is based on the fact that the short-circuit current
decreases with increasing distance from the power source. It is thus especially for
low voltages where the connecting impedances are not negligible.

Time lag selectivity

This can make complete selectivity by delaying the tripping of each circuit-breaker
for durations all the higher as the circuit-breaker is nearer the source of energy.

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2.1.1.3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL ENGINEERING AND

SAFETY DEVICES

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CONTROL SYSTEM

Open and Closed Control Loops

Types of Control Systems

There are two types of control systems namely:
1. Open loop control systems (non-feedback control systems)
2. Closed loop control systems (feedback control systems)
Open loop control system
If in a physical system there is no automatic correction of the variation in its output,
it is called an open loop control system. That is, in this type of system, sensing of
the actual output and comparing of this output (through feedback) with the desired
input does not take place. The system on its own is not in a position to give the
desired output and it cannot take into account the disturbances. In these systems,
the changes in output can be corrected only by changing the input manually.

These systems are simple in construction, stable and cost cheap. But these
systems are inaccurate and unreliable. Moreover, these systems do not take
account of external disturbances that affect the output and they do not initiate
corrective actions automatically.

Examples of open loop control systems:

1. Automatic washing machine

2. Traffic signal system
3. Home heating system (without sensing, feedback and control)

Any non-feedback control system can be considered as a feedback control system

if it is under the supervision of someone. Although open loop control systems have
economical components and are simple in design, they largely depend on human
judgement. As an example, let us consider a home furnace control system. This
system must control the temperature in a room, keeping it constant. An open loop
system usually has a timer which instructs the system to switch on the furnace for
some time and then switch it off. Accuracy cannot be achieved as the system does
not switch on/off based on the room temperature but it does as per the pre-set
value of time.
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Closed loop control system

A closed loop control system is a system where the output has an effect upon the
input quantity in such a manner as to maintain the desired output value.

An open loop control system becomes a closed loop control system by including a
feedback. This feedback will automatically correct the change in output due to
disturbances. This is why a closed loop control system is called as an automatic
control system. The block diagram of a closed loop control system is shown in
figure.

In a closed loop control system, the controlled variable (output) of the system is
sensed at every instant of time, feedback and compared with the desired input
resulting in an error signal. This error signal directs the control elements in the
system to do the necessary corrective action such that the output of the system is
obtained as desired.

The feedback control system takes into account the disturbances also and makes
the corrective action. These control systems are accurate, stable and less affected
by noise. But these control systems are sophisticated and hence costly. They are
also complicated to design for stability, give oscillatory response and feedback
brings down the overall gain of the control system.

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PROCESS CONTROL

We define control to be the use of algorithms and feed back in engineered

systems. Thus, control includes such examples as feedback loops in electronic
amplifiers, set point controllers in chemical and materials processing, “fly-by-wire”
systems on aircraft and even router protocols that control traffic flow on the Inter-
net.

Emerging applications include high confidence software systems, autonomous

vehicles and robots, real-time resource management systems and biologically
engineered systems. At its core, control is an information science, and includes
the use of information in both analogue and digital representations.

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS IN PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

Figure 1: Components of a computer-controlled system

A modern controller senses the operation of a system, compares that against the
desired behaviour, computes corrective actions based on a model of the system's
response to external inputs and actuates the system to effect the desired change.
This basic feedback loop of sensing, computation and actuation is the central
concept in control. The key issues in designing control logic are ensuring that the
dynamics of the closed loop system are stable (bounded disturbances give
bounded errors) and that they have additional desired behaviour (good
disturbance rejection, fast responsiveness to changes in operating point, etc).
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These properties are established using a variety of modelling and analysis

techniques that capture the essential dynamics of the system and permit the
exploration of possible behaviours in the presence of uncertainty, noise and
component failures.

A typical example of a modern control system is shown in Figure 1. The basic

elements of sensing, computation and actuation are clearly seen. In modern
control systems, computation is typically implemented on a digital computer,
requiring the use of analogue-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analogue (D/A)
converters. Uncertainty enters the system through noise in sensing and actuation
subsystems, external disturbances that affect the underlying system operation and
uncertain dynamics in the system (parameter errors, un-modelled effects, etc).
The algorithm that computes the control action as a function of the sensor values
is often called a control law. The system can be influenced externally by an
operator who introduces command signals to the system.

Control engineering relies on and shares tools from physics (dynamics and
modelling), computer science (information and software) and operations research
(optimization, probability theory and game theory), but it is also different from
these subjects in both insights and approach.

Perhaps the strongest area of overlap between control and other disciplines is in
modelling of physical systems, which is common across all areas of engineering
and science. One of the fundamental differences between control-oriented
modelling and modelling in other disciplines is the way in which interactions
between subsystems are represented. Control relies on a type of input/output
modelling that allows many new insights into the behaviour of systems, such as
disturbance rejection and stable interconnection. Model reduction, where a simpler
(lower-fidelity) description of the dynamics is derived from a high-fidelity mod el, is
also naturally described in an input/output framework. Perhaps most importantly,
modelling in a control context allows the design of robust interconnections
between subsystems, a feature that is crucial in the operation of all large
engineered systems.

Control is also closely associated with computer science, since virtually all modern
control algorithms for engineering systems are implemented in software. However,
control algorithms and software can be very different from traditional computer
software due to the central role of the dynamics of the system and the real-time
nature of the implementation.

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OPERATION AND USE OF SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS

Sensors and Transmitters are the eyes and ears of your automation. Their health
(i.e. accuracy and reliability) is essential to all shipboard monitoring and control
functions that require reliable data to synthesize decisions.

Sensors and Transmitters should be treated the same as any other critical
equipment whose health we wish to maintain.

The importance of sensor accuracy and reliability cannot be over-emphasized

when discussing Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) systems. The ability to
accurately monitor the current state of your equipment relies solely on individual
sensors distributed across your equipment. Modern machinery control systems
incorporate an enormous amount of measurement instrumentation, including
temperature sensors, pressure sensors, flow sensors, vibration sensors, current
sensors, etc. They come in the form of mechanical gauges, electrical meters,
transducers, thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTD), etc. All of
these devices provide valuable information to operators and are also essential for
controlling equipment operation, providing alarms, or triggering equipment safety
features, such as automatic shutdowns.

Various Sensors and Transmitters

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A sensor failure, in the worst case, can have a damaging impact on your
equipment, perhaps even the environment in the case of lost propulsion control.
To a lesser degree, a sensor failure will restrict your ability to assess your
equipment’s operational health. This will have a negative cost impact, since
maintenance actions cannot be based on equipment condition (CBM) if the current
condition of the equipment cannot be accurately determined. Equipment Health
Monitoring (EHM) systems cannot properly function to detect and predict problems
without accurate and reliable input from the sensors being monitored.

Faulty or inaccurate sensors can:

 defeat equipment safety designs by improper activation of safety controls,

 mask existing equipment problems, resulting in inefficient or unreliable
operation • cause costly unplanned equipment down time
 waste crew troubleshooting time and effort
 trigger excessive nuisance alarms,
 desensitize operators and slow their response time to real problems

Sensors failures can occur in many forms:

 sensing line clogs, voids, leaks, or loose mechanical connections

 electrical open or short circuits
 loose or high resistance terminal connections
 inaccurate calibration
 transducer data communication issues
 electrical interference or line noise
 signal loss or corruption

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TEMPERATURE MEAUREMENT
Temperature measuring devices which are useful in control work as follows:
1. Bimetallic Thermometers
2. Pressure Thermometer (Filled system Thermometers, liquid or vapour)
3. Resistance Thermometer
4. Thermocouples
5. Radiation Pyrometer

1. Bimetallic Thermometer
These thermometers use the following two principles:

a) All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there is a

change in temperature.
b) The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the
temperature co-efficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature
coefficient of expansion is different for different metals. Hence the
difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which
is proportional to temperature changes.

Bi-metallic strip

The bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip. A bimetallic strip is made

of two thin strips of metals which have different coefficient of expansion. The two
metal strips are joined together by brazing, welding or riveting so that the relative
motion between them is arrested.

The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature

will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip as shown in diagram. This
deflection is linear and can be related to temperature changes.

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The radius of the curvature of the bimetallic strip which was initially flat is
determined using the following relationship.

R= t{3(1+m) ² + (1+mn) [m²+1/mn]}/6(άh-άl) (T2-T1) (1+m) ²

where,
R= radius of the curvature at the temperature T2.

T = total thickness of the bimetallic strip = (t1+t2)

m=t1/t2=Thickness of lower-expansion metal/thickness of higher-expansion

metal. (ratio)

άl= coefficient of expansion of lower expansion metal.

άh= coefficient of expansion of higher expansion metal.

T1 = Initial temperature.

T2 = temperature.

n = the ratio of moduli of elasticity = E1/ E2

Bi-metallic Thermometers

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Pressure Thermometers

A. Liquid Filled Thermometers

There are two major types of Liquid-in-glass thermometers which are mentioned
below:

1. Mercury Thermometers
2. Alcohol Thermometers

Mercury Thermometers

This type of thermometer was developed by a German based physicist

named Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. It consists of mercury as a liquid filled in a
glass tube. On the body of the glass tube, calibrated marks are provided which
facilitates the reading of temperature. A bulb is formed at one end of the
thermometer which contains the largest part of mercury. The expansion and
contraction of this mercury size is then further increased in the extremely thin bore
of the glass tube. It aids in increasing the sensitivity of the thermometer. In
general, the area over the mercury is filled with inert gases like nitrogen. However,
this area can be left evacuated too.

Various types of mercury-in-glass thermometers are available. “A maximum

thermometer is a unique kind of mercury thermometer which functions by having
a constriction in the neck close to the bulb. The mercury is forced up through the
constriction by the force of expansion as the temperature increases. When there is
a decrease in the temperature, the column of mercury breaks at the constriction
and cannot return to the bulb and will remain stationary in the tube.” By means of
a maximum thermometer, one can measure the maximum temperature over a
predetermined time span. Resetting of the maximum thermometer is a very simple
process which just requires the sharp swinging of the thermometer.

The freezing point of mercury is - 38.83°C at which it gets solidified. However, it

doesn’t result in expansion upon solidification and hence there will be no danger of
glass breakage of the thermometer tube. Whenever there is rise in temperature,
the nitrogen gas filled above the mercury in glass tube usually comes down the
column and gets stuck there. This whole action may affect the functioning of
thermometer. To prevent this difficulty, one must manage to get mercury
thermometers inside when the temperature drops to - 37°C. In areas, where the
upper temperature limit is - 38.83°C, one may employ a mercury-thallium alloy
thermometer having a freezing i.e. solidification point of - 61.1°C.

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Key benefits offered by mercury thermometers include:

 Fast response time

 Good repeatability
 Linear thermal coefficient of expansion
 Wide range of temperature

Alcohol Thermometers

The alcohol thermometer or spirit thermometer is an alternative to the mercury-in-

glass thermometer and has similar functions. Unlike the mercury-in-glass
thermometer, the contents of an alcohol thermometer are less toxic and will
evaporate quickly. The ethanol version is the most widely used due to the low cost
and relatively low hazard posed by the liquid in case of breakage.

An organic liquid is contained in a glass bulb which is connected to a capillary of

the same glass and the end is sealed with an expansion bulb. The space above
the liquid is a mixture of nitrogen and the vapor of the liquid. For the working
temperature range, the meniscus or interface between the liquid is within the
capillary. With increasing temperature, the volume of liquid expands and the
meniscus moves up the capillary. The position of the meniscus shows the
temperature against an inscribed scale.

The liquid used can be pure ethanol, toluene, kerosene or isoamyl acetate,
depending on manufacturer and working temperature range. Since these are
transparent, the liquid is made more visible by the addition of a red or blue dye.
One half of the glass containing the capillary is usually enamelled white or yellow
to give a background for reading the scale.

The range of usefulness of the thermometer is set by the boiling point of the liquid
used. In the case of the ethanol-filled thermometer, the upper limit for
measurement is 78 °C (172 °F), which makes it useful for measuring daytime,
nighttime and body temperatures, although not for anything much hotter than
these.

Ethanol-filled thermometers are used in preference to mercury for meteorological

measurements of minimum temperatures and can be used down to −70 °C (-94
°F). The physical limitation of the ability of a thermometer to measure low
temperature is the freezing point of the liquid used. Ethanol freezes at −114.9 °C
(−174.82 °F). If an alcohol thermometer utilizes a combination of ethyl alcohol,
toluene, and pentane, its lower temperature range may be extended to measure
temperatures down to as low as −200 °C (-328 °F). However, the measurement
temperature range c. −200 °C to 78 °C, is highly dependent upon the type of
alcohol used.

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B. Gas Filled Thermometers

A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or
pressure of a gas.

a. Volume Thermometer
This thermometer functions by Charles’ Law. Charles’ Law states that when the
temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume.

Using Charles’ Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the volume of
gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below. Translating it to
the correct levels of the device that is holding the gas. This works on the same
principle as mercury thermometers.

VαT

or

V /T = k

T is the temperature.

V is the volume.

k is the constant for the system. k is not a fixed constant across all systems and
therefore needs to be found experimentally for a given system through testing with
known temperature values.

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b. Pressure Thermometer
This gas filled system uses the perfect gas law, which states the following for an
ideal gas:
T = kPV
Where,
T = Temperature, k = Constant, P = Pressure, V = Volume
If the volume of the gas in the measuring instrument is kept constant, then
the ratio of the gas pressure and the temperature is constant, so that,
P1/T1 = P2/T2
The only restriction on the above equation is that, the temperature must be
expressed in degrees Kelvin and the pressure must be in absolute units.
The constant volume gas thermometer plays a crucial role in understanding
how absolute zero could be discovered long before the advent of cryogenics.
Consider a graph of pressure versus temperature made not far from standard
conditions (well above absolute zero) for three different samples of any ideal
gas (a, b, c). To the extent that the gas is ideal, the pressure depends linearly on
temperature, and the extrapolation to zero pressure occurs at absolute zero.

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Vapor-Pressure Thermometer

Temperature dependence of the pressure of saturated liquid vapors is also used

as a thermometric parameter. The sensitive element is a reservoir partially filled
with a liquid or a solid phase being in thermodynamic equilibrium with its vapor.
Such a device is used to measure low temperatures. A thermometer scale T = f(P)
is determined by the vapor pressure vs. temperature curve. For a vapor-pressure
thermometer to work, it is necessary for the thermometer reservoir to be at the
lowest temperature with respect to the temperature of its other parts. The
accuracy of measurement depends on the gas purity, superheating in the volume
of a liquid occupying the bath in which temperature is measured, and on
hydrostatic pressure measurement. Table 1 lists the sensitivity of vapor-pressure
thermometers using different working substances.

Working fluids for vapor pressure thermometers

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Resistance Temperature Devices

An RTD is a device which contains an electrical resistance source (referred to as a
“sensing element” or “bulb”) which changes resistance value depending on its
temperature. This change of resistance with temperature can be measured and
used to determine the temperature of a process or of a material.

Temperature measurement is based on the temperature co-efficient of resistance

of a wire, which is wound as a helical coil around a hollow ceramic or mica former
and then covered with a thin protective film. Operation depends on the fact that,
when a metallic conductor is subject to temperature change, electrical resistance
varies according to the law:

Rt = Ro (1+αT) where,

Rt= Resistance at t deg C

Ro = Resistance at 0 deg C

T = Temperature change

α = Temperature co-efficient of particular metal

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RTD sensing elements come in two basic styles, wire wound and film.

Wire Wound Element – Coiled Design

Wire Wound Element - Outer Wound Design

Wire Wound

The elements contain a length of very small diameter wire (typically 0.0005 to
0.0015inchdiameter)which is either wound into a coil and packaged inside a
ceramic mandrel, or wound around the outside of a ceramic housing and coated
with an insulating material. Larger lead wires (typically .008 to .015inch diameter)
are provided which allow the larger extension wires to be connected to the very
small element wire.

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Film Type

FILM TYPE ELEMENT

Film type
The sensing elements are made from a metal coated substrate which has a
resistance pattern cut into it. This pattern acts as a long, flat, skinny conductor,
which provides the electrical resistance. Lead wires are bonded to the metal
coated substrate and are held in place using a bead of epoxy or glass.

Measuring Circuit:

Besides the sensing element which we have previously discussed, the measuring
circuit also consists of a combination of lead wires, connectors, terminal boards
and measuring or control instrumentation. The exact make-up of the
measurement circuit is dependent on many factors including:

Temperature in the sensing area as well as the environmental conditions expected

to exist between the sensor and instrumentation.

 Distance between the sensor and instrumentation.

 Type of interconnections the customer prefers.
 What type of wiring system is currently in place (if not new).
 RTD’s are made with 2, 3 or 4 lead wires per element

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2-wire construction
It is the least accurate of the 3 types since there is no way of eliminating the lead
wire resistance from the sensor measurement. 2-wire RTD’s are mostly used with
short lead wires or where close accuracy is not required.

Measured resistance Rt = R1 + R2 + Rb

RL2

3-wire construction
It is the most commonly used in industrial applications where the third wire
provides a method for removing the average lead wire resistance from the sensor
measurement. When long distances exist between the sensor and
measurement/control instrument, significant savings can be made in using a three-
wire cable instead of a four-wire cable.

(R 1+2+R b) - (R 2+3) = (R b)
RL3

The 3-wire circuit works by measuring the resistance between #1 & #2(R 1+2) and
subtracting the resistance between #2 & #3 (R 2+3) which leaves just the
resistance of the RTD bulb (R b). This method assumes that wires 1,2 & 3 are all
the same resistance.

4-wire construction
It is used primarily in the laboratory where close accuracy is required. In a 4-
wire RTD the actual resistance of the lead wires can be determined and removed
from the sensor measurement.

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The 4-wire circuit is a true 4-wire bridge, which works by using wires 1 & 4 to
power the circuit and wires 2 & 3 to read. This true bridge method will compensate
for any differences in lead wire resistances.

RTD Resistance
Although RTD’s are typically ordered as 100 Ohm Platinum sensors, other
resistance’s (200 Ohm, 500 Ohm, 1000 Ohm, etc.) and materials (Nickel, Copper,
Nickel Iron) can be specified.

Temperature Coefficient
Temperature coefficient for RTD’s is the ratio of the resistance change per deg.
change in temperature over a range of 0 - 100 deg. C. This ratio is dependent on
the type and purity of the material used to manufacture the element. Most RTD’s
have a positive temperature coefficient which means the resistance increases with
an increase in temperature.

The temperature coefficient for pure platinum is .003926 ohm/ohm/deg. C. The

normal coefficient for industrial RTD’s is .00385 ohm/ohm/deg. C per the DIN std.
43760 -1980 & IEC 751 - 1983. i.e. at 1000 C, the resistance should be 138.50
Ohms

RTD Sensors

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Thermocouples

In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered if metals of two different materials were

joined at both ends and one end was at a different temperature than the other, a
current was created. This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect and is the
basis for all thermocouples.

A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two

dissimilar metals at one end. The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION.
The other end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the COLD END or COLD
JUNCTION. The cold junction is actually formed at the last point of thermocouple
material.

Certain combinations of metals must be used to make up the thermocouple pairs.

If there is a difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold junction, a
small voltage is created. This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive
force) and can be measured and in turn used to indicate temperature.

The voltage created by a thermocouple is extremely small and is measured in

terms of millivolts (one millivolt is equal to one thousandth of a volt). In fact, the
human body creates a larger millivolt signal than a thermocouple.

To establish a means to measure temperature with thermocouples, a standard

scale of millivolt outputs was established. This scale was established using 32
deg. F (0°C) as the standard cold junction temperature (32 deg. F (0°C) = 0
millivolts output).

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Cold Junction Compensation

The last point of thermocouple material is known as the cold junction. The amount
of output the thermocouple produces is determined by the difference between the
hot junction and the cold junction temperatures. The cold junction temperature
must be known to accurately determine the temperature.

Cold Junction Compensation is usually done automatically by the measuring

instrument. The instrument measures the temperature at the cold junction and
adds it back to the equation.

1000 (hot junction) - 100 (cold junction) = 900 deg. F + 100 deg. F (cold junction
temp) = 1000 deg F.

This way the instrument indicates the actual temperature of the hot junction.

The Cold Junction compensator is usually located at the terminals on the back of
the indicating instrument and you must maintain thermocouple material all the way
to this point.

For a thermocouple to function properly, there must be no other metals used

between the hot junction and the cold junction. If wire is needed to connect the
thermocouple to the indicating instrument, the lead wire must be made of the
same material as the thermocouple.

It is acceptable to use terminal blocks and lugs made of plain copper in a

thermocouple circuit as long as the positive and negative terminals are at the
same temperature. (Example: terminal blocks in heads or spade lugs on wire).

Thermocouple Types
Base Metal Thermocouples
Base metal thermocouples are known as Types E, J, K, T and N and comprise the
most commonly used category of Thermocouple. The conductor materials in base
metal thermocouples are made of common and inexpensive metals such as
Nickel, Copper and Iron.

Type E:

The Type E thermocouple has aChromel (Nickel-10% Chromium) positive leg

and a Constantan (Nickel- 45% Copper) negative leg. Type E has a temperature
range of -330 to 16000F, has the highest EMF vs temperature values of all the
commonly used thermocouples, and can be used at sub-zero temperatures. Type
E thermocouples can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres, and should not be
used in sulphurous atmospheres, in a vacuum or in low oxygen environments

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where selective oxidation will occur. The colour code for TYPE E wire is purple
and red.

Type J:

The Type J thermocouple has an Iron positive leg and a Constantan negative
leg. Type J thermocouples can be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert
atmospheres. Due to the oxidation (rusting) problems associated with the iron leg,
care must be used when using this thermocouple type in oxidizing environments
above 10000F. The temperature range for Type J is 32 to 1400 0F and it has a wire
colour code of white and red.

Type K:
The Type K thermocouple has aChromelpositive leg and anAlumel (Nickel- 5%
Aluminium and Silicon) negative leg. Type K is recommended for usein oxidizing
and completely inert environments. Because its oxidation resistance is better than
Types E, J, and T they find widest use at temperatures above 10000F. Type K, like
Type E should not be used in sulphurous atmospheres, in a vacuum or in low
oxygen environments where selective oxidation will occur. The temperature range
for Type K is -330 to 23000F and its wire colour code is yellow and red.

Type N:

The Type N thermocouple has aNicrosil (Nickel-14% Chromium- 1.5% Silicon)

positive leg and aNisil (Nickel- 4.5% Silicon- .1% Magnesium) negativeleg. Type
N is very similar to TYPE K but is less susceptible to selective oxidation effects.
Type N should not be used in a vacuum or in reducing atmospheres in an
unsheathed condition. The temperature range is 32-23000deg F and its wire colour
code.

Type T:

The Type T thermocouple has a Copper positive leg and a Constantan negative
leg. Type T thermocouples can be used in oxidizing, reducing or inert
atmospheres, except the copper leg restricts their use in air or oxidizing
environments to 7000F or below. The temperature range for Type T is -330 to
7000F and its wire colour code is blue and red.

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Thermocouple Sensors

Thermocouple Table

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Noble Metal Thermocouple Types

Noble Metal Thermocouples are another category of thermocouples and are made
of the expensive precious metals Platinum and Rhodium. There are three types of
noble metal thermocouples:
 Type B (Platinum/Platinum-30% Rhodium)
 Type R (Platinum/Platinum-13% Rhodium)
 Type S (Platinum/Platinum-10% Rhodium)

Types ‘R’ and ‘S’ have temperature ranges of 1000 to 27000F and Type ‘B’
thermocouples have a temperature range of 32 to 31000F.

As can be seen above, the difference between these three thermocouples is the
amount of Rhodium contained in the negative leg. Types R and S will exhibit
excessive grain growth in the platinum when exposed to the higher end of its
temperature range. The increased amount of Rhodium in the Type B
thermocouple helps to reduce the grain growth problem allowing for a slightly
increased temperature range.

Noble metal thermocouples are intended for use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres.
They must not be used in reducing atmospheres or in applications containing
metallic or non-metallic vapours. Noble metal thermocouples are soft and prone to
being damaged if mishandled. These thermocouple assemblies are usually
assembled in ceramic insulators and supplied with ceramic protection tubes.
Noble metals should never be supplied in metal protection tubes only. The colour
code for Types ‘R’ and ‘S’ is black and red, and the colour code for Type ‘B’ is
grey and red.

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Thermistor

A Thermistor is an element with an electrical resistance that changes in response

to temperature. This name is derived from the more descriptive term “thermally
sensitive resistor”, the original name for these devices. Thermistors were first
discovered by Michael Faraday in 1833, although commercially useful thermistors
weren’t manufactured until 1930. They’re now widely used in a variety of electronic
applications, most often as temperature sensors. Additional uses of thermistors
include current limiters, current protectors, and heating elements.

Thermistors are a type of semiconductor, meaning they have greater resistance

than conducting materials, but lower resistance than insulating materials. The
relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and its resistance is highly
dependent upon the materials from which it’s composed. The manufacturer
typically determines this property with a high degree of accuracy, as this is the
primary characteristic of interest to thermistor buyers.

Thermistors, derived from the term THERMaIly sensitive reslSTORS, are a very
accurate and cost- effective sensor for measuring temperature. Available in 2
types, NTC (negative temperature coefficient) and PTC (positive temperature
coefficient), it is the NTC thermistor that is commonly used to measure
temperature.

In contrast to RTDs that change resistance in a nearly linear way, NTC thermistors
have a highly nonlinear change in resistance and actually reduce their resistance
with increases in temperature. The reasons that thermistors continue to be popular
for measuring temperature are:

 Their higher resistance change per degree of temperature provides greater

resolution
 High level of repeatability and stability
 Excellent Interchangeability
 A small size means fast response to temperature changes

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Coatings Typically Include:

 Epoxy coatings for lower temperature use [typically -50 to 150°C (-58 to
316°F)]
 Glass coatings for higher temperature applications [typically -50 to 300°C (-
58 to 572°F)]
These coatings are used to mechanically protect the thermistor bead and wire
connections while providing some protection from humidity and or corrosion.

Thermistors are typically supplied with a very small diameter (#32AW or 0.008"
diameter) solid copper or copper alloy wires. Many times, these wires are tinned
for easy soldering.

Base Resistance

NTC thermistors drop in resistance with increased temperature. This is also true of
the amount of resistance change per degree the thermistor will provide. Relatively
low-temperature applications (-55 to approx. 70°C) generally use lower resistance
thermistors (2252 to 10,000Ω). Higher temperature applications generally use the
higher resistance thermistors (above 10,000Ω) to optimize the resistance change
per degree at the required temperature. Thermistors are available in a variety of
resistances and “curves”. Resistances are normally specified at 25°C (77°F).

Resistance vs. Temperature Curve

Unlike RTDs and thermocouples,

thermistors do not have standards
associated with their resistance vs.
temperature characteristics or
curves. Consequently, there are
many different ones to choose
from.

Each thermistor material provides a

different resistance vs. temperature
“curve”. Some materials provide
better stability while others have higher resistances so they can be fabricated into
larger or smaller thermistors.

Many manufacturers list a Beta (B) constant between 2 temperatures (Example:

30/50 = 3890). This, along with the resistance at 25°C (77°F) can be used to
identify a specific thermistor curve.

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Radiation Pyrometer

Principles of Radiation Pyrometer

Temperature measurement is based on the measurement of radiation either

directly by a sensor or by comparing with the radiation of a body of known
temperature. The radiation pyrometer is a non-contact type of temperature
measurement.

The wavelength region having high intensity is between 0.1 to about 10µm. In this
region, 01 is the ultraviolet region, 0.4 to 0.7 is the visible region and 0.7 onwards
is the infrared region. With the increase in temperature, radiation intensity is
stronger toward shorter wavelengths. The temperature measurement by radiation
pyrometer is limited within 0.5 to 8µm wave length region.

A radiation pyrometer consists of optical component to collect the radiation energy

emitted by the object, a radiation detector that converts radiant energy into an
electrical signal, and an indicator to read the measurements.

The detector receives the photon energy from the optical system and converts into
electrical signal. Two types of detectors are used.

1. Thermal
2. Photon

The optical pyrometer is designed to respond narrow band of wavelengths that fall
within the visible range of the electro‐magnetic spectrum.

Thermal detectors are used as sensors. Their hot junction is the radiation sensing
surface. Thermopiles can detect radiation of all wavelengths.

A number of semiconductors are developed to sense the radiation. These are

materials of Si, PbS, Indium, Antimonites, etc. Their response is though
instantaneous but it is selective to wavelength. Silicon is suitable only around 0.8 -
0.9 µm and lead sulphide around 1 to 2µm.

It is important that gases like CO2, H2O and dust should not obstruct the path of
radiation. The dust particles scatter the radiation, whereas CO 2 and water vapour
selectivity absorbs radiation. Any instrument built to sense the radiation has to be
in an enclosure to avoid dirt, dust and gases present in industrial environment.
Normally a window is provided with some optical materials to see the radiating
body. The materials should have good transmissivity. All optical materials allow
only particular wavelength to pass through it with sufficient intensity. For other
wavelengths they are opaque.

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WAVELENGTHS

UV = 4.3 X 10 17 ~ 7.5 X 10 17 Hz

IR = 3.0 X 10 12 ~ 4.3 X 10 14 Hz

Visible Light = 4.3 X 10 14 ~ 7.5 X 10 14 Hz

X-Ray = 3.0 X 10 17 ~ 3.0 X 10 19 Hz

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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the power
plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure,
condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more. Pressure is actually
the measurement of force acting on area of surface. We could represent this as:

The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in British
units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000 Pa, we often
use kPa and MPa as units of pressure.

The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control operation or

a standard (4 - 20 mA) electronic signal that represents the pressure in a process.
To accomplish this, most pressure sensors translate pressure into physical motion
that is in proportion to the applied pressure. The most common pressure sensors
or primary pressure elements are described below.

Common Pressure Detectors

Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors

Bourdon patented a curved or twisted tube, which if held and pressurized at its
open end produced movement at its closed end (tip travel). Bourdon tube type
pressure elements are used to detect higher pressures because their gradient is
insufficient for detecting lower pressures or vacuums. Bourdon tubes are
manufactured in C, helical and spiral forms. The C-Bourdon element is made by
winding a tubular element circularly to form a segment of a circle.

Helical element is made by winding the tube several turns into a helix and spiral is
formed by winding two or three turns in a spiral around the same axis. In each of
these cases, the circular cross section of tube is flattened. When these elements
are pressurised, their cross section tends to become more circular, which tends to
straighten their shape.

Helical and spiral elements are used when it is desired to reduce the stress in the
tube and to increase the tip movement.

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C-Bourdon Tube Pressure Sensors

In this type of sensors, the process pressure is connected to the fixed socket end
of the tube, while the tip end is sealed. Because of differences between inside and
outside radii, the Bourdon tube presents different areas to pressure, which causes
tube to tend to straighten when pressure is applied. The resulting tip motion is
non-linear, because less motion results from each increment of additional
pressure. This non-linear motion has to be converted to linear rotational pointer
response. This is done mechanically by means of a geared sector and pinion
movement. The tip motion is transferred to the tail of the movement sector by a
connector link. The angle between connecting link and sector tail is called the
travelling angle. The angle changes with tip movement in a non-linear fashion,
compensating the non-linearity of the tip movement by itself.

Figure 1: C-Bourdon Tube Pressure Sensors

Spiral Bourdon Pressure Sensor

The free end motion of the C-Bourdon tube is insufficient to operate some of the
motion-balanced devices, such as transmitters. The spiral element is essentially a
series of C-Bourdon tubes joined end to end and when pressure is applied, this
flat spiral tends to uncoil and produces a greater movement of the free end
requiring no mechanical amplification. This increases sensitivity and accuracy of
the instrument, because no lost motion or friction is introduced through the links
and levers.

Standard spiral materials used are Bronze, Steel, Beryllium and Copper. Normal
pressure that is sensed by spiral type elements is around 27 bar, however some of
the manufactures have produced spiral elements to the range of 700 Bar.

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Helical Bourdon Pressure Sensor

This type of sensor element produces an even greater motion of the free end, than
the spiral elements eliminating the need of mechanical amplification. Other
advantages include high over range protection and also suitable for measurement
on continuously fluctuating system. The operating range is affected by coil
diameter wall thickness, number of coils and material of the construction.

Bellows

Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular membranes that are convoluted
around the circumference (see Figure 2). The membrane is attached at one end to
the source and at the other end to an indicating device or instrument. The bellows
element can provide a long range of motion (stroke) in the direction of the arrow
when input pressure is applied.

Figure 2: Bellows

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Diaphragms

A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the

pressure fixture around the circumference (refer to Figure 3). The pressure
medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other. The deflection
that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction of the arrow
indicated.

Motion

Flexible
Bellows

Pressure

Figure 3: Diaphragm

Capsules
There are two different devices that are referred to as capsule. The first is shown
in figure 4. The pressure is applied to the inside of the capsule and if it is fixed only
at the air inlet, it can expand like a balloon. This arrangement is not different from
diaphragm type, except it expands in both ways.

Motion

Flexible Membranes

Continuous
Seam

Pressure
Figure 4: Capsule
The capsule consists of two circular shaped, convoluted membranes (usually
stainless steel) sealed tight around the circumference. The pressure acts on the
inside of the capsule and the generated stroke movement is shown by the
direction of the arrow.

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In the second type of capsule, the capsule in the bottom is constructed with two
diaphragms forming an outer case and the inter-space is filled with viscous(thick
and sticky, reluctant to flow and difficult to stir) oil. Pressure is applied to both side
of the diaphragm and it will deflect towards the lower pressure.

To provide over-pressurized protection, a solid plate with diaphragm-matching

convolutions is usually mounted in the center of the capsule. Silicone oil is then
used to fill the cavity between the diaphragms for even pressure transmission.

Most DP capsules can withstand high static pressure of up to 14 MPa (2000 psi)
on both sides of the capsule without any damaging effect. However, the sensitive
range for most DP capsules is quite low. Typically, they are sensitive up to only a
few hundred kPa of differential pressure.

Differential pressure that is significantly higher than the capsule range may
damage the capsule permanently.

Pressure Sensors

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Differential Pressure Transmitters

Most pressure transmitters are built around the pressure capsule concept They
are usually capable of measuring differential pressure (that is, thedifference
between a high-pressure input and a low-pressure input) and therefore, are
usually called DP transmitters or DP cells.

Figure 5, illustrates a typical DP transmitter. A differential pressure capsule is

mounted inside a housing. One end of a force bar is connected to the capsule
assembly so that the motion of the capsule can be transmitted to outside the
housing. A sealing mechanism is used where the force bar penetrates the housing
and also acts as the pivot point for the force bar. Provision is made in the housing
for high- pressure fluid to be applied on one side of the capsule and low-pressure
fluid on the other. Any difference in pressure will cause the capsule to deflect and
create motion in the force bar. The top end of the force bar is then connected to a
position detector, which via an electronic system will produce a 4 - 20 mA signal
that is proportional to the force bar movement.

Figure 5: Typical DP Transmitter Construction

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This DP transmitter would be used in an installation as shown in Figure 6

A DP transmitter is used to measure the gas pressure (in gauge scale) inside a
vessel. In this case, the low-pressure side of the transmitter is vented to
atmosphere and the high-pressure side is connected to the vessel through an
isolating valve. The isolating valve facilitates the removal of the transmitter.

The output of the DP transmitter is proportional to the gauge pressure of the gas,
i.e., 4 mA when pressure is 20 kPa and 20 mA when pressure is 30 kPa.

DP Transmitter Application

Figure 6

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

It is the most widely used inductive transducer that covert the linear motion into
the electrical signals.

The output across secondary of this transformer is the differential so it is called so.
They are very accurate inductive transducers as compared to other inductive
transducers.

Construction of LVDT

Main Features of Construction are:

 The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding

S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and will
contain core).
 Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically
placed on the either side of primary winding
 The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in
the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be
measured is connected to the iron core.
 The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing
harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.
 The LVDT is placed inside a stainless-steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
 The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted
output is the difference of the voltages of two windings.

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages

are produced in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S 1 is e1 and
in the secondary S2 is e2. So the differential output is,

This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

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LVDT AC Output Magnitude

Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in

LVDT

 The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional

to the amount of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion.
 By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of
motion can be determined
 The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core displacement.

Advantages of LVDT

 High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of
displacement. they can used for measurement of displacements ranging
from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
 No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there
is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very
accurate device.
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 High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it
doesn’t need any amplification. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity
which is typically about 40V/mm.
 Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is
excellent under all conditions
 Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as
compared to other transducers.
 Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear
displacement to electrical voltage which are easy to process

Disadvantages of LVDT

 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to

protect them from stray magnetic fields.
 They are affected by vibrations and temperature.

It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other

inductive transducers.

Applications of LVDT

1. They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of

mm to few cm are to be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer
converts the displacement to electrical signal directly.
2. They can also act as the secondary transducers. e.g. the Bourdon tube which
acts as a primary transducer and covert pressure into linear displacement. then
LVDT coverts this displacement into electrical signal which after calibration
gives the ideas of the pressure of fluid.

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L V D T Sensors
Strain Gauges
The strain gauge is a device that can be affixed to the surface of an object to
detect the force applied to the object. One form of the strain gauge is a metal wire
of very small diameter that is attached to the surface of a device being monitored.

Figure 7Strain Gauge

Figure 9 Surface Mount Strainer-Gauge Equivalent Electric Circuit

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For a metal, the electrical resistance will increase as the length of the metal
increases or as the cross-sectional diameter decreases.

When force is applied as indicated in Figure 7, the overall length of the wire tends
to increase while the cross-sectional area decreases.

The amount of increase in resistance is proportional to the force that produced the
change in length and area. The output of the strain gauge is a change in
resistance that can be measured by the input circuit of an amplifier.

Strain gauges can be bonded to the surface of a pressure capsule or to a force

bar positioned by the measuring element. Shown in Figure 8 is a strain gauge that
is bonded to a force beam inside the DP capsule. The change in the process
pressure will cause a resistive change in the strain gauges, which is then used to
produce a 4-20 mA signal.

Effect of Temperature on Pressure Sensing

The temperature effects on pressure sensing will occur in two main areas:

The volumetric expansion of vapour is of course temperature dependent.

Depending on the system, the increased pressure is usually already factored in.

The second effect of temperature is not so apparent. An operating temperature

outside the rating of the sensor will create significant error in the readings. The
bourdon tube will indicate a higher reading when exposed to higher temperatures
and lower readings when abnormally cold - due to the strength and elasticity of the
metal tube. This same effect applies to the other forms of sensors listed.

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FLOW MEASUREMENT

IDEAL FLUID
Fluid motion is usually very complicated. However, by making a set of
assumptions about the fluid, one can still develop useful models of fluid behaviour.
An ideal fluid is
• Incompressible – the density is constant
• Irrotational – the flow is smooth (streamline or laminar), no turbulence
• Nonviscous – fluid has no internal friction ( η= 0)
• Steady flow – the velocity of the fluid at each point is constant in time.

Bernoulli's Equation (conservation of ENERGY)

An interesting effect is that, for a fluid (e.g. air) flowing through a pipe with a
constriction in it, the fluid pressure is lowest at the constriction. In terms of the
equation of continuity the fluid pressure falls as the flow speed increases.
The reason is easy to understand. The fluid has different speeds and hence
different kinetic energies at different parts of the tube. The changes in energy must
result from work being done on the fluid and the only forces in the tube that might
do work on the fluid are the driving forces associated with changes in pressure
from place to place.

 Conservation of energy
 A pressurized fluid must contain energy by the virtue that work must be
done to establish the pressure.
 A fluid that undergoes a pressure change undergoes an energy change.

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Derivation of Bernoulli's equation

The increase in KE and GPE comes from the net work done on the mass element
by the forces F1 and F2 (the sample of mass m, in moving from a region of higher
pressure to a region of lower pressure, has positive work done on it by he
surrounding fluid)

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Bernoulli's theorem only applies to an ideal fluid. Can not use Bernoulli's Principle
when the viscosity is significant. Can be applied to gases provided there are only
small changes in pressure.

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Dimensions

Consequences of Bernoulli's Theorem

A portion of a fluid made to move rapidly sustains a lower pressure than does the
portion of fluid moving slowly. Using Galilean principle of relatively it is easier to
consider the objects to be stationary and the fluid moving.

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Venturi Effect

A fast jet of air emerging from a small nozzle will have a lower pressure than the
surrounding atmospheric pressure. The Venturi effect is used in many types of
drainage systems. When you are in the dentist's chair, the dentist uses a device
based on the Venturi effect to remove saliva out of your mouth. The device is
connected to a tap. Water flows fast past the constriction, causing the pressure to
drop inside the long tube. When the other end of this tube is immersed in a pool of
saliva, the higher pressure outside forces the saliva up the tube, and away. In a
cotton picker, air flows instead of water to pick up cotton.

The Chimney Effect: Just the venturi effect being used to pick material up. In
most automobiles, petrol is pushed into the carburettor in this way.
Atomizer: This same effect makes atomizers, perfume sprayers, insect sprayers,
nebulizers and spray guns work. It is most important that the free surface of the
liquid should be open to the atmosphere, else the high pressure outside the
container and the low pressure inside will result in the container being crushed
(the enclosure must be vented). Fly sprays always have a small air hole.
Remember the fluid is caused to move from a container by a pressure difference –
the fluid is pushed not sucked

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Flow Measurement Instrument

A flow meter is an instrument used to measure linear, non--‐linear, mass or

volumetric flow rate of a liquid or gas.
Most flow meters work by forcing flow through a known confined space and
measuring different properties to determine the flow rate of fluid. Examples of
measured properties include pressure, thermal, magnetic, etc

This section is going to discuss the most common types of flow meters:
1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters
2. Positive Displacement Flow Meters
3. Electromagnetic Flow Meters
4. Ultrasonic Flow Meters

1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters

Differential pressure flow meters operate by introducing a restriction in the cross-
sectional area of a flowing fluid. Restricting the flow area causes a pressure drop
across the constriction, this pressure drop is cause by a change in the fluids
velocity. The operating principal is based on the Bernoulli equation and the
continuity equation of fluid flow, combining these equations you can find the
relationship between the flow rate and pressure drop.

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Relation between Head and Flow Rate

Primary objective of measuring differential pressure in terms of volume flow, is to

transmit the change of flow rate to controller for error detection.

From Bernoulli’s Equation:

H2 + {(V2)2/2g} = H1+ {(V1)2/2g}

{(V2)2 – (V1)2}/2g = H1 – H2 = h

Since flow rate is constant,

Q = AV1 = aV2

Therefore, h = {(A1)2 (V1)2 (1-a2/A2)}/a2 or,

h α Q2or Q α √h

i.e. Flow rate is proportional to square root of Differential Pressure.

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Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid
which is subjected to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities, in
which is known as a boundary layer in the case of a bounding surface such as the
interior of a pipe. A similar effect is created by the introduction of a stream of
higher velocity fluid, such as the hot gases from a flame in air. This relative
movement generates fluid friction, which is a factor in developing turbulent flow.
Counteracting this effect is the viscosity of the fluid, which as it increases,
progressively inhibits turbulence, as more kinetic energy is absorbed by a more
viscous fluid. The Reynolds number quantifies the relative importance of these two
types of forces for given flow conditions, and is a guide to when turbulent flow will
occur in a particular situation.

This ability to predict the onset of turbulent flow is an important design tool for
equipment such as piping systems or aircraft wings, but the Reynolds number is
also used in scaling of fluid dynamics problems, and is used to determine dynamic
similitude between two different cases of fluid flow, such as between a model
aircraft, and its full-size version. Such scaling is not linear and the application of
Reynolds numbers to both situations allows scaling factors to be developed.

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With respect to laminar and turbulent flow regimes:

 laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are
dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
 turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial
forces, which tend to produce chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow
instabilities.

The Reynolds number is defined as:

Rd = VD /

where:

Rd = Reynold Number,

V = Fluid velocity,

D = Diameter of Pipe,

 = Fluid Viscosity,

 = Fluid Density

For a circular cross section, if Reynold number is below 2100, then the flow is
Laminar, if more than 4000, it indicates the flow is Turbulent, and is between these
limits, the flow is termed as Transient.

In practice, matching the Reynolds number is not on its own sufficient to

guarantee similitude. Fluid flow is generally chaotic, and a very small change to
shape and surface roughness can result in very different flows. Nevertheless,
Reynolds numbers are a very important guide and are widely used.

Legends

Eddies: Small whirl, a moment in the flowing stream of liquid or gas, in which the current
doubles back to form a small whirl.

Vortices: Whirling mass, especially water or air, that draws everything near it, towards it’s
center.

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The most common types of differential pressure flow meters are:

Orifice Plates

An orifice plate is a plate with a circular hole in the middle of it. When fluid flows
through the hole, the velocity will increase and the pressure will decrease. Orifice
plates are commonly used when the flow is continuous and occupies the entire
pipe.

Figure 1. Example of an Orifice Plate

Flow Nozzles

A Flow Nozzle is very similar to an orifice plate, the main difference is that flow
nozzles have a gradual constriction rather than the abrupt constriction of an orifice
plate. Flow nozzles are common for high velocity, low viscosity flows. Flow
nozzles also have a greater flow capacity when compared to other differential
pressure meters.

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Figure 2. Example of a Flow Nozzle

Venturi Tubes

Venturi tubes are very common differential pressure flow meters because of their
simplicity and high pressure and energy recovery. Venturi tubes are very accurate
over wide flow ranges and the gradual contraction and expansion reduces the
drag and allows for a low-pressure loss.

Figure 3. Example of a Venturi Tube

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Rotameters (Variable Area)

Rotameters require a vertically oriented transparent pipe with a larger opening at
the top than the bottom. A float is then placed in the pipe and the upward fluid flow
causes the float to rise. Once the float has reached equilibrium, upward pressure
and buoyancy forces equal the gravitational forces, the flow rate can be
calculated.

This is a variable area meter. A long taper tube is graduated on its vertical axis.
The float moves freely in the tube and by an arrangement of shaped flutes in the
float it slowly rotates. As flow rate increases the float rises in the tube, so that the
annular (shaped like a ring) area increases, which means that the differential
pressure across the tube is at a constant value . The float can be arranged with a
magnet attachment and a follower magnet outside will transmit motion to a pointer
via linkage if required.

Figure 4. Example of a Rotameter

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2. Positive Displacement Flow Meters

Positive displacement flow meters are the only family of flow meters that directly
measure the volume of fluid passing through a pipe. This is achieved by passing a
specific amount of fluid with each rotation of the meter. A good analogy on how
these work is to imagine filling a bucket and dumping it numerous times to
measure the amount of water. Positive displacement flow meters are very
accurate regardless of the fluid’s viscosity, density, velocity, or temperature.
Because of the accuracy and ease of use, positive displacement flow meters are
commonly used for domestic water measurement. The main types of positive
displacement flow meters are:

Piston Flow Meters

Piston flow meters or rotary piston displacement meters are most commonly used
for domestic water measurement in the UK and are very common in pipes 1.5 in or
less. They operate by having a piston rotate in a chamber with a known volume.
Every rotation the piston makes passes a volume of water equivalent to the
chambers known volume down the pipe. Knowing the number of rotations and the
volume of the chamber allows the flow rate to be calculated.

Figure 5. Example of a Piston Flow Meter

Gear Flow Meters

Gear flow meters consist of two round gears that are mounted in overlapping
compartments. When a fluid flows through the inlet it gets trapped in the teeth of
the gear and is transported to the outlet. Knowing the volume of the voids between
the teeth and the wall and the number of rotation, the flow rate can be calculated.

Figure 6. Example of a Gear Flow Meter

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Helical Flow Meters

Helical or helical gear flow meters operate using the same principal of the previous
displacement flow meters. As the fluid flows through the inlet it causes the helix
shaped structure to rotate. As the meter rotates it traps a known amount of fluid in
the rotors, this fluid is then released towards the outlet. Knowing the speed of
rotation and the volume between the rotors, the flow rate is calculated.

Figure 7. Example of a Helical Flow Meter

3. Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Magnetic flow meters or, “mag meters”, use the principal of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction to calculate the fluid flow rate. Faraday’s law states that
a voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. For
this case, the liquid fluid serves as the conductor and the magnetic field is applied
to the metering pipe. This will create a potential difference that is monitored by
electrodes that are aligned perpendicular to the flow. The potential difference, or
voltage produced, is directly proportional to the velocity, which then allows us to
find the flow rate.

Figure 8. Example of an Electromagnetic Flow Meter

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Electromagnetic flow meters will only work if the fluid is conductive and the pipe,
where the flow meter is attached, is nonconductive. Magnetic flow meters also
have problems with the electrodes corroding while in contact with the fluid in the
pipe. Magnetic flow meters are good for measuring difficult and corrosive liquids
and slurries. They are also very convenient because they can measure flow rates
in both directions very accurately.

4. Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic or acoustic flow meters are of two types.

a) Doppler effect meters

b) Transit time meters.

At the heart of each ultrasonic transducer is a piezo-electric crystal. They are

glass disks about the size of a coin. These crystals are polarized and expand or
pulse a minute amount when electrical energy is applied to the surface electrodes.
As it pulses the transducer emits an ultrasonic beam approximately 5° wide at an
angle designed to efficiently pass through a pipe wall. The returning echo
(pressure pulse) impacts a second passive crystal and creates electrical energy.
This is the received signal in a Doppler or Transit Time transducer.

In both types the flow rate is deduced from the effect of flowing stream on sound
waves. Ultrasonic flow meters have numerous advantages over most of the
traditional metering methods: linearity, wide range ability without an induced
pressure drop or disturbance to the stream, achievable accuracy comparable to
that of orifice or venturi meters.

Doppler Flow Meters

Doppler flow meters use the principal that sound waves will be returned to a
transmitter at an altered frequency if reflectors in the liquid are in motion. This
frequency shift is in direct proportion to the velocity of the liquid. It is precisely
measured by the instrument to calculate the flow rate. So the liquid must contain
gas bubbles or solids for the Doppler measurement to work.

The magnitude of the frequency change is an indication of the speed of the sound
reflector. If the transmitter transmits ultrasonic waves of frequency f1 at an angle
ǿ, If the fluid is travelling at velocity v,the frequency of the reflected sound as
monitored by the receiver be f2 then:

V=c(f1-f2)/2f1cosǿ where c is the velocity of sound in fluid.

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For the principle to work in a flow meter, it is mandatory that the flowing stream
contain sonically reflective materials, such as solid particles or entrained air
bubbles. Without these reflectors, the Doppler system will not operate.

Doppler-effect flow meters use a transmitter that projects a continuous ultrasonic

beam at about 0.5 MHz through the pipe wall into the flowing stream. Particles in
the stream reflect the ultrasonic radiation which is detected by the receiver. The
frequency of the radiation reaching the receiver is shifted in proportion to the
stream velocity. The frequency difference is a measure of the flow rate.

Transit Time Ultrasonic Flow Meter

In contrast, the transit-time ultrasonic flow meter does not depend on the presence
of reflectors. With this type of meter, air bubbles and particles in the flowing
stream are undesirable because their presence (as reflectors) interferes with the
transmission and receipt of the ultrasonic radiation applied.

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Transit Time transducers typically operate in the 1-2 MHz frequencies. Higher
frequency designs are normally used in smaller pipes and lower frequencies for
large pipes up to several meters in diameter. So operators must select transducer
pairs/frequencies according to the application. Doppler transducers usually
operate at 640 kHz to 1 MHz frequencies and work on a wide range of pipe
diameters.

However, the fluid must be a reasonable conductor of sonic energy. At a given

temperature and pressure, ultrasonic energy will travel at a specific velocity
through a given liquid. Since the fluid is flowing at a certain velocity (to be
measured), the sound will travel faster in the direction of flow and slower against
the direction flow. By measuring the differences in arrival time of pulses travelling
in a downstream direction and pulses travelling in an upstream direction, this
transit time can serve as a measure of fluid velocity. Transit-time flow meters
transmit alternately upstream and downstream and calculate this time difference.

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Square Root Extractor

It should be apparent by now that the relationship between flow rate (whether it be
volumetric or mass) and differential pressure for any fluid-accelerating flow
element is non-linear: a doubling of flow rate will not result in a doubling of
differential pressure. Rather, a doubling of flow rate will result in a quadrupling of
differential pressure.

This quadratic relationship between flow and pressure drop due to fluid
acceleration requires us to mathematically “condition” or “characterize” the
pressure signal sensed by the differential pressure instrument in order to arrive at
an expressed value for flow rate. The traditional solution to this problem was to
incorporate a “square root” function relay between the transmitter and the flow
indicator, as shown in the following diagram:

The modern solution to this problem is to incorporate square-root signal

characterization either inside the transmitter or inside the receiving instrument
(e.g. indicator, recorder, or controller).

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In the days of pneumatic instrumentation, this square-root function was performed

in a separate device called a square root extractor. The Foxboro corporation
model 557 pneumatic square root extractor was a classic example of this
technology1:

Pneumatic square root extraction relays approximated the square-root function by

means of triangulated force or motion. In essence, they were trigonometric
function relays, not square-root relays. However, for small angular motions, certain
trigonometric functions were close enough to a square-root function that the relays
were able to serve their purpose in characterizing the output signal of a pressure
sensor to yield a signal representing flow rate.

The following table shows the ideal response of a pneumatic square root relay:

Input signal Input % Output % Output signal

3 PSI 0% 0% 3 PSI
4 PSI 8.33% 28.87% 6.464 PSI
5 PSI 16.67% 40.82% 7.899 PSI
6 PSI 25% 50% 9 PSI
7 PSI 33.33% 57.74% 9.928 PSI
8 PSI 41.67% 64.55% 10.75 PSI
9 PSI 50% 70.71% 11.49 PSI
10 PSI 58.33% 76.38% 12.17 PSI
11 PSI 66.67% 81.65% 12.80 PSI
12 PSI 75% 86.60% 13.39 PSI
13 PSI 83.33% 91.29% 13.95 PSI
14 PSI 91.67% 95.74% 14.49 PSI
15 PSI 100% 100% 15 PSI

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As you can see from the table, the square-root relationship is most evident in
comparing the input and output percentage values. For example, at an input signal
pressure of 6 PSI (25%), the output signal percentage will be the square root of
25%, which is 50% (0.5 = √0.25) or 9 PSI as a pneumatic signal. At an input signal
pressure of 10 PSI (58.33%), the output signal percentage will be 76.38%,
because 0.7638 = √0.5833, yielding an output signal pressure of 12.17 PSI.

Although analog electronic square-root relays have been built and used in industry
for characterizing the output of 4-20 mA electronic transmitters, a far more
common application of electronic square-root characterization is found in DP
transmitters with the square-root function built in. This way, an external relay
device is not necessary to characterize the DP transmitter’s signal into a flow rate
signal:

Using a characterized DP transmitter, any 4-20 mA sensing instrument connected

to the transmitter’s output wires will directly interpret the signal as flow rate rather
than as pressure. A calibration table for such a DP transmitter (with an input range
of 0 to 150 inches water column) is shown here:

Differential pressure % of input span Output % Output signal

0 ”W.C. 0% 0% 4 mA
37.5 ”W.C. 25% 50% 12 mA
75 ”W.C. 50% 70.71% 15.31 mA
112.5 ”W.C. 75% 86.60% 17.86 mA
150 ”W.C. 100% 100% 20 mA

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Once again, we see how the square-root relationship is most evident in comparing
the input and output percentages. Note how the four sets of percentages in this
table precisely match the same four percentage sets in the pneumatic relay table:
0% input gives 0% output; 25% input gives 50% output, 50% input gives 70.71%
output, etc.

An ingenious solution to the problem of square-root characterization, more

commonly applied before the advent of DP transmitters with built-in
characterization, is to use an indicating device with a square-root indicating scale.
For example, the following photograph shows a 3-15 PSI “receiver gauge”
designed to directly sense the output of a pneumatic DP transmitter:

Note how the gauge mechanism responds directly and linearly to a 3-15 PSI input
signal range (note the “3 PSI” and “15 PSI” labels in small print at the extremes of
the scale, and the linearly-spaced marks around the outside of the scale arc
representing 1 PSI each), but how the flow markings (0 through 10 on the inside of
the scale arc) are spaced in a non-linear fashion.

An electronic variation on this theme is to draw a square-root scale on the face of

a meter movement driven by the 4-20 mA output signal of an electronic DP
transmitter:

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Pneumatic Square Root Extractor

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Therefore, wherever an Orifice plate is used for flow measurement, it is necessary

that, the system should be equipped with a Square Root Extractor, in order to
make the output signal linear.

Orifice plate is a basic flow measurement instrument and cheapest with minimum
maintenance.

The output from Orifice plate is Pneumatic, that is compatible with the Controller.

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LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above a datum line.
Level measurements are made to a certain quantity of the liquid held within a
container.

Level offers both the pressure and rate of flow in and out of the container and as
such its measurement and control is an important function in a variety of
processes. The task of liquid level measurement may be accomplished by direct
methods and indirect methods.

1. Direct methods
2. Indirect methods
1. Direct Type
This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of
liquid is measured directly by means of the following level indicators:

1. Sight Glass
2. Float-type
3. Float and shaft liquid level gauge.
When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the scale
may be in the liquid or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to read the level
accurately because of parallax error. In this case a hook type of level indicator is
used.

The float material is less dense than the density of the liquid and floats up and
down on top of the material being measured. An advantage of the float sensor is
that it is almost independent of the density of the liquid or solid being monitored.

linear scale
counter
balance
weight

Sight glass Tank spring loaded

Figure: Sight Gauge, Float with Spring-Reel, Float with Linear Scale

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The float is at one end of a pivoted rod with the other end connected to the slider
of a potentiometer. Changes in level cause the float to move and hence move the
slider over the potentiometer resistance track and so give a potential difference
output related to the liquid level.

Advantages

 Large level measurement

 Inexpensive

Disadvantages

 Maintenance - requires cleaning

 Mechanical wear

2. Indirect Type
Differential Pressure
Perhaps the most frequently used device for the measurement of level is a
differential pressure transmitter. This device does not really measure level. It
measures the head pressure that the diaphragm senses due to the height of the
material in the vessel multiplied by a second variable, the density of the product.
This gives you the resultant force being exerted on the diaphragm, which is then
translated into a measurement of level.

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Principle of Operation

The high and low pressures are connected to opposite side of twin diaphragm
capsule. The force on capsule is transmitted through a flexure to the lower end of
force bar. The diaphragm seal serves as a seal for the pressure chamber. The
force is transmitted through the flexure connector to the range bar, which pivots on
the range adjustment wheel. Any movement of range bar causes a minute change
in the clearance between the flapper and nozzle. This produces a change in
output pressure from the amplifier to feedback bellows until the force on feedback
bellows balances the force on the diaphragm capsule. The output pressure is
proportional to the differential pres applied.

The output pressure, which is established by this force balance is the transmitted
signal and is proportional to the differential pressure applied to the diaphragm
capsule. This signal is transmitted to a pneumatic receiver to record, indicate, and
or control.

For a Pneumatic Differential Pressure Transmitter when level varies from

minimum to maximum, the transmitter output varies from 3 PSI to 15 PSI.

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Advantages
A primary benefit of DP’s is that it can be readily installed on a vessel. It can be
easily removed using block valves.

Disadvantages

D/P transmitters subject to errors due to density variations of the liquid. Density
variations are caused by temperature changes or change of product. These
variations must always be compensated for if accurate measurements are to be
made. DP’s are primarily useful for clean liquids. They require two tank entrances,
one of which is near the bottom where leaks are most problematic. D/P’s should
not be used with liquids that solidify as their concentrations increase.

Bubblers

This simple level measurement has a dip tube installed with the open end close to
the bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas (usually air) passes through the
tube and when air bubbles escape from the open end, the air pressure in the tube
corresponds to the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel. The air pressure in
the bubble pipe varies proportionally with the change in head pressure.

Air is supplied under pressure, so that when the tank is empty, there is no back
pressure. As liquid level rises, the force exerted by the head of liquid on the air
pressure in the tube increases, hence pressure in the gauge rises. Hence, the
gauge pressure is proportional to the level in the liquid tank. The requirement of
the system is that, we must have compressed air in order for gauge to work.

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Purge System

For small air flow rate, about one bubble per second, a pressure equal to that in
the dip tube will be applied to the indicator as shown in figure below. This simple
bubbler device is an arrangement that is similar to the well known pneumercator
used for determining depths of water and oil in tanks. Air supply to the open
ended pipe in the tank will have a pressure which is directly proportional to the
depth of liquid in the tank.

Advantages

Simplicity of design and low initial purchase cost are frequently given as
advantages of bubblers, but this is somewhat misleading. The system consists of
a pipe, an air supply, a pressure transmitter and a differential pressure regulator.
The regulator produces the constant gas flow required to prevent calibration
changes.

Disadvantages

Calibration is directly affected by changes in product density. It is frequently also

necessary to periodically clean this device. The tip of the pipe can collect material
from the process, solidify, and plug the hole. Bubblers are not suitable for use in
non-vented vessels.

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Ultrasonic / Sonic

Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of sending a sound wave from a piezo
electric transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length
of time it takes for the reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A
successful measurement depends on reflection from the process material in a
straight line back to the transducer.

Advantages

The appeal of ultrasonic is that, the transducer does not come in contact with the
process material and does not contain any moving parts. A single top-side tank
penetration makes leaks improbable.

Disadvantages

There are various influences that affect the return signal. Things such as dust,
heavy vapours, surface turbulence, foam and even ambient noise can affect the
returning signal. Temperature can also be a limiting factor in many process
applications.

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Radar Type

Two technologies are frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) or pulsed

wave time of flight. FMCW is fast enough for tank gauging, but normally too slow
to measure the turbulent surfaces encountered in agitated process applications.
The sensor emits a microwave pulse towards the process material. This pulse is
reflected by the surface of the material and detected by the same sensor which
now acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the time of flight (transmission to
reception) of the microwave signal. Microwave “echoes” are evaluated by
sampling echoes and building up a retarded profile of the echoes.

Advantages

This non-contact technology produces highly accurate measurements in storage

tanks and some process vessels. Radar is an excellent, but fairly expensive
technology for continuous level measurements when applied to tank gauging and
inventory control. Several manufacturers have reduced the cost/price of the
technology with a process radar offering. This system does not have the accuracy
(and associated cost) of radar used for inventory control. The system has very
high accuracy, ignores vapours and is immune to most physical characteristics of
the material measured, other than dielectric constant.

Disadvantages

The primary disadvantage is cost, which can be justified for tank gauging and
inventory control. The pressure ratings on the radar antenna is limited and these
devices cannot measure interfaces.

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Capacitance Type

Principle: the electrical capacitance between two electrodes varies with the
dielectric constant of the material between them. System consists of a insulated
rod electrode positioned vertically in a vessel, so that the length should be able to
reach the water at all acceptable levels, the other electrode usually being the
metallic vessel wall.

Capacitance level detectors are also referred to as radio frequency (RF) or

admittance level sensors. They operate in the low MHz radio frequency range,
measuring admittance of an alternating current (ac) circuit that varies with level.
Admittance is a measure of the conductivity in an ac circuit, and is the reciprocal
of impedance. Admittance and impedance in an ac circuit are similar to
conductance and resistance in a direct current (dc)

Insulated Electrode and Vessel Valve act as a Capacitor with water or other
conductive medium, as a variable dielectric medium

Detection of level is measured by variation of capacitance which is accomplished

by alteration in dielectric strength. One plate of the capacitor is a probe, possibly
made of stainless steel, the other is the shell and both are connected to an ac
bridge which is supplied with high frequency low voltage alternating current. As
the interface moves the dielectric strength (relative permittivity r) alters.

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Level Sensor Capacitor

If the area (A) of and the distance (D) between the plates of a capacitor remain
constant, capacitance will vary only as a function of the dielectric constant of the
substance filling the gap between the plates. If a change in level causes a
change in the total dielectric of the capacitance system, because the lower part of
area (A) is exposed to a liquid (dielectric l) while the upper part is in contact with
a vapor (dielectric v, which is close to 1.0), the capacitance measurement will be
proportional to level.

Capacitance Formula

C= A/D

Where,
A = Plate surface area
 = Permittivity (dielectric constant)
D = distance between the plates

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The electronic circuitry of the probe performs the functions of:

1) rectifying and filtering the incoming power,

2) generating the radio frequency signal (400 KHz),
3) measuring the changes in current flow, and
4) driving and controlling interface devices such as relays, analog signal
generators and display meters.

The circuitry is usually of solid state design and provided with potentiometer
adjustments for setting sensitivity and time delays.

The electrical capacitance between the electrodes is a measure of the height of

the interface along the rod electrode. The rod is usually conductivity insulated from
process fluids by a coating of plastic. The dielectric constant of the liquid must be
known for this type of measurement. The dielectric constant can vary with
temperature so that temperature correction may be required.

Advantages:

 Very easy installation

 Wide application range
 Good accuracy
 Suitable for highly corrosive media
 Well-known and proven technology
Disadvantages:

 Sensitivity to changes in the material properties

 Build-up

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Conductive Level Detection

Used for high and low-level detection. The electrode or conductivity probe uses
the conductivity of a fluid to detect the presence of the fluid at the sensing location.
The signal provided is either ON or OFF.

 No contact with the probe the electrical resistance will be very high or even
infinite.
 Fluid covers the probe the resistance in the circuit will be reduced.

Advantages
 Very simple and inexpensive
 No moving parts
 Good for dual point control (level switching control) in one instrument
 Good for high pressure applications

Disadvantages

 Limited application for products of varying conductivity

 Restricted to conductive and non-coating processes
 Possible electrolytic corrosion

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AMBIENT TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION

Ambient temperature fluctuations are commonly encountered in industrial process

environments. Individually characterized transmitters compensate for these
fluctuations, resulting in improved measurement accuracy and stability. This
reduction in variability allows the process to be operated closer to the set point,
resulting in greater throughput.

Thermal Image

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VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to gradual deformation, which is

being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for
fluids only), viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is "thin",
having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. Put
simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement (fluidity).

Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a

measure of fluid friction. The study of flowing matter is known as Rheology, which
includes viscosity and related concepts.

There are two relative measures of fluid viscosity:

1) Dynamic (or Absolute)

2) Kinematic

Dynamic Viscosity

Dynamic Viscosity is a measure of internal resistance. It is a tangential force per

unit area required to move one horizontal plane w.r.t. an other plane.

Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity is the ratio of dynamic (or absolute) viscosity to density –

quantity when no force is involved.

V=/p

Where,

V = Kinematic Viscosity (m2 / s)

 = Dynamic Viscosity (Ns / m2)

P = Density (Kg / m3 )

In the SI unit system, the theoretical unit of Kinematic Viscosity is m 2/s or Stoke
(St).

Since, the Stoke is a large unit, it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit,
centistokes (cSt).

1St = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s

1St = 100cSt

1cSt = 1mm2/s (or 10-6 m2/s)

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Specific gravity of water at 20.2oC is almost 1 and Kinematic Viscosity of water at

20.2oC is 1.0 mm2/s (cSt)

 For liquid, the kinematic viscosity decreases with higher

temperature.
 For Gas, the kinematic viscosity increases with higher
temperature.

Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. A

rheometer is used for those fluids which cannot be defined by a single value of
viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is
the case for a viscometer. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential to
accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity
can double with a change of only 5 °C.

For some fluids, viscosity is a constant over a wide range of shear rates
(Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a constant viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids)
cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of
different correlations between shear stress and shear rate.

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Depending on their viscosity behaviour as a function of shear rate, stress,

deformation history..., fluids are characterized as Newtonian or non-Newtonian.

Newtonian Fluids

Newtonian fluids, where the viscous stresses arising from its flow, at every point
are linearly proportional to the local strain rate – i.e. the rate of change of its
deformation over time. Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of
fluids that account for viscosity.

Newtonian fluids are named after Sir Isaac Newton (1642 - 1726) who described
the flow behaviour of fluids with a simple linear relation between shear stress
[mPa] and shear rate [1/s]. This relationship is now known as Newton's Law of
Viscosity, where the proportionality constant η is the viscosity [mPa-s] of the fluid:

A Newtonian fluid's viscosity remains constant, no matter the amount of shear

applied for a constant temperature. These fluids have a linear relationship
between viscosity and shear stress.
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Examples: Water, Mineral oil, Gasoline, Alcohol

For these fluids viscosity is only dependent on temperature. As a result, if we look

at a plot of shear stress versus shear rate (See Figure 1) we can see a linear
increase in stress with increasing shear rates, where the slope is given by the
viscosity of the fluid. This means that the viscosity of Newtonian fluids will remain
a constant (see Figure 2) no matter how fast they are forced to flow through a pipe
or channel (i.e. viscosity is independent of the rate of shear).

An exception to the rule is Bingham plastics, which are fluids that require a
minimum stress to be applied before they flow. These are strictly non-Newtonian,
but once the flow starts they behave essentially as Newtonian fluids (i.e. shear
stress is linear with shear rate). A great example of this kind of behavior is
mayonnaise.

Newtonian fluids are normally comprised of small isotropic (symmetric in shape

and properties) molecules that are not oriented by flow. However, it is also
possible to have Newtonian behavior with large anisotropic molecules. For
example, low concentration protein or polymer solutions might display a constant
viscosity regardless of shear rate. It is also possible for some samples to display
Newtonian behavior at low shear rates with a plateau known as the zero shear
viscosity region.

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Non-Newtonian Fluids

When shear is applied to non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity of the fluid changes.
The behavior of the fluid can be described one of four ways:

 Dilatant - Viscosity of the fluid increases when shear is applied. For

example:
o Quicksand
o Cornflour and water
o Silly putty
 Pseudoplastic - Pseudoplastic is the opposite of dilatant; the more shear
applied, the less viscous it becomes. For example:
o Ketchup
 Rheopectic - Rheopectic is very similar to dilatant in that when shear is
applied, viscosity increases. The difference here, is that viscosity increase
is time-dependent. For example:
o Gypsum paste
o Cream
 Thixotropic - Fluids with thixotropic properties decrease in viscosity when
shear is applied. This is a time dependent property as well. For example:
o Paint
o Cosmetics
o Asphalt
o Glue

In reality most fluids are non-Newtonian, which means that their viscosity is
dependent on shear rate (Shear Thinning or Thickening) or the deformation history
(Thixotropic fluids). In contrast to Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids display
either a non-linear relation between shear stress and shear rate (see Figure 1),
have a yield stress, or viscosity that is dependent on time or deformation history
(or a combination of all the above!).

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A fluid is shear thickening if the viscosity of the fluid increases as the shear rate
increases (see Figure 2). A common example of shear thickening fluids is a
mixture of cornstarch and water. Fluids are shear thinning if the viscosity
decreases as the shear rate increases. Shear thinning fluids, also known as
pseudo-plastics, are ubiquitous in industrial and biological processes. Common
examples include ketchup, paints and blood.

Non-Newtonian behavior of fluids can be caused by several factors, all of them

related to structural reorganization of the fluid molecules due to flow. In polymer
melts and solutions, it is the alignment of the highly anisotropic chains what results
in a decreased viscosity. In colloids, it is the segregation of the different phases in
the flow that causes a shear thinning behavior.

Viscometer

A Viscometer (also called as a Viscosimeter), is an instrument used to measure

the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions,
an instrument called a Rheometer is used. Thus, a viscometer can be considered
as a special type of Rheometer. Viscometers only measure under one flow
condition.

In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or
the object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative
motion of the fluid and a surface is a measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions
must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar
flow.

At 20.00 degrees Celsius the dynamic viscosity (kinematic viscosity x density) of

water is 1.0038 mPa·s and its kinematic viscosity (product of flow time x Factor) is
1.0022 mm2/s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometers.

Types of Viscometers
1. Capillary viscometer
2. Orifice viscometer
3. Falling ball viscometer
4. Falling piston viscometer
5. Oscillating piston viscometer
6. Vibrational viscometers
7. Rotational viscometers
8. Bubble viscometer
9. Rectangular-slit viscometer

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Capillary Viscometer (Viscosity Sensor)

It measures the differential pressure resulting from the laminar flow through a
capillary tube. Viscosity of the fluid to be measured is passed through a fine
capillary tube with fixed dimensions, and the pressure drop across the capillary tub
is measured.

Pressure drop across the capillary is proportional to the viscosity of fluid if the
dimension of capillary is fixed.

Working Principal of Viscotherm

Viscotherm

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To obtain a continuous reading of viscosity of a fluid such as oil fuel for an IC

engine, the theory covering isothermal laminar flow in circular tubes has to be
considered. This involves a constant quantity of oil supplied under isothermal
conditions and laminar flow to a capillary tube of constant cross section area and
given length. Under these conditions the viscosity becomes a linear function of the
pressure drop across the capillary tube.

Here a constant quantity of oil is taken from the flow into the meter and supplied
by a precision gear pump, driven at 40 rpm by an electric motor via reduction
gears, to a capillary tube through which it flows under laminar (streamline)
conditions. (Laminar flow indicates that there are no cross currents or eddies). The
pressure drop across the tube is measured by a D.P. cell and the signal obtained
is directly proportional to the viscosity of the oil. This signal may then be used to
operate a control system adjusting the steam valve to an oil fuel heater.

The unit should be placed as near as possible to the heater discharge. All parts
are of stainless steel.

The pressure drop across the capillary is sent across the oil separately chambers,
which is filled with Ethylene Glycol. Ethylene Glycol has a Specific Gravity less
than Diesel Oil and Heavy Oil, and also it is immiscible with oil. In addition to this,
it has a very good pressure transmitting properties. Output of oil separating
chamber is passed to differential pressure transmitter, where measured DP is
converted into pneumatic signal. Since fuel oil pressure onboard the ship’s
fluctuate slightly even if engine is running at fixed RPM, this differential pressure
signal is passed through the needle valve where hunting is reduce to minimum.
This measured Differential Pressure acts as a measured value signal and passed
to a P-I-D Controller which is equipped with set point value and based on the
difference in set value and measured value, the controller sends output signal,
which operated the steam valve of the heater.

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Viscosity Controller Loop Diagram

A typical system is shown in the figure. The differential pressure signal from the
measuring unit is fed to a transmitter and then to a control station, i.e. P+ I
controller. Any deviation from the desired value within the controller will bring
about a signal to the control valve. The control valve movement will result in either
an increase or decrease in the steam supply to the fuel oil heaters. This will result
in either an increase or decrease in the fuel viscosity. In order to obtain a stable
control of viscosity the measuring unit should be located close to the heater outlet
flange.

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Rotational Viscometer
It operates on the principle of measuring the rate of rotation of a solid shape in a
viscous medium upon application of a known force or torque required to rotate the
solid shape at a definite angular velocity.

They have several advantages that make them attractive particularly to study the
flow properties of non-Newtonian materials.

Some of the advantages are:

1. Measurements under steady state conditions

2. Multiple measurements with the same sample at different shear rates
3. Continuous measurement on materials whose properties may be function of
temperature
4. Small or no variation in the rate of shear within the sample during a
measurement.

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Electronic Viscosity Sensor

The sensor itself comprises of a sealed stainless steel pendulum, attached to a

base plate via a torsion tube.

The sealed pendulum comprises of two sets of piezos in side.

 The Driver Piezos

 Receiver Piezos

The driver Piezos are driven by an alternating signal which causes the pendulum
to move in a torsional manner leading to torsional vibration. The second pair of
piezo element i.e. receiver piezo sense the torsional movement via a feedback
and processor function.

A signal is returned to the driver piezos to ensure the ensure the continued
torsional vibration. The processor function measures the phase difference
between the sending and receiving signal. The phase difference is further
processed resulting in value of dampening which is proportional to square root of
fluid viscosity.

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Sensor Electronic Controller

Advantages

a) Stable and accurate in line measurement

b) No moving parts
c) Compact and light-weight construction
d) Smooth edged pendulum
e) Torsional vibration measuring principle, which is not
f) influenced by vibration, flow velocity and dirt particle
g) Minimum load on the component
h) Calibrated for life
i) Provides both viscosity and temperature output.
j) Maximum error 1-2% for viscosity
k) Maximum temperature error less than 1 degree centigrade.

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TORQUE MEASUREMENT

Torques can be divided into two major categories, either static or dynamic. The
methods used to measure torque can be further divided into two more categories,
either reaction or in-line. Understanding the type of torque to be measured, as well
as the different types of torque sensors that are available, will have a profound
impact on the accuracy of the resulting data, as well as the cost of the
measurement.

Static Vs Dynamic
In a discussion of static vs. dynamic torque, it is often easiest to start with an
understanding of the difference between a static and dynamic force. To put it
simply, a dynamic force involves acceleration, were a static force does not. The
relationship between dynamic force and acceleration is described by Newton’s
second law; F=ma (force equals mass times acceleration). The force required to
stop your car with its substantial mass would be a dynamic force, as the car must
be decelerated. The force exerted by the brake calliper in order to stop that car
would be a static force because there is no acceleration of the brake pads
involved.

Torque is just a rotational force, or a force through a distance. From the previous
discussion, it is considered static if it has no angular acceleration. The torque
exerted by a clock spring would be a static torque, since there is no rotation and
hence no angular acceleration. The torque transmitted through a cars drive axle
as it cruises down the highway (at a constant speed) would be an example of a
rotating static torque, because even though there is rotation, at a constant speed
there is no acceleration. The torque produced by the car engine will be both static
and dynamic, depending on where it is measured. If the torque is measured in the
crankshaft, there will be large dynamic torque fluctuations as each cylinder fires
and its pistonwill rotate the crankshaft. If the torque is measured in the drive shaft
it will be nearly static because the rotational inertia of the flywheel and
transmission will dampen the dynamic torque produced by the engine. The torque
required to crank up the windows in a car (everyone remember those?) would be
an example of a static torque, even though there is a rotational acceleration
involved, because both the acceleration and rotational inertia of the crank are very
small and the resulting dynamic torque (Torque = rotational inertia x rotational
acceleration) will be negligible when compared to the frictional forces involved in
the window movement. This last example illustrates the fact that for most
measurement applications, both static and dynamic torques will be involved to
some degree. If dynamic torque is a major component of the overall torque or is
the torque of interest, special considerations must be made when determining how
best to measure it.
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Reaction Vs In-Line
In-line torque measurements are made by inserting a torque sensor between
torque carrying components, much like inserting an extension between a socket
and a socket wrench (see below).

The torque required to turn the socket will be carried directly by the socket
extension. This method allows the torque sensor to be placed as close as possible
to the torque of interest and avoid possible errors in the measurement such as
parasitic torques (bearings, etc.), extraneous loads, and components that have
large rotational inertias that would dampen any dynamic torques.

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TELEMETERING

There are a wide range of variables to be measured. Detecting and measuring

elements are mainly electrical but a significant number are displacement operated
mechanical types. Chemical and electronic devices are also used.

Transducers can generally be simplified into three basic reversible types namely:

 mechanical displacements  pneumatic

 mechanical displacement  electrical
 pneumatic  electrical

Pneumatic principles are invariably flapper nozzle; orifice, diaphragm . Electrical

principles include resistance change, variable inductance, variable capacitance,
current or voltage, with frequency and phase used to a limited extent. Conversion
of electrical signal is also used, i .e. resistance-current, voltage-current, etc . and
such modern transducers often incorporate electronic oscillators and amplifiers.

Telemetering may be defined as signal transmission over a considerable distance.

The device at the measure point, usually a transducer, is then often called a
transmitter with the receiver located at the recording or control centre .

The material in thin chapter will be covered in three sections namely pneumatic
transmitters, electrical transmitters, receivers .

Pneumatic Transmitters

Position-Balance Transducer (Pneumatic)

Displacement of a mechanical linkage gives variation in pneumatic signal output

pressure. The flapper-nozzle is the basis of many pneumatic mechanisms and the
position (motion) balance is essentially a balance of positions

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Position Balance Transducer (Pneumatic)

Ideally equal increments of flapper movement should produce equal increments of

pressure output, i.e. linear proportionality. In practice this is only achieved over a
limited flapper travel. To ensure increased sensitivity and linearity negative
feedback is used via a bellows. Linear output over the pressure range is obtained
for an effective flapper travel range near the nozzle of about 0.015 mm. Output
signal pressure is proportional to actuating link travel and the device is adjustable
by varying the mechanical advantage of the flapper lever, i.e. altering the x
dimension to the right or the Ieft. A typical output pressure-flapper travel
characteristic is included in Fig above. The device is obviously a displacement-air
pressure transducer, displacement variation from flow, level, etc. variables. A
pneumatic relay can be fitted on the air input.

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Force Balance Transducer (Pneumatic)

Force-Balance Transducer (Pneumatic)

This is essentially a null method, i .e. equal and opposite forces (torques) which
eliminates inherent errors of the position-balance device. Consider Fig. above, the
flapper is a constrained bar pivoted about a fulcrum (adjustment of which varies
mechanical advantage and thus changes proportion of input to output change) .
Bellows have equal effective area. With the device in equilibrium assume an
increase in measured signal pressure which will produce a net up force and
clockwise torque on the bar. The flapper movement towards the nozzle will
continue until the increased output pressure in the feedback bellows produces an
anti-clockwise torque, to balance the actuating torque, and at this point equilibrium
is restored. Again a displacement variable to air pressure transducer. A relay may
be fitted.

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Electro-Pneumatic Transducer

The unit shown in Fig . below is based on the force balance principle with input
variable of current (10-50 mA DC is usual) . Electrical current signal variation
causes a torque motor to produce a variable force (F) which is balanced by the
feedback pneumatic bellows force (B) at equilibrium. The bar is circular and
between the poles of the permanent magnet acts as an armature when excited by
a DC current. Consider an increase in armature current; the strength of the
armature poles will increase accordingly. The S pole will move up as unlike poles
attract and produce a clockwise moment about the pivot whilst the N pole will
move down producing an anti-clockwise moment. The moment arm of the S pole
force is greater so there is a net clockwise moment. This action closes in on the
nozzle giving a higher output pressure and increasing the feedback bellows force
until equilibrium is achieved, i.e . a direct acting transducer . An alternative torque
motor design utilises a suspended coil within the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet. Fig . below is an input electrical (current) to output pneumatic pressure
transducer (I/P) .

Electro-Pneumatic Transducer

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Electrical Transmitter

Consider first three examples of position (motion) balance converters namely

variable resistance, inductance and capacitance.

Variable Resistance Transducer

In this simple and early form of transducer the mechanical movement of the
measuring element connection varies the electrical circuit resistance. "The device
is restricted in use due to contact problems, variations in wire connection
resistance and the need for a constant stabilised voltage supply. Two types are
shown in Fig. below, i.e . mV measurement and mA measurement locally or
remote, the latter is a potentiometer technique.

Displacement may be due to any variable variation, i.e . level, pressure, etc . via
Bourdon tube, diaphragm or similar displacement device . Provision of a cross coil
measuring meter, or remote receiver, makes indication virtually independent of
supply voltage variations. One coil is directly energised from supply (current
proportional to voltage) and a cross coil is deflected by measurement current so
that deflection of the meter within the permanent magnet is proportional only to
resistance of the transmitter. This is a two-coil ratiometer.

Variable Contact Resistance Transducer

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Other Resistance System

The Wheatstone bridge principle is used in many cases, both DC and AC, with
direct or null balance techniques.

Variable Inductance Transducer

The unit shown in Fig. below is a differential transformer with three coils fully
wound on a cylindrical former (only halt the winding is shown on the sketch for
simplicity). The core, which is moved laterally by displacement of a sensor
element, provides the magnetic linking flux path between coils. The primary ac
voltage induces secondary voltages and as the two secondary windings are in
series opposition the two outputs are opposite in magnitude and phase with the
core laterally in the middle of the former.

Variable Inductance Transducer

With the core moved right the induced voltage in secondary 2 winding increases
and that in secondary 1 decrease so giving a differential output. Similarly
movement left gives a voltage difference but 180° out of phase. The characteristic
can be linear with zero volts at mid travel. Input displacement, from such as
Bourdon tube or diaphragm is converted to an electrical signal for telemetering to
indicators, recorders, data processing or electronic controllers.

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Many electrical transducers are combined in the transmitting unit with oscillators
and amplifiers of solid state modular assemblies. The oscillator supply in Fig.
above from a power supply unit is commonly at 12V DC and incorporates a
chopper unit, ac amplifier and output-feedback stage. A stabilised current to the
primary winding of about 5 mA is often used from say a 1.6 kHz oscillator. The
amplifier itself, 12V do supply, accepts ac input from the differential transformer
via ac bridge circuits at up to 2 mA and gives output via demodulator-filter circuits
at about 50 mA maximum, dc. It is effectively a do input do output system.

This inductance ratio system can employ any type of receiver. For a simple
system direct AC supply, without oscillator and amplifier, can be used and ac
output passed across a bridge rectifier for each coil to a two-coil ratiometer with
pointer indicator.

In an inductance balance system the receiver is identical to the transmitter with

secondary windings interconnected. Unbalanced EMFs due to displacement and
inductance change at the transmitter result in corresponding displacement at the
receiver so as to maintain current in each part of the circuit constant.

(The lever and gearbox are mechanical transformers.)

Variable Capacitance Transducer

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

A is plate area, e absolute permittivity and d plate separation. For displacement

measurement a parallel RL resonant circuit can be utilised. Alternatively a
differential capacitor principle can be used for displacement-current conversion,
and is now described.

Differential Capacitor Transducer

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The central plate of the differential capacitor is moved vertically by the

displacement of a sensor device. The outer plates are connected to a combined
oscillator, amplifier, rectifier unit.

Movement of the centre plate, towards one fixed plate and away from the other
gives a change in capacitance to the oscillator-amplifier. A change in output
current to receiver results.

Electronic Force-Balance System

An electro-pneumatic converter has already been described and an alternative

pneumatic (pressure, force, displacement, etc.) electric converter can now be
considered.

When movement varies the inductance, coupled to the oscillator amplifier, let us
assume amplifier output current increases. This will continue until the feedback
current on the force motor produces equilibrium. Effective full scale beam travel is
only about 25 microns. Input may be from Bourdon tube or diaphragm. The device
is referred to as a P/I transducer.

Electronic Force Balance System

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Voltage-Current Transducer

It is often necessary to use a mV/I converter when dealing with thermocouple or

resistance thermometer inputs. Such a device is shown in Fig . below.

Deviation between input mV and a standardised zero suppression voltage, from a

zener diode power pack and bridge, is algebraically added and passed through a
filter network (to avoid stray ac pick - up). This signal is algebraically added to the
feedback stabilising loop of the amplifier and passed through the amplifier to
output. Adjustable resistors A, C, D allow temperature correction, zero adjustment
and span control of feedback; B measured value. A do amplifier can be used. If an
ac amplifier is preferred a chopper input and synchro-rectifier output is needed,
output and feedback isolated by a transformer.

Voltage-Current Transducer

Receivers

The variation of receiver types is very large ranging from direct measuring meters,
recorders, display units, controllers and analysing units . In many cases if a
transducer is used it is merely a form of converter device as already described in
this chapter. Frequently it is not possible to sensibly separate transmitter and
receiver because they are inherently linked in operating principle . With these
provisos in mind a selection of units not previously, or subsequently, described are
now presented.

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Receiver Integrator

Receiver Integrator

This receiver is for flow recording. Down force on bellows (B) from increased
(above datum) input signal (proportional to square of flow measurement) and
about fulcrum (X) closes force bar (F) into nozzle (N). Increased pressure from
relay (R) acts on a 60 "tooth" turbine wheel ('I') to cause rotation and equilibrium is
obtained when up force due to centrifugal force (proportional to square of turbine
wheel speed) through thrust pin (I') on bar balances down force . Adjustment is via
spring (S) causing movement of weights (W) (up increases feedback force and
reduces counts per unit input pressure).

Turbine wheel speed is directly proportional to flow, and by gear reduction to the
counter, indication is of total flow

Potentiometer Pen Recorder

The potentiometer is used a great deal in instrument systems and also control
systems (position control). For recording of small DC voltage it is usual to convert
to a suitable frequency AC and amplify, although DC amplification can be used.
Conversion to ac is achieved in a DC chopper amplifier with output direct to servo-
amplifier pen drive motor.

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Potentiometer Circuit

Input do voltage, from say a thermocouple, is measured against slide-wire voltage

at B with a constant voltage bridge source. Difference between A and B is
amplified at the continuous balance unit so energising the balancing motor to
move pen arm and B until the voltage difference is zero. Similar arrangements
utilise conductivity, ratio, bridge, etc . circuits. The balancing motor is two phase
with a reference winding and a control winding from the balance unit. Input to the
balance unit incorporates a converter and centre tap of an input transformer. The
vibrating reed converter, in moving between two contacts, allows current to pass
alternately through each half of the transformer. Secondary ac voltage is amplified
and fed to the control winding of the balancing motor, so timed with ac supply to
give the correct restoring action. The chart is driven by a constant speed geared
motor. A damping feedback tachogenerator driven from the balance motor is often
fitted.

XY Recorder

Used to measure a quantity Y, varying with X, where X is not a function of time.

Two servo systems, perpendicularly connected, cause the pen to move to any
area position on the chart. Inputs cause perpendicular travel related to X and Y.

Position Motors (DC)

One technique is to feed current into a toroid resistor transmitter with three
tappings connecting to a three phase star winding enclosing a two pole rotor
receiver . This is sometimes referred to as a Desynn transmission link. A similar
principle is used in the position indicator (electric telegraph).

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Position Indicator (Electric Telegraph)

Figure above shows the arrangement in equilibrium with equal currents (1) in line
B and C and zero current in line A. The receiver rotor is locked by equal and
opposite torques from the attractions on unlike pole faces. Assume the transmitter
to be moved 30 ° clockwise. Current flows to receiver from line C, subdivides at
point X and equal currents return through lines A and B of magnitude 1/2. This
creates a strong N pole at fixed magnet X and two weak S poles at the other two
fixed magnets. The receiver indicator will therefore turn to the corresponding
equilibrium position, i.e. 30° clockwise.

Position Motors (AC)

These devices are usually known by trade names such as synchro, resolver,
magslip and for larger powers, selsyn. Figure 6.12 shows a transmitter and
receiver of a Synchro system.

Synchro System

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Both rotors are supplied from the same ac source and stators are linked in star.
With rotors in the same angular position EMFs from transmitter and receiver
stators balance and there is no circulatory current. If the transmitter rotor is
moved, induced EMFs are unequal and current circulates so producing a torque to
bring the receiver rotor into line and restore equilibrium. Zero receiver torque
exists at alignment and maximum occurs at 90° out of alignment. The resolver
system is similar but utilises two phase and is used for both fine control and data
processing systems. An intermediate Synchro (follow through, hunter differential,
etc.) can be arranged, with three phase rotor and stator connections, so that
summing or differential control outputs are possible.

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OIL AND WATER INTERFACE AND MONITORING EQUIPMENT

The measurement of oil in or on water is an important requirement in both

industrial and environmental pollution protection related applications. Both
applications are discussed in this section, starting with the industrial process
applications.

An interface detector is an electrical instrument for detecting the boundary

between oil and water in tanks. However, the equipment is not limited to oil/water
application but can be used wherever an accurate interface control between two
liquids is necessary.

The most common applications of these sensors are for inter-face measurements
between the layers of oil and water in tanks and pipelines. Conductivity,
capacitance, and ultrasonic level probes and probe or flow-through conductivity
analysers are widely used for detecting such interfaces.

In other applications, it is desirable to detect the amount of oil that is dispersed in

a water stream. Ultraviolet analysers are well suited for the measurement of oil in
water. When the dispersed oil content increases, float and displacement type level
sensors and density detectors can also be considered. A radio-frequency (RF)
type oil concentration detector can also be used.

Capacitance-Type Water-in-Oil Detectors

The capacitance of water is much higher (its dielectric constant is about 80) than
that of oil (about 2), so measuring the dielectric constant is a convenient way to tell
them apart. In addition to conventional capacitance probes, special dual-
concentric designs are also available to detect the interface between water and oil
in tanks, figure 1. In addition, flow-through sensors are also available for in-
pipeline applications.

The flow-through version of the dual-concentric electrode design is illustrated in

figure 2. Here, the electrodes consist of two concentric pipes that are insulated
from each other, thereby forming the capacitor through which the process stream
flows. The flanged spool piece is available in sizes from 2 to 8 in. (50 to 200 mm)
and is designed for operation up to 150 PSIG (10.6 bar) and 212°F (100°C). The
unit is available with switching or transmitting (4 to 20 mA) electronics.

The water-in-oil sensor is most often applied for the purpose of setting the
maximum amount of water that is allowed to be present in the oil. When that
concentration is reached, the flow is diverted or other corrective action is taken.

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Figure 1: Dual-concentric capacitance probe for the detection of water in oil.

OUTER ELECTRODE

INNER ELECTRODE

Figure 2: Flow-through water-in-oil detector utilizing two concentric capacitance

electrodes

Radio-Frequency (Microwave) Sensors

When a cup containing water and oil is placed in a microwave oven, the water will
heat up, but the oil will not. This is because shortwave RF energy is absorbed
much more efficiently by water than by oil.

In a radio-wave detector, the transmitter produces waves that are of fixed

frequency and contain a constant amount of energy. The more of this energy that
is absorbed by the process fluid (the more water is in the mixture), the lower will
be the voltage at the detector. The advantages of this design (relative to
capacitance systems) include wider range (0 to 100%), lower sensitivity to build-
up, insensitivity to temperature and salinity variations, and suitability for higher-
temperature operations (up to 450°F, or 232°C).

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Ultrasonic Sensors

The ultrasonic sensor used for detecting oil in condensate returning to the hotwell /
cascade tank contains two piezoelectric crystals. A high frequency signal (3.7
MHz) generated by the control unit is transmitted to one piezoelectric crystal by
coaxial cable. This crystal converts the electrical signal into an ultrasonic
oscillation.
The sensor design allows the ultrasonic oscillation to pass from the transmitter
crystal to the receiver piezoelectric crystal.
The Sensors are “gap” type sensors, where the two piezoelectric crystals are
separated by a gap. When the gap is in liquid the signal reaches the receiver,
because of the low ultrasonic attenuation of the liquid. When the gap is filled with
air, no ultrasonic signal can pass from transmitter to receiver. See Fig below.

When the gap is filled with liquid, the piezoelectric receiver crystal converts the
ultrasonic wave into an electrical signal, which is transmitted back to the control
unit using a second coaxial cable. Usually the two coaxial cables to the sensor are
in one overall sheath. The control unit circuitry is a feedback amplifier, which
oscillates when the sensor is wet, and is quiescent for the sensor dry. The
“oscillating” or “non-oscillating” sensor states dictate the output relay states.

For interface detection the sensor “oscillates” in a clear liquid and is “non-
oscillating” at the interface.

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Ultraviolet Oil-in-Water Analyzer

Figure 4illustrates the sampling system of a continuous oil-in-water analyser used
for the monitoring of steam condensate, recycled cooling water, and refinery or
offshore drilling effluents.

The UV analyser used in this system is a single-beam, dual-wavelength analyser.

This is superior to the single-wavelength designs, because it is able to
compensate for variations in sample sediment content, turbidity, and algae
concentration, and for window coatings. The cell operates according to Beer’s law,
which relates oil concentrations to UV energy absorption by the fixed length cell.
The UV measuring band is centered at 254 nm, and the readings are sensitive to
0.1 ppm with a range of 0 to 10 ppm and provide a 90% response in 1 sec.

The instrument is automatically zeroed by the sample water being sent to both the
measurement and the zeroing sides of the conditioning system. When in the
measurement mode, a high-speed, high-shear homogenizer, which disperses all
suspended oil droplets and the oil, which is adsorbed onto foreign matter so that
the sample sent to the analyser becomes a uniform and true solution.

Once per hour, the analyser is automatically re-zeroed. In this mode, the sample
water is sent through a filter that removes all the oil, and, after sparging, it is sent
to the analyser. This oil-free zero-reference sample still contains all the other
compounds as contained in the measurement. Therefore, it can be used to zero
out this background.

Figure 4

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PNEUMATIC FLAPPER/NOZZLE SYSTEM (PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS)

Components of a Pneumatic Controller

 Flapper nozzle amplifier

 Air relay
 Bellows
 Springs
 Feedback arrangements

Flapper/Nozzle Amplifier

The nozzle and flapper mechanism is a displacement type detector which

converts mechanical movement into a pressure signal, by covering the orifice of
a nozzle with a flat plate called the flapper. This restricts the nozzle fluid flow and
generates a pressure signal.

It is a widely used mechanical means of creating a high gain fluidic amplifier.

In industrial control systems they played an important part in the development of
pneumatic PID controllers and are still widely used today in pneumatic and
hydraulic control and instrumentation systems.

The operating principle makes use of the high gain effect when a "flapper" plate is
placed at a small distance from a small pressurized nozzle.

Air is fed to the nozzle at a constant pressure via a restrictor (to limit air flow so
that Po is approximately atmospheric pressure when the nozzle / flapper gap is
maximum). The air leaks to the atmosphere at a rate depending upon the
clearance between the flapper and the nozzle tip and follows the curve as shown
in the figure.

mm

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At sub-millimeter distances a small movement of the flapper plate results in a large

change in flow. The nozzle is fed from a chamber which is in turn fed by a
restriction, so changes of flow result in changes of chamber pressure. The nozzle
diameter must be larger than the restriction orifice in order to work. The high gain
of the open loop mechanism can be linearized using a pressure feedback bellows
on the flapper to create a force balance system with a linear output. The "live" zero
of 0.2 bar or 3 psi is set by the bias spring which ensures that the device is
working in its linear region.

The industry standard ranges of either 3-15 psi (USA), or 0.2 - 1.0 bar (metric), is
normally used in pneumatic PID controllers, valve positioned servomechanisms
and force balance transducers.

The nozzle and flapper in pneumatic controls is a simple low maintenance device
which operates well in a harsh industrial environment, and does not present an
explosion risk in hazardous atmospheres. They were the industry controller
amplifier for many decades until the advent of practical and reliable electronic high
gain amplifiers. However, they are still used extensively for field devices such
as control valve positioners, and I to P and P to I converters.

Air Relay

The major limitation of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its limited air handling capacity.
The variation of air pressure obtained cannot be used for any useful application,
unless the air handling capacity is increased. The situation can be compared with
an operational amplifier in an electronic circuit. Though the operational amplifier is
useful in amplifying small voltage signals, the output current delivered by the
operational amplifier is limited and a power amplifier is used at the output stage in
order to drive any device. An air relay serves the similar purpose as a power
amplifier. It is used after the flapper nozzle amplifier to enhance the volume of air.
The principle of operation of an air relay is explained in figure 2.

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Figure 2

It can be seen from figure 2 that the air relay is directly connected to the supply
line (no orifice in between). The output pressure of the flapper nozzle amplifier (p2)
is connected to the lower chamber of the air relay with a diaphragm on its top. The
variation of the pressure p2 causes the movement (y) of the diaphragm. There is a
double-seated valve fixed on the top of the diaphragm. When the nozzle pressure
p2 increases due to decrease in xi, the diaphragm moves up, blocking the air vent
line and forming a nozzle between the output pressure line and the supply air
pressure line. So, more air goes to the output line and the air pressure increases.
When p2 decreases, the diaphragm moves downward, thus blocking the air supply
line and connecting the output port to the vent. The air pressure will decrease.

Booster or Pilot Valve Relay or Pilot Valve Amplifier

The nozzle/flapper described above may be considered as an amplifier, as a small

input movement is converted in a measurable pneumatic signal, but the
increments of pressure change are still too small to be transmitted over long
distance or operate large equipment, and there is therefore a second stage
amplifier called a Booster or Pilot Valve Relay as shown in the figures given
below.

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Here, the nozzle backpressure acts on a diaphragm attached to a spindle with a

valve on the opposite end. The leaf spring can be adjusted to give the correct
operating range and balance the load on the diaphragm.

Consider that air at input pressure, say 1.4 bar, is supplied to the underside of the
ball valve. If the backpressure P increases as the flapper approaches the nozzle,
the diaphragm Pressure increases and the conical exhaust valve moves towards
its seat, thus reducing the air bleeding off to atmosphere and at the same time
0pening the ball valve so that output pressure increases. If the exhaust valve is
shut in completely, the output pressure increases to 1.4 bars.

If P decreases, the spring moves the spindle to open the exhaust valve and shut in
the ball valve reducing the output pressure to the extent that it drops to just above
atmospheric if the ball valve shuts completely. Intermediate positions of the valves
give output pressures from 0 to 1.4 bars.

The nozzle backpressure relationship with the pilot valve is not linear over the full
range and usually pilot valves are adjusted to accommodate a nozzle
backpressure range of approximately 0.2 to 0.5 bars, which gives reasonable
linearity for the nozzle/ flapper behaviour. This gives an output range for the ball
valve between o.2 to 1.0 bar ~ linear.

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Flapper Nozzle Amplifier with Negative Feedback

To achieve sensitivity Negative Feedback has to be used as shown in the Position

Balance Transmitter. Feedback means passing back the whole or part of the
output signal into the device producing that signal. Here P is fed back to the
flapper through a bellows, with a spring to provide the requisite balancing force.

Referring to the diagram above, as the measured value deviates from set point,
flapper moves closer to the nozzle. This results in an increase in output air
pressure. This increase in output air pressure changes the controlled condition
(parameter to be controlled), say by closing or opening a valve. At the same time
the increased output air pressure act on the feedback bellows also. This negative
feedback pushes the flapper away from the nozzle, thereby reducing output air
pressure. Now the system is in equilibrium. Remember that an offset is inevitable
here. Moving the nozzle away from the feedback bellows increase sensitivity and
hunting of the system. Also moving nozzle towards feedback bellows reduces
hunting and increases offset. So, position of the nozzle (or Proportional Band)
can be adjusted carefully to obtain a stable system with minimal offset and
hunting.

Flapper Nozzle Amplifier with a Positive Feedback

Another problem of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its sensitivity variation. It can be

easily seen that, the output pressure p0 is dependent on the supply pressure,
orifice diameter and the nozzle diameter. Any variation of the supply pressure will
affect its sensitivity. Moreover, accumulation of dirt at the nozzle or at the orifice
will alter the sensitivity. As a result, some measure is needed to reduce this
parameter dependence of the sensitivity. Use of positive feedback is an effective
method for reducing the variation of the sensitivity. Flapper nozzle amplifiers are
never used in open loop; it is always used in closed loop (we can draw an analogy
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with operation amplifiers in this respect: operational amplifiers are always used in
closed loop). A typical application of flapper nozzle application with feedback for
measurement of pressure and converting the signal in terms of air pressure
variation is shown in figure 3. The scheme is called a torque balance arrangement.

Figure 3 Flapper Nozzle Amplifier witha Positive Feedback.

The basic scheme shown here has two bellows, one measuring the unknown
pressure (pi); the other, known as output bellows is connected to the output
pressure line of the system. These two bellows are attached to the two ends of a
link, pivoted at some intermediate position. The link towards the output bellows is
extended and forms the flapper of the flapper-nozzle amplifier. The output of the
flapper nozzle amplifier is connected to the air relay whose output is the output
pressure (p0) of the system. A spring is also attached to the link as shown in Fig.3.
One end of the spring is fixed and the other end is connected to the link. The fixed
end of the spring can be adjusted so that the spring generates a variable upward
force F0 to the link. This spring is used for zero adjustment, say, when we want
that p0 = 3psi for pi= 0.

When the input pressure increases, the left side of the link moves down, thus
moving the flapper on the right-hand side closer to the nozzle. This will increase
the nozzle pressure and subsequently the pressure p 0 at the outlet of the air relay.
The bellows in the right-hand side is connected to this output pressure line.
Increase in this pressure will result in more downward force by the output bellows,
thus moving the nozzle back to almost its original position. The output pressure
here is independent of the diameters of the orifice and nozzle, thus is not affected
by the accumulation of dirt or sensitivity variation due to variation of the supply
pressure. Moreover, the sensitivity can be adjusted by varying the lengths a and b.

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Note:-

 The reason for the feedback to be given a Negative Notation is that, it moves
the flapper back towards its original position.
 If it moves the flapper further away from its original position, it would be
called Positive Feedback.

Motion Balance Device

This device operates on the Force Balance Relationship. Here a bourdon tube,
bellows, diaphragm etc., acts on the end of a beam as shown in the figure given
below. The beam is pivoted, and at the opposite end to the applied force acts
against a nozzle. Air is supplied through a restriction to a nozzle whence it bleeds
to atmosphere.

Any change in the measured condition of the system being monitored, alters the
measured value signal and the difference between this and the set point signal
pivots the right hand side altering the nozzle/flapper gap. Suppose the beam
approaches the nozzle, then the air escape is restricted and the back pressure
builds up, increasing the output pressure and also the force on the feedback
diaphragm which in turn produces an opposing torque on the beam, tending to
move it away from the flapper having negative feedback effect.

Motion Balance Device

NOTE:-

 On instruments of this type, in practice the position of the pivot is

variable to alter the operating range and a zero adjusting spring is
also fitted to create a force against the beam to pre-load it to give an
output of 0.2 bar at the lowest value of the range over which the
system is being monitored.

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Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

Many pneumatic PID controllers use the force-balance principle. One or more
input signals (in the form of pneumatic pressures) exert a force on a beam by
acting through diaphragms, bellows, and/or Bourdon tubes, which is then counter-
acted by the force exerted on the same beam by an output air pressure acting
through a diaphragm, bellows, or bourdon tube. The self-balancing mechanical
system “tries” to keep the beam motionless through an exact balancing of forces,
the beam’s position precisely detected by a nozzle/baffle mechanism.

This mechanism does not directly correspond to any particular manufacturer or

model of pneumatic controller, but shares characteristics common to many. This
design is shown here for the purpose of illustrating the development of P, I, and D
control actions in as simple a context as possible:

The action of this particular controller is direct, since an increase in process

variable signal (pressure) results in an increase in output signal (pressure).
Increasing process variable (PV) pressure attempts to push the right-hand end of
the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the nozzle. This blockage of the
nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic backpressure to increase, thus increasing
the amount of force applied by the output feedback bellows on the left-hand end of
the beam and returning the flapper (very nearly) to its original position. If we
wished to reverse the controller’s action, all we would need to do is swap the
pneumatic signal connections between the input bellows, so that the PV pressure
was applied to the upper bellows and the SP pressure to the lower bellows. Any
factor influencing the ratio of input pressure(s) to output pressure may be exploited
as a gain (proportional band) adjustment in this mechanism. Changing bellows
area (either the PV and SP bellows equally, or the output bellows by itself) would

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influence this ratio, as would a change in output bellows position (such that it
pressed against the beam at some difference distance from the fulcrum point).
Moving the fulcrum left or right is also an option for gain control, and in fact is
usually the most convenient to an engineer.

Automatic and Manual Modes

A more practical pneumatic proportional controller mechanism is shown in the next

illustration, complete with set point and bias adjustments, and a manual control
mode:

“Bumpless” transfer between automatic and manual modes is accomplished by

the human operator paying attention to the balance indicator revealing any air
pressure difference between the output bellows and the output adjust pressure
regulator. When in automatic mode, a switch to manual mode involves adjusting
the regulator until the balance indicator registers zero pressure difference, then
switching the transfer valve to the “manual” position. The controller output is then
at the direct command of the output adjust pressure regulator, and will not respond
to changes in either PV or SP. “Bumplessly” switching back to automatic mode
requires that either the output or the setpoint pressure regulators be adjusted until
the balance indicator once again registers zero pressure difference, then switching
the transfer valve to the “auto” position. The controller output will once again
respond to changes in PV and SP.

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Derivative and Integral Actions

Derivative (rate) and Integral (reset) control modes are relatively easy to add to
this pneumatic controller mechanism. To add derivative control action, all we need
to do is place a restrictor valve between the nozzle tube and the output feedback
bellows, causing the bellows to delay filling or emptying its air pressure over time:

If any sudden change occurs in PV or SP, the output pressure will saturate before
the output bellows has the opportunity to equalize in pressure with the output
signal tube. Thus, the output pressure “spikes” with any sudden “step change” in
input: exactly what we would expect with derivative control action.

If either the PV or the SP ramps over time, the output signal will ramp in direct
proportion (proportional action), but there will also be an added offset of pressure
at the output signal in order to keep air flowing either in or out of the output
bellows at a constant rate to generate the force necessary to balance the
changing input signal. Thus, derivative action causes the output pressure to shift
either up or down (depending on the direction of input change) more than it would
with just proportional action alone in response to a ramping input: exactly what we
would expect from a controller with both proportional and derivative control
actions.

Integral action requires the addition of a second bellows (a “reset” bellows,

positioned opposite the output feedback bellows) and another restrictor valve to
the mechanism1:

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This second bellows takes air pressure from the output line and translates it into
force that opposes the original feedback bellows. At first, this may seem counter-
productive, for it nullifies the ability of this mechanism to continuously balance the
force generated by the PV and SP bellows. Indeed, it would render the force-
balance system completely ineffectual if this new “reset” bellows were allowed to
inflate and deflate with no time lag. However, with a time lag provided by the
restriction of the integral adjustment valve and the volume of the bellows (a sort of
pneumatic “RC time constant”), the nullifying force of this bellows becomes
delayed over time. As this bellows slowly fills (or empties) with pressurized air
from the nozzle, the change in force on the beam causes the regular output
bellows to have to “stay ahead” of the reset bellows action by constantly filling (or
emptying) at some rate over time.

To better understand this integrating action, let us examine a simplified version of

the controller. The following mechanism has been stripped of all unnecessary
complexity so that we may focus on just the proportional and integral actions.
Here, the PV and SP air pressure signals differ by 3 PSI, causing the force-
balance mechanism to instantly respond with a 3 PSI output pressure to the
feedback bellows (assuming a central fulcrum location, giving a controller gain of
1). The reset (integral) valve has been completely shut off to begin our analysis:

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With 0 PSI of air pressure in the reset bellows, it is as though the reset bellows
does not exist at all. The mechanism is a simple proportional-only pneumatic
controller.

Now, imagine opening up the reset valve just a little bit, so that the output air
pressure of 3 PSI begins to slowly fill the reset bellows. As the reset bellows fills
with pressurized air, it begins to push down on the left-hand end of the force
beam. This forces the baffle closer to the nozzle, causing the output pressure to
rise. The regular output bellows has no restrictor valve to impede its filling, and so
it immediately applies more upward force on the beam with the rising output
pressure. With this greater output pressure, the reset bellows has an even greater
“final” pressure to achieve, and so its rate of filling continues.

The result of these two bellows’ opposing forces (one instantaneous, one time-
delayed) is that the lower bellows must always stay 3 PSI ahead of the upper
bellows in order to maintain a force-balanced condition with the two input bellows
whose pressures differ by 3 PSI. This creates a constant 3 PSI differential
pressure across the reset restriction valve, resulting in a constant flow of air into
the reset bellows at a rate determined by that pressure drop and the opening of
the restrictor valve. Eventually this will cause the output pressure to saturate at
maximum, but until then the practical importance of this rising pressure action is
that the mechanism now exhibits integral control response to the constant error
between PV and SP:

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The greater the difference in pressures between PV and SP (i.e. the greater the
error), the more pressure drop will develop across the reset restriction valve,
causing the reset bellows to fill (or empty, depending on the sign of the error) with
compressed air at a faster rate, causing the output pressure to change at a faster
rate. Thus, we see in this mechanism the defining nature of integral control action:
that the magnitude of the error determines the velocity of the output signal (its rate
of change over time, or dm/dt ). The rate of integration may be finely adjusted by
changing the opening of the restrictor valve, or adjusted in large steps by
connecting capacity tanks to the reset bellows to greatly increase its effective
volume.

Advantages of Pneumatic Controllers

 Simplicity of the components and no complex structure

 Easy maintainability
 Safe and can be used in hazardous atmospheres
 Low cost of installation
 Good reliability and reproducibility
 Speed of response is relatively slow but steady
 Limited power capacity for large mass transfer

Limitations of Pneumatic Controllers

 Slow response
 Difficult to operate in sub-normal temperatures
 Pipe-couplings can give rise to leaks in certain ambient conditions
 Moving parts - more maintenance

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NAKAKITA P-I-D Controller

The NAKAKITA Controller is typical P-I-D controller with pilot relay unit as integral
part of the controller. Supply air is connected at the pilot relay unit and with a very
small orifice air is allowed to enter the nozzle assembly. The leak off between
nozzle and flapper is determined by the distance between the nozzle and flapper
and hence the backpressure on top of the top diaphragm of pilot relay unit is
varied. The variation in back pressure alters the opening of the pilot relay valve
hence the controller output is also varied in and amplified manner. The relay
output is subjected to negative feedback bellow via derivate action valve. The
negative feedback bellow movement is just opposite of the process variable
change i.e. if controller output increase, the effect of negative feedback bellow will
be to move the gap between the nozzle flappers and thus reduce the output
pressure.

Any alteration in the derivate action in the valve setting will change the negative
feedback effect hence the output is varied.

It is also equipped with integral action unit valve. By regulating that valve, the
output is varied for given deviation. Therefore, the controller sends a different
output signal for the same amount of deviation with different P, I, D settings.
Proportional band is varied by using the dial which alters the gap between nozzle
and flapper and hence the controller output. To change over from direct to reverse
the proportional band dial is turned by 2700 and vice versa.

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CONTROL AIR SUPPLY

Air treatment stages

For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the compressed air needs to
be cleaned and dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is
humid. These particles can cause wear of the system components and presence
of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to get rid of
these impurities. The air treatment can be divided into three stages as shown in
Figure 5

Figure: 5 Stages of air treatment

In the first stage, the large sized particles are prevented from entering the
compressor by an intake filter. The air leaving the compressor may be humid and
may be at high temperature. The air from the compressor is treated in the second
stage. In this stage temperature of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler
and the air is dried using a dryer. Also, an inline filter is provided to remove any
contaminant particles present. This treatment is called primary air treatment. In the
third stage which is the secondary air treatment process, further filtering is carried
out. A lubricator introduces a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This will help
in lubrication of the moving components of the system to which the compressed
air will be applied.

Filters
To prevent any damage to the compressor, the contaminants present in the air
need to be filtered out. This is done by using inlet filters. These can be dry or wet
filters. Dry filters use disposable cartridges. In the wet filter, the incoming air is
passed through an oil bath and then through a fine wire mesh filter. Dirt particles
cling to the oil drops during bubbling and are removed by wire mesh as they pass
through it. In the dry filter the cartridges are replaced during servicing. The wet
filters are cleaned using detergent solution.

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Cooler

As the air is compressed, the temperature of the air increases. Therefore, the air
needs to be cooled. This is done by using a cooler. It is a type of heat exchanger.
There are two types of coolers commonly employed viz. air cooled and water
cooled. In the air-cooled type, ambient air is used to cool the high temperature
compressed air, whereas in the water-cooled type, water is used as cooling
medium. These are counter flow type coolers where the cooling medium flows in
the direction opposite to the compressed air. During cooling, the water vapor
present will condense which can be drained away later.

Main Line Filter

These filters are used to remove the water vapors or solid contaminants present in
the pneumatic systems main lines. These filters are discussed in detail as follows.

Air Filter and Water Trap

Air filter and water trap is used to:

 prevent any solid contaminants from entering in the system.

 condense and remove water vapor that is present in the compressed air.

Figure 6 Air filter and Water Trap

The filter cartridge is made of sintered brass. The schematic of the filter is shown
in Figure 6. The thickness of sintered cartridge provides random zigzag passage
for the air to flow-in which helps in arresting the solid particles. The air entering the
filter swirls around due to the deflector cone. The centrifugal action causes the
large contaminants and water vapour to be flung out, which hit the glass bowl and
get collected at the bottom. A baffle plate is provided to prevent the turbulent air

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from splashing the water into the filter cartridge. At the bottom of the filter bowl
there is a drain plug which can be opened manually to drain off the settled water
and solid particles.

Lubricators

Figure 7 Air Lubricator

The compressed air is first filtered and then passed through a lubricator in order to
form a mist of oil and air to provide lubrication to the mating components. Figure 7
shows the schematic of a typical lubricator. The principle of working of
venturimeter is followed in the operation of lubricator. The compressed air from the
dryer enters in the lubricator. Its velocity increases due to a pressure differential
between the upper and lower changer (oil reservoir). Due to the low pressure in
the upper chamber the oil is pushed into the upper chamber from the oil reservoir
through a siphon tube with check valve. The main function of the valve is to control
the amount of oil passing through it. The oil drops inside the throttled zone where
the velocity of air is much higher and this high velocity air breaks the oil drops into
tiny particles. Thus, a mist of air and oil is generated. The pressure differential
across chambers is adjusted by a needle valve. It is difficult to hold an oil mixed air
in the air receiver as oil may settle down. Thus, air is lubricated during secondary
air treatment process. Low viscosity oil forms better mist than high viscosity oil and
hence ensures that oil is always present in the air.

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Pressure Control Devices

In pneumatic systems, during high velocity compressed air flow, there is flow-
dependent pressure drop between the receiver and load (application). Therefore,
the pressure in the receiver is always kept higher than the system pressure. At the
application site, the pressure is regulated to keep it constant. There are three
ways to control the local pressure, these are shown in Figure.

Types of pressure regulation

 In the first method, load X vents the air into atmosphere continuously. The
pressure regulator restricts the air flow to the load, thus controlling the air
pressure. In this type of pressure regulation, some minimum flow is
required to operate the regulator. If the load is a dead-end type which
draws no air, the pressure in the receiver will rise to the manifold pressure.
These types of regulators are called as ‘non-relieving regulators’, since the
air must pass through the load.

 In the second type, load Y is a dead-end load. However, the regulator vents
the air into atmosphere to reduce the pressure. This type of regulator is
called as ‘relieving regulator’.

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 The third type of regulator has a very large load Z. Therefore, its
requirement of air volume is very high and can’t be fulfilled by using a
simple regulator. In such cases, a control loop comprising of pressure
transducer, controller and vent valve is used. Due to large load the system
pressure may rise above its critical value. It is detected by a transducer.
Then the signal will be processed by the controller which will direct the
valve to be opened to vent out the air. This technique can be also be used
when it is difficult to mount the pressure regulating valve close to the point
where pressure regulation is needed.

Relief Valve

Relief valve is the simplest type of pressure regulating device. The schematic of its
construction and working is shown in the Figure. It is used as a backup device if
the main pressure control fails. It consists of ball type valve held on to the valve
seat by a spring in tension. The spring tension can be adjusted by using the
adjusting cap. When the air pressure exceeds the spring tension pressure the ball
is displaced from its seat, thus releasing the air and reducing the pressure. A relief
is specified by its span of pressure between the cracking and full flow, pressure
range and flow rate. Once the valve opens (cracking pressure), flow rate depends
on the excess pressure. Once the pressure falls below the cracking pressure, the
valve seals itself.

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Non-Relieving Pressure Regulator

In a non-relieving pressure regulator, the outlet pressure is sensed by a

diaphragm which is preloaded by a pressure setting spring. If outlet pressure is too
low, the spring forces the diaphragm and poppet to move down thus opening the
valve to admit more air and raise outlet pressure. If the outlet pressure is too high
the air pressure forces the diaphragm up hence reduces the air flow and causing a
reduction in air pressure. The air vents away through the load. At steady state
condition the valve will balance the force on the diaphragm from the outlet
pressure with the preset force on the spring.

Non-relieving type pressure regulator

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PNEUMATIC 20 – 100 kPa SIGNALS

A Pneumatic actuator mainly consists of a piston or a diaphragm which develops
the motive power. It keeps the air in the upper portion of the cylinder, allowing air
pressure to force the diaphragm or piston to move the valve stem or rotate the
valve control element.

Valves require little pressure to operate and usually double or triple the input force.
The larger the size of the piston, the larger the output pressure can be. Having a
larger piston can also be good if air supply is low, allowing the same forces with
less input. These pressures are large enough to crush objects in the pipe. On 100
kPa input, you could lift a small car (upwards of 1,000 lbs) easily, and this is only a
basic, small pneumatic valve. However, the resulting forces required of the stem
would be too great and cause the valve stem to fail.

This pressure is transferred to the valve stem, which is connected to either the
valve plug (see plug valve), butterfly valve etc. Larger forces are required in high
pressure or high flow pipelines to allow the valve to overcome these forces, and
allow it to move the valves moving parts to control the material flowing inside.

Globe control valve with pneumatic diaphragm actuator and "smart"

positioner which will also feed back to the controller the actual valve

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The valves’ input is the "control signal." This can come from a variety of measuring
devices, and each different pressure is a different set point for a valve. A typical
standard signal is 20–100 kPa. For example, a valve could be controlling the
pressure in a vessel which has a constant out-flow, and a varied in-flow (varied by
the actuator and valve). A pressure transmitter will monitor the pressure in the
vessel and transmit a signal from 20–100 kPa. 20 kPa means there is no
pressure, 100 kPa means there is full range pressure (can be varied by the
transmitters calibration points). As the pressure rises in the vessel, the output of
the transmitter rises, this increase in pressure is sent to the valve, which causes
the valve to stroke downward, and start closing the valve, decreasing flow into the
vessel, reducing the pressure in the vessel as excess pressure is evacuated
through the out flow. This is called a direct acting process.

Electro-Pneumatic Signal Converter

The controller used in process control is normally electronic and for actuation
pneumatic actuator is the preferred. Thus, there is a need for converting the
electrical signal (often 4-20 mA) from the controller to pneumatic 3-15 psi signal.
Such a scheme is shown in Figure 8. It is similar to that one shown in Fig.3,
except there is an electromagnet and a permanent magnet on the left of the link.
The current flowing through the electromagnet causes a force of repulsion
between the electromagnet and the permanent magnet. An increase in current
through the coil increases the repulsive force, thereby moving the link upward on
the left-hand side and decreasing the gap between the flapper and the nozzle. The
feedback action causes the increase in the output pressure and brings back the
link in its equilibrium position

Figure 8: Electro-pneumatic Signal Converter

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Pneumatic Pilot Relays

The relay provides pneumatic amplification, proportional movement, and reduced

time lag. It is equivalent in action to an electronic amplifier.

If ‘p’ increases (see figure), then the bellows acts to close the bleed port and
supply air passes, conversely, if ‘p’ decreases, a continuous bleed to atmosphere
occurs. Amplification by a fraction of 16 can easily be arranged, for example, a
flapper travel of 0.01 mm causing a change of ‘p’ on the bellows of 0.05 bar, could
give output from 1.2 to 2.0 bar. Flapper travel is approximately proportional, by a
linear relation, to output signal in this throttle position of 0.05 bar of bellows
pressure range.

Pneumatic relays and volume boosters control output air flow and pressure in
response to a pneumatic input signal. They can perform simple functions, such as
boosting or scaling the output, or they can use complex reversal, biasing, and
math function operators.

Applications

Pneumatic relays and volume boosters are used in a wide variety of control
functions.

 An indicator relay is typically composed of a two-position valve that is

actuated by a pneumatic signal from a remote sensor or transmitter. They
are used to indicate if there is an unsafe condition present in a particular
variable or process.

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 A logic relay is used for a variety of functions such as diverting the flow
from one pipeline to another. These pneumatic relays and volume boosters
can be the building blocks for more complex pneumatic logic circuits.
 A ratio relay is a pneumatic switch that can perform tasks based on a
predetermined ratio, such as addition, subtraction, biasing, and reversing.
 A pneumatic reducing relay is a ratio relay capable of reducing the output
pressure based on a particular input to output ratio.
 An air flow switch is used as a volume booster, using a low flow
pneumatic signal to produce an output pressure with a higher flow capacity.
 An air pressure switch uses adjustable set points that are tripped when
the pneumatic signal pressure increases or decreases.

Pneumatic relays and volume boosters are commonly used to switch air
signals from one source to another, supplying pressure to or exhausting
pressure from a particular line or control device, and providing initiation of a
control function. They can also be used as an interface between pneumatic
and electric circuits. An electric pneumatic switch is an air switch that is
electrically operated to control air flow input or output. Pneumatic relays and
volume boosters are also used as safety switches that can open safety valves
in an emergency or trigger an alarm while shutting down other valves to protect
the overall system.

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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Self-balancing pneumatic instrument mechanisms are very similar to negative-

feedback operational amplifier circuits, in that negative feedback is used to
generate an output signal in precise proportion to an input signal. This section
compares simple operational amplifier (“op-amp”) circuits with analogous
pneumatic mechanisms for the purpose of illustrating how negative feedback
works, and learning how to generally analyze pneumatic mechanisms.
In the following illustration, we see an op-amp with no feedback (open loop), next
to a baffle/nozzle mechanism with no feedback (open loop):

For each system there is an input and an output. For the op-amp, input and output
are both electrical (voltage) signals: Vin is the differential voltage between the two
input terminals, and Vout is the single-ended voltage measured between the
output terminal and ground. For the baffle/nozzle, the input is the physical gap
between the baffle and nozzle (xin) while the output is the backpressure indicated
by the pressure gauge (Pout).

Both systems have very large gains. Operational amplifier open-loop gains
typically exceed 200,000 (over 100 dB), and we have already seen how just a few
thousandths of an inch of baffle motion is enough to drive the backpressure of a
nozzle nearly to its limits (supply pressure and atmospheric pressure,
respectively).

Gain is always defined as the ratio between output and input for a system.
Mathematically, it is the quotient of output change and input change, with “change”
represented by the triangular Greek capital-letter delta:

Normally, gain is a unitless ratio. We can easily see this for the op-amp circuit,
since both output and input are voltages, any unit of measurement for voltage
would cancel in the quotient, leaving a unitless quantity. This is not so evident in
the baffle/nozzle system, with the output represented in units of pressure and the
input represented in units of distance.

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If we were to add a bellows to the baffle/nozzle mechanism, we would have a

system that inputs and outputs pressure, allowing us to more formally define the
gain of the system as a unitless ratio of ΔPout/ΔPin

The general effect of negative feedback is to decrease the gain of a system, and
also make that system’s response more linear over the operating range. This is
not an easy concept to grasp, however, and so we will explore the effect of adding
negative feedback in detail for both systems. The simplest expression of negative
feedback is a condition of 100% negative feedback, where the whole strength of
the output signal gets “fed back” to the amplification system in degenerative
fashion. For an op-amp, this simply means connecting the output terminal directly
to the inverting input terminal:

We call this “negative” or “degenerative” feedback because its effect is

counteractive in nature. If the output voltage rises too high, the effect of feeding
this signal to the inverting input will be to bring the output voltage back down
again. Likewise, if the output voltage is too low, the inverting input will sense this
and act to bring it back up again. Self-correction is the hallmark of any negative-
feedback system.

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Having connected the inverting input directly to the output of the op-amp leaves us
with the non-inverting terminal as the sole remaining input. Thus, our input voltage
signal is a ground-referenced voltage just like the output. The voltage gain of this
circuit is unity (1), meaning that the output will assume whatever voltage level is
present at the input, within the limits of the op-amp’s power supply. If we were to
send a voltage signal of 5 volts to the non-inverting terminal of this op-amp circuit,
it would output 5 volts, provided that the power supply exceeds 5 volts in potential
from ground.

If we simply assume there will be no difference of voltage between the two input
terminals of the op-amp with negative feedback in effect, we may conclude that
the output voltage is exactly equal to the input voltage, since that is
what must happen in order for the two input terminals to see equal potentials.

Now let us apply similar techniques to the analysis of a pneumatic baffle/nozzle

mechanism. Suppose we arrange a pair of identical bellows in opposition to one
another on a force beam, so any difference in force output by the two bellows will
push the baffle either closer to the nozzle or further away from it:

It should be clear that the left-hand bellows, which experiences the same pressure
(Pout) as the pressure gauge, introduces negative feedback into the system. If the
output pressure happens to rise too high, the baffle will be pushed away from the
nozzle by the force of the feedback bellows, causing backpressure to decrease
and stabilize. Likewise, if the output pressure happens to go too low, the baffle will
move closer to the nozzle and cause the backpressure to rise again. Once again,
we see the defining characteristic of negative feedback in action: its self-correcting
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nature works to counteract any change in output conditions, such that the output
pressure precisely tracks the input pressure. As we have seen already, the
baffle/nozzle is exceptionally sensitive to motion. Only a few thousandths of an
inch of motion is sufficient to saturate the nozzle backpressure at either extreme
(supply air pressure or zero, depending on which direction the baffle moves). This
is analogous to the differential inputs of an operational amplifier, which only need
to see a few microvolts of potential difference to saturate the amplifier’s output.

Adding a relay to a self-balancing pneumatic system is analogous to increasing

the open loop voltage gain of an op-amp (AOL) by several-fold: it makes the overall
gain closer to ideal. The overall gain of the system, though, is dictated by the ratio
of bellows leverage on the force beam, just like the overall gain of a negative-
feedback op-amp circuit is dictated by the feedback network and not by the op-
amp’s internal (open-loop) voltage gain.

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ELECTRICSUPPLY FOR AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

An efficient power supply is a basic requirement for operating any plant, no matter
the industry or need. Critical processes can only be maintained if a constant power
supply of the necessary quality is available for the automation system.

Throughout many applications such as oil and gas, wastewater treatment,

process control, manufacturing plants and security systems, troublesome
localized power pollution is prevalent. A worst-case example is offshore and
onshore drilling platforms and sea going vessels. Variable frequency drives
(VFDs) powering large motors reflect large amounts of current and voltage
harmonics back onto the power grid. Often, they appear as voltage dropouts.
Additionally, during the startup of large motors with conventional starters, their
exceedingly high initial inrush current demand can cause a wide low voltage
condition, sustained for several seconds. Occasionally the harmonics and high
current demand conditions create high voltage transients that can cause the
complete failure of SCADA equipment power supplies. The costs resulting from
lost productivity, equipment maintenance and reduced safety demand that power
pollution be mitigated.

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The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is ubiquitous in process control

systems. It is at the heart of SCADA systems monitoring and controlling
specialized equipment and systems. Manufacturers design PLCs to be very
rugged and robust in an effort to assure longevity, reliability and safety. Yet, like
any other microprocessor electronics, their reliability is to a high degree dependent
on a reliable source of power. The level of reliability required from a PLC is
dependent on the level of reliability demanded by the specific process being
monitored and controlled. Some processes may be tolerant of a complete loss of
power to the PLC, only requiring the PLC to reboot when power returns. In other
applications the PLC must remain fully functional to allow the process to continue
and terminate to a known state even after a complete loss of power. Some
processes are so critical in nature they require that one redundant, or even two,
safety rated PLCs be used. This class of PLC has been designed to never fail
through redundancy, or at a minimum, fail only in a predictable, safe way.
Typically, their hardware, internal software and overall operation has been
evaluated and certified by an independent safety agency like Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) to established international standards.

The PLC, like many other types of microprocessor-based equipment, has an

internal switch mode power supply. The PLC is typically powered from a standard
AC utility source, or in some cases from a 24Vdc power source.

From these sources, the power supply creates tightly regulated DC voltages vital
to the proper operation of the PLC’s internal CPU, volatile memory chips and all of
the other internal PLC electronics. These DC output voltages will stay within
regulation over a wide utility voltage range. However, the acceptable voltage
range is not infinite. Once the input voltage is out of its normal operational range,
the critical DC output voltages will go out of regulation, causing the PLC to
malfunction. This typically occurs during low input line voltage conditions
(brownouts) or due to momentary or sustained voltage dropouts.

Switch Mode Power Supply Design

The PLC is not unique in having an internal switch mode power supply. Typically,
every other switch, router, computer, server and device connected to the SCADA
system network incorporates the same type of internal power supply. This includes
telemetry equipment supporting the reporting of remote pipeline remote sensors.
All switch mode power supply designs are not equal, but every critical device on
the SCADA system network is susceptible to fault conditions due to reduced ride-
through times. Further, even having a full 220V/110 AC line voltage, should a
voltage drop exceed the equipment’s full ride-through capability, the same PLC
and SCADA networked equipment will incur failures.

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Regeneration of New AC Power

A good solution to all of these problems is the addition of distributed double-

conversion online uninterruptible power supply (UPS) technology. Through its
continuous regeneration of new AC power, it provides the highest level of power
conditioning and protection. Online UPS technology is ideal for use as a high-
performance power conditioner in addition to providing long-term battery backup
protection. The UPS design topology is very similar to that of the switch mode
power supply. The online UPS rectifies and filters the incoming utility or generator
power to a steady regulated direct current (DC). Frequency variation, high voltage
transients, voltage sags and swells, harmonic distortion, etc. are all removed. The
clean regulated DC is then fed to a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Inverter stage
that recreates clean, tightly regulated, true sine wave AC power. Before drawing
power from its internal battery supply, the online UPS also has large electrolytic
storage capacitors that allow it to ride-through voltage dropouts. Unlike the switch
mode power supply, the online UPS has battery backup capable to power critical
SCADA equipment for minutes from its internal batteries to hours or days, using
extended battery packs.

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Calibration Adjustments

Zero adjustment

a) Zero adjustment is the first adjustment made in the instrument calibration.

b) In this adjustment the instrument reading moves up and down by equal
amount at every point of measurement. Hence error remains constant
throughout the entire range
c) This adjustment although can be made at a zero point.
d) Zero adjustment on mechanical instrument is done by slipping a link on a
hub or pointer on the shaft or by some means of establishing a starting or
reference point for measurement
e) After doing the zero adjustment it is necessary the span adjustment is to be
checked.

Span Adjustment

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a) The span means the response of measuring instrument when the process
variable value changes from minimum to maximum.
b) An error by span increases as magnitude of input increases.
c) Changing the mechanical advantages of the lever system that relates the
output response to and input response usually makes the span adjustment.
d) The span adjustment is likely to affect the zero reading. Hence the zero
adjustment should always be followed by span adjustment.
e) Interaction between span and zero adjustment can complicate calibration
unless special attention is paid i.e. after zero adjustment if a span
correction is made then, when input is returned to zero it might appear that
instrument reading is not zero. Therefore, an over compensation in span
adjustment can be made in order to correct the value by zero adjustment

Sensor Characteristics

The sensor has two very important characteristics:

a) Sensitivity
b) Accuracy

Sensitivity

1) Sensitivity: is a measure of the change in output of a sensor in response to

a change in input.
2) A sensor is desired to have high sensitivity i.e. a small change in input
causes large change in output.
3) The value of sensitivity is indicated by the gain of sensor.
4) In case of an ideal sensor the output signal is only affected by input signal
however, no practical sensor is ideal. Therefore the output of sensor is
affected by temperature, humidity, vibration.

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Smart Transmitters

A smart transmitter is a microprocessor-based measuring instrument that provides

two major features: improved performance and two-way digital communications
between the control station and the field. These features have resulted in
increased process profitability by providing improved accuracy, remote
Communication configuration for application, diagnostics, greater reliability,
reduced maintenance, improved control quality, and more efficient communication.

The normal accuracy of process transmitters was at one time considered to be

±1% of full-scale value. Measurement precision has always been important,
because the emphasis generally was on control of a variable rather than
measurement for absolute accuracy. When measurement accuracy can be
improved to ±0.1% or even ±0.05%, tighter control around a desired point can be
achieved. This improved accuracy can translate to substantial improvement in
product quality, reduction in raw materials, and increased profits. With increasing
emphasis on product purity and improved efficiency, the retrofitting of production
units often is justified by increased accuracy of measurement and improved
control quality.

Improved Digital Sensors

Conventional analog transmitters utilize two transducers. The input transducer

converts a quantity relative to the process, such as pressure or differential
pressure, to a force or motion. The output transducer then converts this quantity to
an electrical or pneumatic signal for transmission. Pressure and differential-
pressure applications are often affected by ambient or process temperature
changes and by variations in process static pressure. The error caused by these
disturbances may not be compensated because of the added power and
complexity involved with such analog circuitry. Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) electronics technology has changed this and is the key to
smart transmitters, offering low power requirements and the ability to function over
a wide range of temperature variations.

True, digital sensors, primary sensor characterization, and secondary variable

characterization have improved the accuracy of digital transmitters.

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Capacitance Transmitter

A capacitor is formed by two electrical conducting plates, separated by an

insulating material or dielectric medium. The electrical quantity of capacitance
measured variable constitute a very useful process measurement tool.

Operating principle involves the change of capacitance value due to change in the
movement of pressure element.

Capacitance is dependent upon the area of the plate, the dielectric strength and
distance between the capacitance plates. When capacitor is constructed so that
the plate distance can vary and the resultant change in capacitance can be related
to the plate movement. The plate movement is caused by the displacement of the
pressure element responding to pressure variations.

The value of capacitance from a variable capacitance is small i.e. the change in
the capacitance for the changes in plate separation is a slight percentage of total
value of capacitance. The capacitance measuring circuit must be designed
carefully to eliminate the effects of stray capacitance swamping the small
capacitance of measuring circuit.

Smart Transmitter Operation

The operation of smart pressure and differential-pressure transmitters relies on the

same basic pressure-detection principles. In fact, some manufacturers offer an
upgrade kit to convert an analog transmitter to digital by exchanging the electronic
signal-conditioning circuitry of an analog transmitter for that of a digital transmitter.
Other manufacturers have modified the pressure-detecting cell for digital
transmitters.

Figure below shows a block diagram of a transmitter with a capacitor sensor used
in an analog transmitter. The AID converter translates the analog signal from the
sensor module to a digital representation. The resulting digital value is processed
by the microprocessor, which also provides sensor linearization, range down,
dampening, and transfer functions. The microprocessor also controls the digital-to-
analog (DA) converter for the 4 to 20-mA output and drives the digital
communications, which is compatible with the HART protocol. This protocol uses a
standard Bell 202 frequency shift keying (FSK) technique. A high-frequency signal
is superimposed on the 4 to 20 mA output communication cable.

The sensor is isolated from electrical and temperature disturbances of the process
fluid. This enables operation in temperature environments up to 175°C, with
process temperature measurement to compensate for temperature effects. During
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cell characterization at the factory, all cells are run through temperature and
pressure cycles. Data from these tests are stored in each transmitter's
characterization PROM to ensure precise signal correction during operation.

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CONTROLLERS AND BASIC CONTROL THEORY

Feedback control is a control mechanism that uses information from

measurements. In a feedback control system, the output is sensed. There are two
main types of feedback control systems: 1) positive feedback 2) negative
feedback. The positive feedback is used to increase the size of the input but in a
negative feedback, the feedback is used to decrease the size of the input. The
negative systems are usually stable. A PID is widely used in feedback control of
industrial processes on the market in 1939 and has remained the most widely
used controller in process control until today. Thus, the PID controller can be
understood as a controller that takes the present, the past, and the future of the
error into consideration. After digital implementation was introduced, a certain
change of the structure of the control system was proposed and has been adopted
in many applications. But that change does not influence the essential part of the
analysis and design of PID controllers. A proportional– integral–derivative
controller (PID controller) is a method of the control loop feedback. This method is
composed of three controllers:

1. Proportional controller (PC)

2. Integral controller (IC)
3. Derivative controller (DC)

Role of a Proportional Controller (PC)

The role of a proportional depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of

past error and D on prediction of future error. The weighted sum of these three
actions is used to adjust Proportional control and is a simple and widely used
method of control for many kinds of systems. In a proportional controller, steady
state error tends to depend inversely upon the proportional gain (i.e.: if the gain is
made larger the error goes down). The proportional response can be adjusted by
multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain. The
proportional term is given by:

P = K P. error (t)

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change
in the error. If the proportional gain is very high, the system can become unstable.
In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error. If
the proportional gain is very low, the control action may be too small when
responding to system disturbances. Consequently, a proportional controller (Kp)
will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but never eliminate,
the steady-state error.

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Role of an Integral Controller (IC)

An Integral controller (IC) is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the
duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the
instantaneous error over time and gives the accumulated offset that should have
been corrected previously. Consequently, an integral control (Ki) will have the
effect of eliminating the steady-state error, but it may make the transient response
worse.

Role of a Derivative Controller (DC)

The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the
error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The
derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output. A derivative
control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing
the overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Table 1. A PID controller in a closed-loop system

DISTURBANCES AND TIME DELAYS AND MEANS TO REDUCE THEM IN

CONTROLLERS

In control theory, robust control is an approach to controller design that explicitly

deals with uncertainty. Robust control methods are designed to function properly
provided that uncertain parameters or disturbances are found within some
(typically compact) set. Robust methods aim to achieve robust performance
and/or stability in the presence of bounded modeling errors.

The early methods of Bode and others were fairly robust; the state-space methods
invented in the 1960s and 1970s were sometimes found to lack
robustness, prompting research to improve them. This was the start of the theory
of robust control, which took shape in the 1980s and 1990s and is still active
today.

In contrast with an adaptive control policy, a robust control policy is static; rather
than adapting to measurements of variations, the controller is designed to work
assuming that certain variables will be unknown but bounded.

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Informally, a controller designed for a particular set of parameters is said to be

robust if it also works well under a different set of assumptions. High-gain
feedback is a simple example of a robust control method; with sufficiently high
gain, the effect of any parameter variations will be negligible. From the closed loop
transfer function perspective, high open loop gain leads to substantial disturbance
rejection in the face of system parameter uncertainty.

The major obstacle to achieving high loop gains is the need to maintain system
closed loop stability. Loop shaping which allows stable closed loop operation can
be a technical challenge.

Robust control systems often incorporate advanced topologies which include

multiple feedback loops and feed-forward paths. The control laws may be
represented by high order transfer functions required to simultaneously
accomplish desired disturbance rejection performance with robust closed loop
operation.

High-gain feedback is the principle that allows simplified models of operational

amplifiers and emitter-degenerated bipolar transistors to be used in a variety of
different settings. This idea was already well understood by Bode and Black in
1927.

Probably the most important example of a robust control technique is H-infinity

loop-shaping, which was developed by Duncan McFarlane and Keith Glover of
Cambridge University; this method minimizes the sensitivity of a system over its
frequency spectrum, and this guarantees that the system will not greatly deviate
from expected trajectories when disturbances enter the system.

An emerging area of robust control from application point of view is sliding mode
control (SMC), which is a variation of variable structure control (VSS). The
robustness properties of SMC with respect to matched uncertainty as well as the
simplicity in design attracted a variety of applications.

Another example is loop transfer recovery (LQG/LTR), which was developed to

overcome the robustness problems of linear-quadratic-Gaussian control (LQG)
control.

Other robust techniques include quantitative feedback theory (QFT), passivity

based control, Lyapunov based control, etc.

When system behavior varies considerably in normal operation, multiple control

laws may have to be devised. Each distinct control law addresses a specific
system behavior mode.

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One of the challenges is to design a control system that addresses these diverse
system operating modes and enables smooth transition from one mode to the next
as quickly as possible.

Such state machine driven composite control system is an extension of the gain
scheduling idea where the entire control strategy changes based upon changes in
system behavior.

Basic Working of a of P I D Controller

Automatic controllers are used onboard ships for the adjustment of one or more
parameters in a system. Function of the controller is to maintain the parameter as
per desired value (value set by the operator). The parameter could be jacket water
temperature (for engine jacket water cooling system), lubricating oil temperature
(for engine lube oil system), fuel oil pressure (for boiler fuel oil system), etc. PID
controls are commonly used for these applications. Advantage of automatic
indicating controller is that it controls as well as indicates the parameter reading.
Refer to the diagram and explanation below to understand the basic principle of
PID controllers. These controllers are normally located near the variable
measuring point so that use of a transmitter (to transmit parameter signals to the
controller) is not required.

TWO STEP, PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL, AND DERIVATIVE CONTROL

ACTIONS

On-Off or Two Step Action

This is the simplest form of control. Here only two control positions are allowed; on
or off. In the case of a valve, it opens or closes by the signal from the controller.
Examples for such control system are; water level control for boiler cascade tank,
air compressor cut in cut off control, temperature control for fuel oil storage tanks,
etc. Let us consider the case of a fuel oil tank heating steam two step controller. It
consists of a controller that continuously senses the system parameter (fuel oil
temperature). This is called measured value. The desired value or set point
(temperature of fuel oil to be maintained) is fixed by the operator. When the
temperature of the fuel oil drops below set point, controller sent signal to the
steam valve thereby passing steam through coils provided inside the fuel oil tank.
Now temperature of fuel oil starts increasing. When the temperature rises to the
set point, controller shuts the steam valve. The system response is illustrated
below.

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Now, we know there is a thermal inertia in this system, or in other words, the
position of temperature sensor and that of steam coil is different. That is why we
cannot observe an increase in temperature as soon as the steam valve opens.
The same phenomenon explains why temperature is increasing even after the
steam valve is shut. Anyway, disadvantage of this control is the large deviation
from the desired value or set point. Hence the application of such control is limited.

Proportional Action

This is a continuous control action in which the controller output is proportional to

the deviation between measured value and desired value. Let us take an example
of a simple water lever control as shown in the figure below.

Consider a water tank with an outlet valve, a water supply valve, control lever on a
pivot, control strings, and float as shown in the figure. One end of the control lever
is connected to the float while other end to the water supply valve. The system is
designed in such a way that, when float goes down supply valve is opened more

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thereby increasing water supply to the tank. Similarly, an elevation of the float
results in closure of the supply valve. At this point quantity of water supplied and
flowing out of the tank is same or the system is in equilibrium. Suddenly demand
of water increases or the discharge valve is opened more. This result in reduction
in water level inside the tank and causes float to lower. As float lowers it raises the
control string connected to the water supply valve, thereby increasing the supply
of water.

As shown in the figure above, a new equilibrium is attained by the system. Once
again supply and demand of water is same. But we can see a drop in the water
level from the desired value. This deviation from the measured value and desired
value is known as offset. It is an inherent property of the proportional control.
Offset can be reduced but cannot be eliminated in such systems. The amount by
which the input signal value must change to move the correcting unit between its
extreme positions is known as proportional band. This concept can be made
clear from the figures shown above. Move the position of the pivot towards right
(closer towards the float). Now we can see that a small change in water level
causes an amplified effect in opening or closing the supply valve. In other words,
the system becomes more sensitive. Also, here the offset is reduced comparing
to the scenario before. Similarly, moving the pivot towards the left cause minor
changes for the supply valve even though float lowers or rises drastically. Here
sensitivity of the system is less. It is clear that offset can be reduced to minimum
when sensitivity is higher. But this results in hunting of the system. Hunting
means excessive fluctuation of the measured value around desired value. System
response to proportional action is shown below.

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Integral or Reset Action

Integral action or reset action is used in conjunction with proportional action, to
remove offset from the system. Here controller output varies at a rate proportional
to the deviation between measured and desired value. Refer to the figure below.

Here in addition to the feedback bellows, we have integral action bellows also.
Consider the integral action valve is open. Now as the flapper moves closer to the
nozzle because of a deviation, output air pressure increases, the same air
pressure acts on feedback bellows to move the flapper away from nozzle to an
equilibrium position. Now there is an offset. Again, the same control air pressure
acting on the integral bellows moves the flapper towards the nozzle to increase
control air pressure. Hence a new equilibrium is attained with no offset. Note that
all these actions take place simultaneously. When the integral action valve is fully
open, integral action will be too fast that result in hunting. When the valve is crack
open, there is no hunting but it takes long time to remove offset. In other words,
time required to remove the offset (Reset Time) can be adjusted by opening or
closing integral action valve. Closure of the integral action valve means no integral
action. Reset time to be set in such a way that system operates fast to remove
offset and minimal hunting. All pressure control systems onboard ships are
normally proportional-integral (PI) controls.

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Derivative or Rate Action

Derivative action is utilized along with proportional and integral actions. This is
applied in systems where time delay between changes in measured value and
their correction is long. Example is temperature control for jacket water system.
Here controller output is proportional to the rate of change of deviation. Refer to
the figure below.

Here a derivative action valve is introduced as shown in the figure. Closing this
valve any amount would introduce derivative action in the system. Consider the
derivative action valve is closed 70%. When flapper moves towards nozzle
because of a deviation, controller output pressure increases, the same pressure
acts on the feedback bellows through the derivative action valve. As the valve is
only little open, it takes time to move the flapper away from the nozzle by negative
feedback, thereby allowing control air output pressure to be higher for long time,
which again allow more time for corrective action. Also derivative action can be
varied by adjusting opening or closing derivative action valve. When derivative
action valve is fully open, there is no derivative action.

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PID Tuning methods

There are several prescriptive rules used in PID tuning. The most effective
methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, and
then choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters.

The five tuning methods for a PID controller:

Method Advantages Disadvantages
Manual Online method Requires experienced
No math expression personnel
Ziegler-Nichols Online method Some trial and error, process
Proven method upset and very aggressive
tuning
Cohen-Coon Good process models Offline method
Some math
Good only for first order
processes
Software tools Online or offline method, Some cost and training
consistent tuning, Support involved
Non-Steady State tuning
Algorithmic Online or offline method, Very slow
Consistent tuning, Support
Non-Steady State tuning,
Very precise

The ‘‘Three-Term” functionalities are highlighted below. The terms KP, TI and TD
definitions are:

The Proportional term: providing an overall control action proportional to the

error signal through the all pass gain factor.

The Integral term: reducing steady state errors through low frequency
compensation by an integrator.

The Derivative term: improving transient response through high frequency

compensation by a differentiator.

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We can realise an Electronic PID Controller by two methods:

Analogue Controllers
Circuit diagram below (figure3) shows an analogue PID controller. In this figure,
we present an analogue PID controller with three simple op amp amplifier,
integrator and differentiator circuits.

Figure 3: Electronic circuit implementation of an analogue PID controller

Finally, we need to add the three PID terms together. Again the summing amplifier
OP4 serves us well. Because the error amp, PID and summing circuits are
inverting types, we need to add a final op amp inverter OP5 to make the final
output positive.

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Digital Controllers

Today, digital controllers are being used in many large and small-scale control
systems, replacing the analogue controllers. It is now a common practice to
implement PID controllers in its digital version, which means that they operate in
discrete time domain and deal with analogue signals quantized in a limited number
of levels. Moreover, in such controller we do not need much space and they are
not expensive. A digital version of the PID controller is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: Digital PID Controller

In its digital version, the integral becomes a sum and the deferential a difference.
The continuous time signal e(t) is sampled in fixed time intervals equals a
determined sample period, here called Tc (in figure 6 Tc = 1). An A/D (analogue to
digital) converter interfaces the input and a D/A (digital to analogue) converter
interfaces the output.

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Digital PID Controller in circuit

Digital PID Controller

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OPERATION AND USE OF FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

Control Valves

The most common final control element in the process control industries is the
control valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam,
water, or chemical com-pounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep
the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.

The control valve assembly typically consists of the valve body, the internal trim
parts, an actuator to provide the motive power to operate the valve, and a variety
of additional valve accessories, which can include positioners, transducers, supply
pressure regulators, manual operators, snubbers, or limit switches.

A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator that

throttles the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control
action. A control valve essentially consists of a plug and a stem. The stem can be
raised or lowered by air pressure and the plug changes the effective area of an
orifice in the flow path. A typical control valve action can be explained using Fig. 1.
When the air pressure increases, the downward force of the diaphragm moves the
stem downward against the spring.

Process Control Terminology

Actuator: A pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrically powered device that supplies

force and motion to open or close a valve.

Controller: A device that operates automatically by use of some established

algorithm to regulate a con-trolled variable. The controller input receives
information about the status of the process variable and then provides an
appropriate output signal to the final control element.

Positioner: A position controller(servomechanism) that is mechanically connected

to a moving part of a final control element or its actuator and that automatically
adjusts its output to the actuator to maintain a desired position in proportion to the
input signal.

Classifications
Control valves are available in different types and shapes. They can be classified
in different ways; based on: (a) action, (b) number of plugs, and (c) flow
characteristics.

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Figure 1: Control Valve

Action

Control valves operated through pneumatic actuators can be either (i) air to open,
or (ii) air to close. They are designed such that if the air supply fails, the control
valve will be either fully open, or fully closed, depending upon the safety
requirement of the process. For example, if the valve is used to control steam or
fuel flow, the valve should be shut off completely in case of air failure. On the other
hand, if the valve is handling cooling water to a reactor, the flow should be
maximum in case of emergency. The schematic arrangements of these two
actions are shown in Fig. 2. Valve A are air to close type, indicating, if the air fails,
the valve will be fully open. Opposite is the case for valve B.

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Figure 2: Air to open and Air to close valves

Number of Plugs

Control valves can also be characterized in terms of the number of plugs present,
as single-seated valve and double-seated valve. The difference in construction
between a single seated and double-seated valve are illustrated in figure 3.

Referring Figure 1 (and also Fig. 3a), only one plug is present in the control valve,
so it is single seated valve. The advantage of this type of valve is that, it can be
fully closed and flow variation from 0 to 100% can be achieved. But looking at its
construction, due to the pressure drop across the orifice a large upward force is
present in the orifice area, and as a result, the force required to move the valve
against this upward thrust is also large. Thus this type of valves is more suitable
for small flow rates. On the other hand, there are two plugs in a double- seated
valve; flow moves upward in one orifice area, and downward in the other orifice.
The resultant upward or downward thrust is almost zero. As a result, the force
required to move a double-seated valve is comparatively much less.

But the double-seated valve suffers from one disadvantage. The flow cannot be
shut off completely, because of the differential temperature expansion of the stem
and the valve seat. If one plug is tightly closed, there is usually a small gap
between the other plug and its seat. Thus, single-seated valves are
recommended for when the valves are required to be shut off completely. But
there are many processes, where the valve used is not expected to operate near
shut off position. For this condition, double-seated valves are recommended.

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Single-Seated Control Valve (a)

Double-Seated Control Valve (b)

Figure 3: Single-Seated and Double-Seated Valves

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DIAPHRAGM OPERATED CONTROL VALVES

Diaphragm valves (or membrane valves) consists of a valve body with two or
more ports, a diaphragm, and a "weir or saddle" or seat upon which the diaphragm
closes the valve. The valve is constructed from either plastic or metal.

Originally, the diaphragm valve was developed for use in industrial applications.
Later on, the design was adapted for use in the bio-pharmaceutical industry by
using compliant materials that can withstand sanitizing and sterilizing methods.

There are two main categories of diaphragm valves: one type seals over a "weir"
(saddle) and the other (sometimes called a "full bore or straight-way" valve) seals
over a seat. The weir or saddle type is the most common in process applications
and the seat-type is more commonly used in slurry applications to reduce blocking
issues but exists also as a process valve. While diaphragm valves usually come in
two-port forms (2/2-way diaphragm valve), they can also come with three ports
(3/2-way diaphragm valves also called T-valves) and more (so called block-
valves). When more than three ports are included, they generally require more
than one diaphragm seat; however, special dual actuators can handle more ports
with one membrane.

Diaphragm valves can be manual or automated. Their application is generally as

shut-off valves in process systems within the industrial, food and
beverage, pharmaceutical and biotech industries. The older generation of these
valves is not suited for regulating and controlling process flows, however newer
developments in this area have successfully tackled this problem.

In addition to the well-known, two way shut off diaphragm valve, other types
include: Three way zero dead leg valve, sterile access port, block and bleed, Val
bow and tank bottom valve.

Diaphragm valves can be controlled by various types of actuators e.g. manual,

pneumatic, hydraulic, electric etc. The most common diaphragm valves

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use pneumatic actuators; in this type of valve, air pressure is applied through a
pilot valve into the actuator which in turn raises the diaphragm and opens the
valve. This type of valve is one of the more common valves used in operations
where valve speed is a necessity.

Hydraulic diaphragm valves also exist for higher pressure and lower speed
operations. Many diaphragm valves are also controlled manually.

Body Material

1. Steel type

 Cast Iron
 Ductile Iron
 Carbon Steel
 Stainless Steel

2. Plastic type

 ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)

 PVC-U (Polyvinyl chloride, un-plasticized) also known as PVCu or uPVC
 PVC-C (Polyvinyl chloride, post chlorinated) also known as PVCc or cPVC
 PP (Polypropylene)
 PE (Polyethylene) also known as LDPE, MDPE and HDPE (see note)
 PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride)
 PTFE
 PFA

Diaphragm Material
1. Unlined or Rubber Lined Type

 NR/Natural Rubber
 NBR/Nitrile/Buna-N
 EPDM
 FKM/Viton
 SI/Silicone rubber

2. Fluorine Plastic Type

 FEP,with EPDM backing

 PTFE,with EPDM backing
 PFA,with EPDM backing

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FLOW/LIFT CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVES

It describes how the flow rate changes with the movement or lift of the stem. The
shape of the plug primarily decides the flow characteristics. The flow
characteristic of a valve is normally defined in terms of (a) inherent characteristics
and (b) effective characteristics. An inherent characteristic is the ideal flow
characteristics of a control valve and is decided by the shape and size of the
plug. On the other hand, when the valve is connected to a pipeline, its overall
performance is decided by its effective characteristic.

The relationship between control valve capacity and valve stem travel is known as:

 Flow Characteristic of the Control Valve

Trim design of the valve affects how the control valve capacity changes as the
valve moves through its complete travel. Because of the variation in trim
design, many valves are not linear in nature. Valve trims are instead designed,
or characterized, in order to meet the large variety of control application needs.
Many control loops have inherent non-linearity’s, which may be possible to
compensate selecting the control valve trim.

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Inherent Control Valve Flow Characteristics

The most common characteristics are shown in the figure above. The percent of
flow through the valve is plotted against valve stem position. The curves shown
are typical of those available from valve manufacturers. These curves are based
on constant pressure drop across the valve and are called inherent flow
characteristics.

 Linear - flow capacity increases linearly with valve travel.

 Equal percentage - flow capacity increases exponentially with valve trim
travel. Equal increments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes
in the existing Cv.
 A modified parabolic characteristic is approximately midway between
linear and equal-percentage characteristics. It provides fine throttling at low
flow capacity and approximately linear characteristics at higher flow
capacity.
 Quick opening provides large changes in flow for very small changes in
lift. It usually has too high a valve gain for use in modulating control. So it is
limited to on-off service, such as sequential operation in either batch or
semi-continuous processes.
 Hyperbolic
 Square Root

The majority of control applications are with valves with linear, equal-percentage,
or modified-flow characteristics.

Installed Control Valve Flow Characteristics

When valves are installed with pumps, piping and fittings, and other process
equipment, the pressure drop across the valve will vary as the plug moves through
its travel.

When the actual flow in a system is plotted against valve opening, the curve is
called the Installed Flow Characteristic.

In most applications, when the valve opens, and the resistance due to fluids flow
decreases the pressure drop across the valve. This moves the inherent
characteristic:

 A linear inherent curve will in general resemble a quick opening

characteristic

An equal percentage curve will in general resemble a linear curve.

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CONTROL VALVE ACTUATORS AND POSITIONERS

The operation of a control valve involves positioning its movable part (the plug,
ball or vane) relative to the stationary seat of the valve. The purpose of the valve
actuator is to accurately locate the valve plug in a position dictated by the control
signal.

The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response, moves
the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed
position (depending on whether ‘on/off’ or ‘continuous’ control action is used).

There are several ways of providing this actuation.

 Pneumatic
 Electric
 Hydraulic
 Direct Acting Types

1. Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators are commonly used to actuate control valves and are
available in two main forms; piston actuators and diaphragm actuators.

a) Piston Actuators

Piston actuators are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator
would be too short or the thrust is too small. The compressed air is applied to a
solid piston contained within a solid cylinder. Piston actuators can be single acting
or double acting, can withstand higher input pressures and can offer smaller
cylinder volumes, which can act at high speed.

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b) Diaphragm Actuators

Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane called

the diaphragm. Figure shows a rolling diaphragm where the effective diaphragm
area is virtually constant throughout the actuator stroke. These types of actuators
are single acting, in that air is only supplied to one side of the diaphragm, and they
can be either direct acting (spring-to-retract) or reverse acting (spring-to-extend).

Reverse Acting (Spring-to-Extend)

The operating force is derived from compressed air pressure, which is applied to a
flexible diaphragm. The actuator is designed so that the force resulting from the air
pressure, multiplied by the area of the diaphragm, overcomes the force exerted (in
the opposite direction) by the spring(s).

The diaphragm is pushed upwards, pulling the spindle up, and if the spindle is
connected to a direct acting valve, the plug is opened. The actuator is designed so
that with a specific change of air pressure, the spindle will move sufficiently to
move the valve through its complete stroke from fully-closed to fully-open.

As the air pressure decreases, the spring(s) moves the spindle in the opposite
direction. The range of air pressure is equal to the stated actuator spring rating, for
example 0.2 - 1 bar.

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With a larger valve and/or a higher differential pressure to work against, more
force is needed to obtain full valve movement.

To create more force, a larger diaphragm area or higher spring range is needed.
This is why controls manufacturers offer a range of pneumatic actuators to match
a range of valves – comprising increasing diaphragm areas, and a choice of spring
ranges to create different forces.

The diagrams show the components of a basic pneumatic actuator and the
direction of spindle movement with increasing air pressure.

Direct Acting Actuator (Spring-to-Retract)

The direct acting actuator is designed with the spring below the diaphragm, having
air supplied to the space above the diaphragm. The result, with increasing air
pressure, is spindle movement in the opposite direction to the reverse acting
actuator.

The effect of this movement on the valve opening depends on the design and type
of valve used.

There is however, an alternative, which is shown in Figure. A direct acting

pneumatic actuator is coupled to a control valve with a reverse acting plug
(sometimes called a ‘hanging plug’).

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The choice between direct acting and reverse acting pneumatic controls depends
on what position the valve should revert to in the event of failure of the
compressed air supply. Should the valve close or be wide-open? This choice
depends upon the nature of the application and safety requirements. It makes
sense for steam valves to close on air failure, and cooling valves to open on air
failure. The combination of actuator and valve type must be considered.

Valve Positioner
Hysteresis

l may be found when using the sigal direot om the vwntrller to the valve diaphag
that when ther is a single ported valve in uNe with a high prewwu e drop, if he
gland has to he tighi to deal with a high tuid presue, i viseods are heing dlealt with,
o if always pos sitioneI each time it moves at eNactly the poition in it Irke dletated
by the 1. at 0.6 hurs, when opening it oonld be at a difterent poition to that at 0.6
bars when closing, as in the graph shown below To overcome this problem a valve
positioner is used.

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Hysteresis Loop

By definition, a positioner is a device attached to an actuator that receives an

electronic or pneumatic signal from a controller and compares that signal to the
actuators position. If the signal and actuator’s position differ, the positioner sends
the necessary power (usually through compressed air) to move the actuator until
the correct position is reached.
Although there are many different types of positioners, the basic principles of
operation re similar for all of them.

Pneumatic Valve Positioner

The pneumatic valve positioner accepts an input pneumatic signal from a control
device and sends an increased or decreased output signal to a control valve to
ensure the control valve plug travels correctly and is positioned properly on the
valve seat.

Principle of Operation
The positioner is mechanically connected to the stem of the valve. This stem
position is compared with the position called for by the instrument controller, i.e. by
the instrument output air signal. A separate air supply is brought into the positioner
for positioning the valve at exactly the point called for by the controller.

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A positioner is a type of air relay, which is used between the controller output and
the valve diaphragm. The positioner acts to overcome the hysteresis, packing box
friction, and valve plug unbalances due to pressure drop.
Valve Actuators are devices mounted on valves that, in response to a signal,
automatically moves the valve to the desired position using an outside power
source.
The schematic below illustrates how the valve positioner is connected to the
control valve:

Reasons to use Positioners

 Increase control system resolution: i.e. fine control

 Allow use of characteristic cams
 Increase speed of response to a change in process.
 Allow split ranging.
 Allow distances between controller and control valve.
 Allow wide range of flow operation: i.e. operate at less than 10% travel
under normal conditions.
 Allows using supply air at high pressure than the standard pressure in the
system, for increased thrust.
 If there is a high pressure drop across the valve
 If the medium being controlled is viscous.
 There are high gland pressures required.

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A valve positioner can be set to either direct-acting or reverse-acting. A direct-

acting valve positioner sends an increased output signal to the control valve as the
input signal to it increases. A reverse-acting valve positioner, sends a decreased
output signal as the input signal to it increases.

As shown in the diagram, the valve positioner is attached to a diaphragm-actuated

sliding stem control valve. The supply pressure is connected to a pneumatic relay.
A fixed orifice restriction in the relay limits flow to the nozzle such that when the
flapper is not restricting the nozzle, air can bleed out faster than is being supplied.

The input signal from the control device is connected to the bellows.

When the input signal increases, the bellows expand and moves the beam. The
beam pivots about the input axis moving the flapper closer to the nozzle. The
nozzle pressure increases and through the pneumatic relay action increases the
output pressure to the valve actuator. The increased output pressure to the
actuator causes the actuator stem to move downward. Stem movement is then fed
back to the beam by means of a cam. As the cam rotates, the beam pivots about
the feedback axis to move the flapper slightly away from the nozzle. The nozzle
pressure decreases and reduces the output pressure to the actuator. Stem
movement continues backing the flapper away from the nozzle until equilibrium is
achieved.

Pneumatic Valve Positioner Digital Valve Positioner

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When the input pressure decreases, the bellows contracts (aided by an internal
range spring) and the beam pivots about the input axis to move the flapper away
from the nozzle. Nozzle pressure decreases and the pneumatic relay permits the
release of diaphragm casing pressure to atmosphere causing the actuator stem to
move upward.

Through the cam, stem movement is fed back to the beam to reposition the
flapper closer to the nozzle. When equilibrium conditions are attained, stem
movement stops and the flapper is positioned to prevent any further decrease in
diaphragm case pressure.

In a reverse-acting valve positioner, the same basic operating principle above

applies except that as the input signal increases, the diaphragm casing pressure is
decreased. A decreasing input signal causes an increase in pressure to the
diaphragm casing of the control valve.

How to Change Valve Positioner Action of the Pneumatic Valve Positioner

The position of the flapper assembly on the beam determines whether the valve
positioner will act as direct-acting or reverse-acting.

As shown in the diagram above, the beam is divided into quadrants.

The direct acting quadrant is labelled DIRECT and the reverse-acting quadrant is
labelled REVERSE. To change the valve positioner action, simply move the
flapper assembly to the opposite quadrant of the beam.

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Force Balance Pneumatic Positioner

Working principle

A simple force-balance pneumatic valve positioner design appears in the following

illustration:

The control signal for this valve is a 3 to 15 PSI pneumatic signal, coming from
either an I/P transducer or a pneumatic controller (neither one shown in the
illustration). This control signal pressure applies an upward force on the force
beam, such that the baffle tries to approach the nozzle. Increasing backpressure
in the nozzle causes the pneumatic amplifying relay to output a greater air
pressure to the valve actuator, which in turn lifts the valve stem up (opening up the
valve). As the valve stem lifts up, the spring connecting the force beam to the
valve stem becomes further stretched, applying additional force to the right-hand
side of the force beam. When this additional force balances the bellows’ force, the
system stabilizes at a new equilibrium. Like all force-balance systems, the force
beam motion is greatly constrained by the balancing forces, such that its motion is
negligible for all practical purposes. In the end, equilibrium is achieved by one
force balancing another, like two teams of people pulling oppositely on a length of
rope: so long as the two teams’ forces remain equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction, the rope will not deviate from its original position.

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The following photograph shows a PMV model 1500 force-balance positioner used
to position a rotary valve actuator, with the cover on (left) and removed (right):

Figure below shows a force balance type positioner where, if an increasing

pressure is applied to the input bellows, the bell crank lever rotates anti-clockwise
and the pilot valve increases the air supply to the actuator.

The 3-15 PSI pneumatic control signal enters into the bellows, which pushes
downward on the horizontal force beam. A pneumatic pilot valve assembly at the
left-hand side of the force beam detects any motion, increasing air pressure to the
valve actuating diaphragm if any downward motion is detected and releasing air
pressure from the actuator if any upward motion is detected:

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As compressed air is admitted to the valve actuator by this pilot valve assembly,
the rotary valve will begin to rotate open. The shaft’s rotary motion is converted
into a linear motion inside the positioner by means of a cam: a disk with an
irregular radius designed to produce linear displacement from angular
displacement:

A roller-tipped follower at the end of another beam rides along the cam’s
circumference. Beam motion caused by the cam is translated into linear force by
the compression of a coil spring directly against the force of the pneumatic bellows
on the force beam. When the cam moves far enough to compress the spring
enough to balance the additional force generated by the bellows, the force beam
return to its equilibrium position (very nearly where it began) and the valve will
stop moving. Even though the cam and follower in this positioner mechanism
actually do move with valve stem motion, it is still considered a force-balance
mechanism because the beam connected to the pilot valve does not move
appreciably. The pilot valve always comes to rest at its equilibrium position
through a balancing of forces on the beam.

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Internal Mechanism of Force Balance Positioner

Force Balance Positioner

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FAIL – SAFE AND FAIL – SET STRATEGIES FOR CONTROL VALVES

On failure of control air supply, the pneumatic actuator may be arranged to move
to a position that allows the plant to continue to operate safely, in other words, fully
opened or fully closed. This is known as fail safe. For example, in the case of a
jacket cooling water system, on failure of control air, the actuator opens fully to
allow jacket water to the cooler without bypass. On the other hand, a fuel oil
control valve for boiler closes completely on such a failure. This ensures safety of
the plant.

In some other systems, control air supply failure locks the position of valve at that
time of failure. This is called fail set. The advantage of this system is that the plant
remains stable and has time for normal shutdown or can wait for reestablishment
of control air supply for some time. Example for such a system is boiler water level
control.

Pneumatic Control Valves can be designed to Fail Open or Fail Closed

Legends

ATC: Air to Close, Fail Open

ATO: Air to Open, Fail Close
DAV: Direct Acting Valve
RAV: Reverse Acting Valve

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ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVES

An electrical solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units:
1. A solenoid (electromagnet) with its core
2. A valve body containing one or more orifices

Flow through an orifice is shut off or allowed by the movement of the core when
the solenoid is energized or de-energized. The valves have a solenoid mounted
directly on the valve body. The core is enclosed in a sealed tube, providing a
compact, leak tight assembly.

Direct Acting Valves (Figures 1A, 1B)

When the solenoid is energized in a direct acting valve, the core directly opens the
orifice of a Normally Closed valve or closes the orifice of a Normally Open valve.
When de-energized, a spring returns the valve to its original position. The valve
will operate at pressures from 0 psi to its rated maximum.

The force needed to open the valve is proportional to the orifice size and fluid
pressure. As the orifice size increases, so does the force required. To open large
orifices while keeping solenoid size small, a Pilot Operated construction is used.

Figure 1A: Figure 1B:

Direct Acting Direct Acting
Normally closed valve Normally closed valve
De-energized Energized

Internal Pilot Operated Valves (Figures 2A, 2B)

Normally, these valves have a pilot and bleed orifice which enable them to use line
pressure for operation.

When the solenoid is de-energized, the pilot orifice is closed and full line pressure
is applied to the top of the piston or diaphragm through the bleed orifice, providing
seating force for tight closure.

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When the solenoid is energized, the core opens the pilot orifice, relieving pressure
from the top of the piston or diaphragm via the outlet side of the valve. The line
pressure then opens the valve by lifting the diaphragm or piston off the main
orifice.

Figure 2A Figure 2B
Pilot Operated, Normally Closed Valve, Pilot Operated, Normally Closed Valve,
De-Energized Energized

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WAX ELEMENT (THERMOSTATIC) VALVES

The principle of automatic control of hot and cold fluids ensures you of efficient
management of hot water using Wax element:

1. No water and energy are wasted through trial and error when adjusting the
temperature; reduction of in-line heat 3losses; temporary interruption of the
controlled temperature water flow as often as required.
2. The thermostatic mixing valve assists in ensuring that the system components
such as tap heads, seats and solenoid valves are less encrusted with scale,
thus ensuring a longer service life of all the equipment and piping.
3. It significantly increases the output capacity of the accumulator.
4. It is commonly accepted that a thermostatic mixing valve provides energy
savings of 30% compared to a simple mixing valve. For private individuals, the
equipment is soon amortized.

Three Way Thermostatic Valve

Wax Element
The technique is that of automatic regulation via a cylindrical “slide valve”,
activated by a wax capsule. The hot and cold-water inlets are located on other
side of this “slide valve”. When the water is too cold as regards the set point (upon
opening), a spring pushes the “slide valve” and closes the cold side and thus
opens the hot side completely.

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As soon as the hot water comes in, the capsule expands and draws the “slide
valve” of the other side, closing the hot side and compressing the spring. As the
cold water then flows in again, the spring will bring the “slide valve” to the hot side
and reach the proper mixing temperature. All these operations are carried out in
less than 2 seconds. Should the pressure vary, the same operation will be
repeated.

BIMETALLIC STRIP

Trubert is the inventor of the Bi-metallic strip concept. This technique uses the
principle of double control through indirect action of a bimetallic strip. This receives
temperature information corresponding to the set point and will react
instantaneously (+/- 1 sec.).

The double control will take place as follows: the bimetallic strip acts on a pre-
mixing valve with a very small flow rate, also called the distributor, this will regulate
the flow of water in two slave valves with membranes, causing an amplification of
the signal, but ensuring the same mixture proportion and thus the same
temperature.

The slightest variation in use conditions will be passed along to the same
operating chain: first the distributor and then the large water passages.

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CONTROL LOOP ANALYSIS

Temperature Control Systems
To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator
involvement, a temperature control system relies upon a controller, which accepts
a temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It compares the
actual temperature to the desired control temperature, or set point, and provides
an output to a control element.
The controller is one part of the entire control system, and the whole system
should be analysed in selecting the proper controller. The following items should
be considered when selecting a controller:

1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range

2. Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analogue output)
3. Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID)
4. Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, limit)

There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending
upon the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or
another to control the process.

On/Off

An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output
from the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will
switch the output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating
control, the output is on when the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above
setpoint.

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Proportional
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off
control. A proportional controller decreases the average power being supplied to
the heater as the temperature approaches the set point.

This has the effect of slowing down the heater, so that it will not overshoot the set
point, but will approach the set point and maintain a stable temperature.

PID

The third controller type provides proportional with integral and derivative control,
or PID. This controller combines proportional control with two additional
adjustments, which helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the
system. These adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based
units; they are also referred to by their reciprocals, RESET and RATE,
respectively.

Temperature Control Loop

Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process fluid,

temperature loops tend to be relatively slow. Feedforward control strategies are
often used to increase the speed of the temperature loop response. RTDs or
thermocouples are typical temperature sensors. Temperature transmitters and
controllers are used, although it is not uncommon to see temperature sensors
wired directly to the input interface of a controller. The final control element for a
temperature loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner or a valve to some kind of
heat exchanger. Sometimes, cool process fluid is added to the mix to maintain the
temperature.

A Temperature Loop

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LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS

The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the size and
shape of the process vessel (e.g., larger vessels take longer to fill than smaller
ones) and the flow rate of the input and outflow pipes. Manufacturers may use one
of many different measurement technologies to determine level, including radar,
ultrasonic, float gauge, and pressure measurement. The final control element in a
level control loop is usually a valve on the input and/or outflow connections to the
tank. Because it is often critical to avoid tank overflow, redundant level control
systems are sometimes employed.

A Level Loop

The two major methods of level measurement are:

Continuous level method: In this method, continuous level sensors are

employed which determine liquid level within a given range instead of at a single
point. These sensors usually indicate the correct amount of substance in the
specified area. These sensors are extra sophisticated and capable enough to
perform level monitoring for the complete system. Via this method an analog
output is generated which directly correlates to the level in the container.

Point level method: In this method, point level sensors are used, which can only
detect whether the substance level is above or below the sensing point. This
method is typically used to deal with fluid levels which are exceptionally high or
low.

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PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Pressure control loops vary in speed, that is, they can respond to changes in load
or to control action slowly or quickly. The speed required in a pressure control loop
may be dictated by the volume of the process fluid. High-volume systems (e.g.,
large natural gas storage facilities) tend to change more slowly than low-volume
systems.

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SINGLE, TWO AND THREE ELEMENT CONTROL SYSTEM

The purpose of the drum level controller is to bring the drum up to level at boiler
start-up and maintain the level at constant steam load. A dramatic decrease in this
level may uncover boiler tubes, allowing them to become overheated and
damaged. An increase in this level may interfere with the process of separating
moisture from steam within the drum, thus reducing boiler efficiency and carrying
moisture into the process or turbine.

The functions of this control module can be broken down into the following:

 Operator adjustment of the setpoint for drum level

 Compensation for the shrink & swell effects
 Automatic control of drum level
 Manual control of the feedwater valve
 Bump-less transfer between auto and manual modes
 Indication of drum level and steam flow
 Indication of feedwater valve position and feedwater flow
 Absolute/deviation alarms for drum level

Single Element Control

The simplest, but least effective form of drum level control.

This consists of a proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the
drum level transmitter. This signal is compared to a setpoint and the difference is a
deviation value.

This signal is acted upon by the controller which generates corrective action in the
form of a proportional output. The output is then passed to the boiler feedwater
valve, which then adjusts the level of feedwater flow into the boiler drum.

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Notes:

 Only one analogue input and one analogue output required

 Can only be applied to single boiler / single feed pump configurations with
relatively stable loads since there is no relationship between drum level and
steam- or feedwater flow
 Possible inadequate control option because of the swell effect

Single Element Boiler Feed Water Control

A single element boiler water control is suitable for boiler having high storage
versus steam releases ratio i.e. a large drum size and small steam demand.

1) Cannot cope up with shrink and swell factor.

2) Also not suitable for high load changes.

Boilers where the steam release water storage ratio is low, i.e. where the amount
of water contained in the boiler relative to the steam output is reasonably high and
also where load variations are of limited magnitude. The level of the water in the
boiler drum is referred to a constant head with the resulting differential being
applied to a differential transmitter, which converts the measurement to a
proportional pneumatic signal. This signal is passed to a controller as a measured
variable signal, where it is compared with a desired value and any deviation or
error between the two causes the controller output to change and pass the
changed signal, via an auto/manual station, to the feed water control valve.

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CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Boiler Water Level Control - Shrink and Swell Phenomenon

As steam demand is increased, there is more steam outflow from the drum and
simultaneously there is drop in pressure which causes water to boil at lower
temperature. This leads to steam bubbles formed which give an apparent water
level increase.

A sudden increase in steam demand reduces the steam pressure in the drum, and
to drop the temperature of to saturation temperature matching the new pressure,
some of the water flashes off into steam causing the formation of a mass of steam
bubbles that tends to increase the drum level. The situation is aggravated by an
increase in evaporation rate due to the increase in temperature difference (and
thus heat transfer rate) due to the drop in saturation temperature between the
water in the tubes and the furnace and gas temperature. This effect is known as
swell and on simple level control system that is based solely upon the
measurement of level will, therefore, functions incorrectly under these conditions
as a simple level control system or a Single Element Control System

In short period of time required to stabilize to increase in the firing rate to restore
the drum pressure, there is a rapid drop in drum water level. Boiler with high
storage/ release ratio can withstand such conditions without adverse results, but
modern steam generator having high steam release to water storage ratio may
result in uncovering heat transfer surface and possibly catastrophic failure.

In flow of cool feed water, it will collapse some of the steam bubbles below the
water surface, which causes further decrease in water level. Hence it will lead to
uncovering of steam generating tubes without having water and exposed to the
flame.

The decrease in steam demand will result in shrinkage effect, which will produce a
situation reverse of swell phenomenon. This will result in carryover of water into
super heaters or to the engines. Consequently on any change in steaming rate, a
severe cycle is encountered in feed water flow to the boiler upsetting the balance
of the entire boiler, to say nothing of the effect on boiler feed water heaters, which
will also cycle severely. This will also reflect very adversely on the state of
combustion in the boiler furnace. To overcome this problem, Two Element feed
water control has been devised.

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MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

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Two Element Control

The two-element drum level controller can best be applied to a single drum boiler
where the feed water is at a constant pressure. The two elements are made up of
the following:

Level Element: A proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the
drum level transmitter. This signal is compared to a set point and the resultant is a
deviation value. This signal is acted upon by the controller which generates
corrective action in the form of a proportional value.

Steam Flow Element: a mass flow rate signal (corrected for density) is used to
control the feed water flow, giving immediate corrections to feed water demand in
response to load changes. Any imbalance between steam mass flow out and feed
water mass flow into the drum is corrected by the level controller. This imbalance
can arise from:

 Blow down variations due to changes in dissolved solids

 Variations in feed water supply pressure
 Leaks in the steam circuits

Notes:

 Tighter control of drum level than with only one element

 Steam flow acts as feed forward signal to allow faster level adjustments
 Can best be applied to single boiler / single feed pump configurations with a
constant feed water pressure

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CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

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Volume - I 1

Boiler Water Control with Two Element Controller

In the two element boiler control water system, another variable i.e. the steam flow
is measured across the orifice plate, using the differential pressure transmitter.
The differential pressure transmitter is set across the square root tractor which
makes the signal linear to the flow and this signal is being used as measured
value signal to the controller.

The square root extractor output and PI controller output is passed through a
summation relay where both the signals are added up and this combined signal is
sent across the final controlling element i.e. feed check valve. In two-element
boiler water control any change in the steam demand is immediately picked up by
the differential pressure transmitter, which is mounted at the orifice plate.

Hence, the output of the DP cell will indicate variation in steam demand and will
alter the signal to the feed check valve, to considerably negate the effect of shrink
and swell phenomenon. With two-element control system, it is necessary to
maintain a constant feed water pressure at the inlet to optimize the boiler water
control.

Any fluctuations in feed water pressure will affect the drum level and this control
will then try to adjust the regulating valve to restore the desired level condition.
This leads to the cyclic conditions in the system and overworking components and
compounding the trouble. Therefore, a third element is introduced namely feed
water flow.

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Three Element Control

The feed water control system is a three-element type, designed to monitor

changes in steam flow, water flow and drum level. Steam flow is the rate of steam
leaving the boiler - the demand. Water flow is the rate of feed water flow into the
boiler - the supply. Drum level reflects the amount of water in the boiler - the
inventory. With changes in boiler load (steam flow), steam and water flow become
unbalanced and water level consequently deviates from the normal position. In
such an event, the system changes water flow to the extent necessary to restore
the balance between steam flow and feed flow and return the water level to
normal.

Three Elements measured by this System:

 Steam flow - considered demand signal

 Feed flow - considered response signal (feedback)
 Drum level - considered supervisory signal

Notes:

 The three-element system provides tighter control for drum level with
fluctuating steam load. Ideal where a system suffers from fluctuating feed
water pressure or flow
 More sophisticated level of control required

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MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
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A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Three Element Boiler Feed Water Control

Third element in boiler control system is fed water flow.

Under equilibrium conditions, steam flow must equal feed water flow and both
these conditions are monitored and signals compared in differential relay and
provided they are equal, added to the desired value of water level in drum. -o In
the previous system it is necessary to maintain a constant feed water pressure at
the inlet of the regulating valve to optimize operation. Any fluctuation in the feed
water pressure will affect the drum level and this control will then try to adjust the
regulating valve to restore the desired level condition.

Three Element Feed Water Control System

Based on the operation, that for equilibrium, steam flow must equal feed water
flow. Both of these conditions are monitored and signals compared in a differential
relay, and provided they are equal, then the output of this is added to the desired
value of the water level in the drum. This signal is then compared with the drum
level measured value signal in the two-term controller and any deviation or error
between the measured value and the desired value plus the difference between
the steam and the feed flows will cause the controller to re-position the feed water
control valve to restore the level.

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Volume - I 1

When there is an increase in the steam demand, the differential relay is

unbalanced and demands a higher drum level, counterbalancing the swell
effect and trying to close the feed water control valve. When the steam flow
falls, the differential relay is again unbalanced and demands a low level and
alters the shrinkage effect.

Any variation in the feed water flow due to pressure fluctuation will be detected
by the flow meter, re-positioning the valve before the drum level is affected.
With this system it is also possible to provide a variable level set point
depending upon the load-higher level as load increases and also high and low
signal limits to optimize the setting of the system to account for boiler dynamics
under arduous maneuvering conditions.

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Volume - I 1

CASCADE AND SPLIT RANGE CONTROL

Cascade control is widely used for minimizing the effects of certain types of
disturbance in the process. On the other hand, override and split range controls
are used for controlling certain types of multi variable processes.

Cascade Control

By suitable adjustment of proportional band, integral action time, and possibly the
rate action time, an automatic control system can deal with the time lag between a
deviation or error arising and equilibrium being restored, which was introduced by
a large capacitor, whether it is a large volume of water or a large thermal storage
capacity.

But, when two such capacitors are involved, control can become difficult and it
may be necessary to use a cascade control.

This involves two automatic controllers in series, the output signal of one, the
master, being used as the set point of the second, the slave. The output signal
from this, is then being used to adjust the correcting unit. Each automatic
controller has a sensor providing a measured value signal of the system under
control from a different position in the plant. In this way the two capacitors are split
into two single capacitor systems making the control easier.

Consider the heat exchange process shown in figure1. Steam is used to heat the
water in the heat exchanger. Feedback temperature controller is used to compare
the water outlet temperature with the set point and control the steam flow rate by
opening or closing the control valve. However due to the change in upstream
steam pressure (Pi), the steam flow rate may change, though the control valve is
at the same position. This will affect the amount of heat exchanged and the
temperature at the water outlet. It will take some time to detect the change in
temperature and take subsequent corrective action. In a cascade control, this
problem can be overcome by measuring the disturbance (change in flowrate in
steam due to upstream pressure variation and a corrective action is taken to
maintain constant flow rate of steam. There is an additional controller (flow
controller) whose set point is decided by the temperature controller. The
schematic arrangement of cascade control is shown in figure 2. The block diagram
is shown in figure 3. Clearly, there are two control loops – outer and inner, and two
controllers. The set point of the inner loop controller is decided by the outer loop
primary controller.

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Broadly speaking, there are two major functions of cascade control: (1) to
eliminate the effect of some disturbances, and (2) to improve the dynamic
performance of the control loop. It is evident from figure 3, that the effect of
disturbances arising within the inner loop (or secondary loop, as it is called
sometimes) is corrected by the secondary controller, before it can influence the
output, and the primary controller takes care of the other disturbances in the outer
loop.

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Figure 3. Block Diagram of Cascade Control

As a result, the transient response of the overall system improves. Fig. 4 depicts
typical responses of a closed loop system with (a) simple P-I type feedback
controller and (b) cascade with primary P-I controller.

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Volume - I 1

There are few other advantages of cascade control:

1. A strong (high gain) inner loop reduces the sensitivity and nonlinearity of the
plant in the closed loop. The outer loop therefore experiences less parameter
perturbations.
2. Cascading makes the use of feed forward control more systematic. In the heat
exchanger example (Fig.2) it is possible to measure the water flow and add
feed forward compensation to the flow controller. This would improve the
speed of response to fluctuation in water flow, which is a disturbance.
3. Cascade control often makes it possible to use simpler control action than what
could be needed for a single controller. Though the number of tuneable
parameters is more in cascade control, a systematic tuning procedure (inner to
outer) is available.

On the other hand, the major disadvantages of cascade control are (i) more
sensors and transmitters and (ii) more number of controllers.

Cascade Control for Jacket Water Cooling onboard Ship

Maintaining a constant cooling water outlet temperature from the cylinder jackets
of a diesel engine presents problems due to thermal inertias of the large mass of
water flowing, variations in engine loading and sea water temperature and
possibly pressure while manoeuvring. In this application, therefore, the master
controller responds to the sensor at the jacket outlet, Compares it with a set point
signal introduced by the plant operator and if there is a deviation or error,
produces a resetting signal, which is taken to the set point bellows of the slave
controller. The slave controller then transmits a signal to the correcting unit or final
control element (valve), which adjust the sea water flow. Thus the effect os any
change in engine loading on Jacket Cooling water outlet temperature is sense by
the master controller, which operates the sea water control valve at the cooler via
the setpoint of the slave controller. If there is a change in the sea water
temperature or pressure, this will immediately affect the water in the cooler and a
sensor monitors the outlet temperature here, to which the slave controller
responds. Any change in this temperature operates the slave controller that acts
as a self-contained control loop to readjust the seawater control valve.

Thus, any temperature change at the cooler due to seawater temperature or

pressure fluctuation is prevented from reaching the engine and causing a
temperature change in the whole system that would take a long time to sense and
correct.

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Cascade Control Application

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Split Range Control

The output signal from a controller may be split into two or more branches to
control two or more correcting units. This type of control is used, where there are
several manipulated variables, but a single output variable. The coordination
among different manipulated variables is carried out by using Split Range Control.

The splitter defines how each valve is sequenced as the controller output changes
from 0~100%. In most split range application, the controller adjust the opening of
one of the valve, when the controller output is in the range of 0~50%, and the
other valve, when it’s output is in the range of 50~100%.

Fig. 5 Steam header with Split-range Control

Figure5 shows an example of a typical split range control scheme. The steam
discharges from several boilers are combine at a steam header. Overall steam
pressure at the header is to be maintained constant through a pressure control
loop. The command from the pressure controller is used for controlling
simultaneously the steam flow rates from the boilers in parallel. Clearly, there is a
single output variable (steam header pressure) while there are a number of
manipulating variables (discharge from different boilers).

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Split Range Control Jacket Water Cooling onboard Ship

The output signal from a controller may be split into two or more branches to
control two or more correcting units. A typical marine application is shown in the
figure, where a single temperature sensor, via an automatic controller, controls
two valves to maintain the jacket cooling water of a diesel engine constant.

Split Range Control Application

The jacket cooling water outlet temperature sensor monitors the cooling water at
the outlet from the cylinder head (resistance thermometer, the thermocouple or
thermistor for electrical control circuits, filled system type for a pneumatic control
system and possibly for an electrical system via a transducer), and feeds a signal
to the automatic controller where the comparing element checks for any deviation
or error. The automatic controller output usually ranges from 0.2 bars to 1.0 bars
and this is fed to both the valve positioners. These are adjusted, so that when the
jacket cooling water temperature is low, the low air signal 0.2 bar ~ 0.4 bars
operates the steam supply valve to raise the temperature of the water. When the
pressure is above 0.4 bar this valve is shut, and 0.4 bar ~1.0 bar range, the
cooling water valve, is open. Below 0.4 bar this valve is shut, so that there is only
one valve open at any time.

In some cases, where there would be problems with two valves opening at the
same time, a dead band is used, one valve closing at 0.4 bar for instance and the
other opening at 0.5 bars. This would be used when using exhaust steam and bled
steam for deaerating feed water for boilers. Excess exhaust steam may be
dumped to a condenser, but to prevent this happening to steam bled from the
turbines, the dead band ensures that the dump valve is shut before the bled steam
valve opens. This dead band is not required in the cooling water system.

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OPERATION AND USE OF GOVERNORS

Need for Governors

All power sources must be controlled in order to convert the power to useful work.
The essential device which controls the speed or power output of an engine,
turbine, or other source of power is called a governor. For simplicity, we’ll call the
source of power a prime mover. A governor senses the speed (or load) of a prime
mover and controls the fuel (or steam) to the prime mover to maintain its speed (or
load) at a desired level. In some cases, the governor controls other factors that
determine the speed or load of the prime mover. In all cases, a governor ends up
controlling the energy source to a prime mover to control its power so it can be
used for a specific purpose

Speed governors vary prime mover output(torque) automatically for changes in

system speed (frequency). The speed sensing device is usually a flyball assembly
for mechanical-hydraulic governors and a frequency transducer for electro-
hydraulic governors. The output of the speed sensor passes through signal
conditioning and amplification (provided by a combination of mechanical-hydraulic
elements, electronic circuits, and/or software) and operates a control mechanism
to adjust the prime mover output (torque) until the system frequency change is
arrested. The governor action arrests the drop in frequency, but does not return
the frequency to the pre-upset value (approximately 60 Hz) on large
interconnected systems. Returning the frequency to 60 Hz is the job of the AGC
(Automatic Generation Control) system. The rate and magnitude of the governor
response to a speed change can be tuned for the characteristics of the generator
that the governor controls and the power system to which it is connected.

GOVERNOR TERMS, CONCEPTS AND OPERATION

If a decrease in system frequency occurs, due to a loss of generation or an

increase in load, the shaft speed of each connected synchronous generator will
also decrease. This speed decrease is transmitted to a mechanical governor fly
ball assembly by means of a shaft-mounted PMG (permanent magnet generator)
and a ball head motor, and to an electro-hydraulic governor frequency transducer
by a toothed wheel or the generator potential transformers. As the fly balls spin
more slowly, they move in causing the valve to move up and allow more flow (fuel,
steam, water, etc.) to the prime mover. In the same manner, the frequency
decrease sensed by a frequency transducer will be amplified and used to open the
valve. Thus, the output power (torque) of the controlled prime mover will increase
and help arrest the frequency drop

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Droop

Droop has many uses and applications in the control of engines. Without some
form of droop, engine-speed control would be unstable in most cases. Droop is
defined as a decrease in speed setting at the load increases. Droop is expressed
as a percentage of the original speed setting from no load to full load. The normal
recommended percent of droop is 3% to 5%. A minimum of 2.5% is required to
maintain stability in a speed-droop governor. Droop is calculated with the following
formula: % Droop = No Load Speed – Full Load Rated Speed/ Full Load Rated
Speed x 100. If, instead of a decrease in speed setting an increase takes place,
the governor is showing negative droop. Negative droop will cause instability in a
governor. Simple hydro-mechanical governors have the droop function built in and
always operate in droop. More complex governors include temporary droop, which
returns the speed setting to its original speed setting after the engine has
recovered from a change in speed or load. The temporary droop is called
“compensation.”

HYDRAULIC GOVERNORS

The hydraulic system consists of an oil sump, one or two oil pumps, an air over oil
accumulator tank, and piping to the servomotors. Typically, there are two pumps
with lead and lag controls so that there is always a backup pump. Some systems
will share two pumps between two units so that in an emergency one pump could
be used for both units. The accumulator tank is usually sized so that in the event
the pumps fail, the gates can still be closed. The size of the valve required to
control the large amount of oil flowing to the servomotors is too large to be
controlled by the ball head. Therefore, a hydraulic amplifier system is used. Oil is
routed to a servo on the larger valve by a small pilot valve. The pilot valve is very
small so that it is sensitive to the small forces that result from small changes in
speed. The larger valve may be called the main valve, regulating valve, control
valve, relay valve, or distributing valve. The pilot valve usually is designed with a
moveable bushing. The plunger of the pilot valve is connected, through a floating
lever, to the ball head, and the bushing is connected to main valve. Whenever the
pilot valve moves off center, oil is routed to the main valve servo, causing the main
valve to move. The pilot valve bushing is moved off center by the main valve
movement, blocking the port of the pilot valve, stopping further main valve
movement. The restoring lever between the main valve and the pilot valve bushing
is usually adjustable so that the ratio of pilot valve movement to main valve
movement is adjustable.

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Load and Speed Sensing Governor

Mechanical/ Hydraulic Governors

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ELECTRONIC/DIGITAL GOVERNORS

Electronic Governor incorporates electronic and mechanical functions in integrated

system. Electronic module processes engine speed information and sends
appropriate signals to stepper motor on carburetor throttle shaft. Unit dictates
movement of throttle with steps as small as 0.2°. It eliminates droop experienced
while engine is under load, and can automatically adjust spark timing. Governor
features precise cut-in and idle stability feedback.

With Electronic Governing:

 Generator sets maintain a constant frequency whatever the load. Sensitive

electronic equipment is protected against damaging fluctuations. This is
especially important in IT and healthcare.
 Engines respond faster to load changes – as much as 200 times faster.
 You improve your fuel economy because an electronic governor accurately
sets the engine’s throttle to match the load. This reduces your bills and your
environmental footprint.

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Working Principle of Electronic Engine Governor

The Electronic Governor Controllers discussed apply only to engine-driven

generators. These systems consist of an electronic governor controller, an
electromagnetic pick-up (MPU) and an actuator (ACT) and provide engine speed
adjustment from “no load” to full load.

The electronic governor controller output current to the actuator must be finely
modulated by a PID controller to maintain a steady speed.

 Electromagnetic pick-up (MPU): measures engine speed.

 Speed controller (ESC): The controller measures the speed from the
frequency of the electromagnetic pickup and compares this with the desired
setting speed, and then outputs a speed correction signal.
 Actuator: receives the speed correction signal and changes the angle of the
mechanical linkage to the fuel valve.
 Fuel valve: through the change in the position of the mechanical linkage
there is a change in the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine.
 Engine: The fuel supplied to the engine is turned into electrical energy. By
varying the engine speed the power level is adjustable.
 Flywheel: The flywheel is directly connected to the engine so the rotation
speed is same as engine speed. The electromagnetic pickup monitors
flywheel speed in order to monitor the actual speed.

It should be noted that the closed-loop system is in continuous operation at all

times, 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5 → 6 → 1 → 2..., if any single point fails the system will
not work. All components in system are all equally important. If there is a fuel
supply failure, the system will fail. If the electromagnetic pick-up malfunctions the
system will not work. If the gap between the rod and the fuel valve actuator is too
large, in the same way, the system will not work as expected.

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Electromagnetic Pick-Up (MPU)

The MPU consists of a permanent magnet with an external coil winding. You could
also say the MPU is a micro-generator. It has a magnetic field like any other
generator has a magnetic field. The MPU is installed above the flywheel teeth and
when the tip of a flywheel tooth is nearest to the MPU the internal magnetic field
will be at a maximum, when a slot in the flywheel is nearest to MPU the internal
magnetic field will be at a minimum. In this way, when the flywheel is moving, the
MPU will have a constantly changing internal magnetic field, and as a result of this
there is an AC voltage induced in the outer conducting coil.

This AC voltage follows the rotational speed of the flywheel - the higher flywheel
speed the higher the induced AC voltage and frequency. The MPU signal is
usually determined by a number of factors, such as the clearance between the
flywheel teeth, the number of flywheel teeth, the flywheel speed, then MPU
induction capability, etc… In general, the governor requires not less than 2 Volts
RMS to ensure accurate control and a resistance normally between 10-300Ω.

MPU induction frequency formula: F = number of teeth × engine speed (RPM) / 60.
This frequency is proportional to the engine speed.

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 343 of 395

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Governor Controllers

The main task of the governor controller is to convert the induced frequency read
by the MPU into a DC voltage signal and then compare it with setting voltage
(frequency). The result will be calculated by PID and then finally be output to
actuator.

To meet requirements in addition to the basic function of speed stabilizing the

governor controller functions extend to synchronizing with other machines, as well
as other functions, such as droop compensation, idle speed, remote control inputs,
smoke suppression starts, etc…and so further expands the applications of the
governor controller.

Smoke Suppression Function

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 344 of 395

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Due to mechanical inertia it takes time for engine speed to increase from zero to
the rated speed. The speed controller with smoke suppression function can set up
an incremental curve to control acceleration according to the engine inertia.
(Figure 6). In this way it can avoid excessive fuel injection during startup and the
climb to operating speed that would produce a large amount of smoke (Figure 7).

Operation Mechanisms: 1. start fuel 2. acceleration time 3. rated speed

Idle Speed Setting

Idle speed setting means to reduce engine RPM to a relatively low speed. Its
functions are as follows: 1. for engine warm up or cool down. 2. energy-saving
operation, for example: when using an electric crane for suspension work, during
the times between operation the engine can be adjusted to idle speed and can
switch to the static inverter to supply power for the basic communication, control
and air conditioning.

Operation Mechanism: 1. idle speed setting 2. idle speed switch

Synchronous (Parallel) Operation

Even if two generators are synchronized there can still be a load imbalance due to
the unequal length of feeders, which contains both real power and reactive power,
where the real power is related to engine speed. A synchronization governor
controller provides two modes to balance the generators speed. 1. constant speed
mode. 2. droop mode.

Auxiliary Input (Constant Speed Mode)

When synchronized in constant speed mode there is no attenuation, that is to say

that even with a load the governor controller will still maintain the same speed as
without a load. To achieve this state there must be a central controlling device
(load distributor) continuously monitoring the real output power of each generator
and when the real power is not in balance this load distributor will send out a
different output DC voltage signal (0-5Vdc) to each the controller for each
generator, causing the real power return to a balanced state. The premise, of
course, is that the generator has enough power to maintain this speed.

Operation: Connect an analog voltage signal line from the central controller (load
distributor) to the auxiliary input terminals on the governor controller.
Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 345 of 395
 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Droop Adjustment (Droop Mode)

When synchronized in “droop mode” the speed will be attenuated, that is, when
there is a load the generator speed will be reduced. Each governor controller has
an amount of droop percentage associated with it. Figure 9 shows a droop
percentage of 5%. Without load the speed is set at 1890 rpm, with a load when the
rate begins to decline until the full load of 1800rpm: this percentage can be
calculated (1890-1800) / 1890 = 5%. Droop mode allows only a rough real power
balance between the generators.

Operation: Adjust Droop Percentage

*How does governor controller know there is a load on the generator? How much
load do you need to have what percentage of droop?

In the governor controller actuator drive current circuit there is a circuit which
assigns a droop percentage according to the amount current sent to the actuator.
When the generator load increases the actuator current will increase and the
droop percentage increases. Figure 8 is in constant speed mode, and Figure 9 is
in droop mode.

Start Detection

When an engine is being driven by the starter motor the MPU must send a voltage
signal greater than 2 Volts to the governor controller to tell it that the engine is
starting. Only then will the governor controller allow the actuator to supply fuel,
which is the reason for the controller’s internal start detection circuit. Because of
this if we stop the engine the governor controller will automatically shut down (off)
actuator power.
Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 346 of 395
 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Operating mechanism: Automatic

*If the MPU voltage of a running engine is below 2 Vrms the start detection circuit
will shut down (off) the actuator power source.

Speed Settings / Remote Speed Control

The governor controller has a speed setting to set the desired RPM and also has a
selection for MPU frequency range so that a single governor controller can be
used on different high and low speed engines. In addition, the governor controller
also provides a way to set the desired speed from a potentiometer outside of the
unit. Operating mechanism: RPM setting, Frequency range selection, External
potentiometer

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 347 of 395

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

POWER SHARING

When two or more electrical generating sets or systems are paralleled to the same
power distribution system, the power sources must be synchronized properly.
Without proper synchronization of the oncoming unit or system, power surges and
mechanical or electrical stress will result when the tie breaker is closed. Under the
worst conditions, the voltages between the two systems can be twice the peak
operating voltage of one of the systems, or one system can place a dead short on
the other. Extremely high currents can result from this, which put stress on both
systems. These stresses can result in bent drive shafts, broken couplings, or
broken turbine quill shafts. Under some conditions, power surges can be started
which will build on each other until both generating systems are disabled. These
conditions are extreme. Stress and damage can occur in varying degrees. The
degrading effects depend on the type of generator, the type of driver, the electrical
load, and on how poorly the systems are synchronized when the breakers are
closed. Modern systems often supply power to sophisticated and sensitive
electronic equipment. Accurate synchronization is necessary to prevent expensive
down time and replacement costs.

Isochronous Vs Droop Control for Generators

Suppose that a generator is paralleled with the utility grid. If it is considered as an

infinite bus, the utility grid will determine the generator frequency (speed) and
voltage. When the speed (and frequency) set point is slightly lower, the speed
governor will fully close the fuel supply in attempt to lower the frequency. If the set
point slightly higher, the speed governor will fully open the fuel supply. For the
automatic voltage regulator and the reactive power, something similar happens.
To solve these problems, we use droop controls.

Isochronous and Droop Speed Control

In the isochronous speed control mode, the speed will return to the original speed
set point, after a load has been applied or rejected. However, in parallel operation
this would cause instability as explained above.

In the droop speed control mode, the speed will decrease by a fixed percentage,
when the generator is loaded from no-load to full load. This provides a stable
working point for each load in case of parallel operation.

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 348 of 395

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

The droop slope is a fixed setting mostly between 3 and 5%. But the operator or
power management system can adjust the speed set point in order to:

 return to the rated frequency in stand-alone operation

 change the generator active power (MW) in parallel operation

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 349 of 395

 Document Title:
MARINE ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY, ELECTRONICS, AUTOMATIC Issue Date: Author:
CONTROL ENGINEERING AND SAFETY DEVICES 01.04.2019 Kishore Khopkar

A.E.M.A. E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Version: Approved by:

Volume - I 1

Constant Voltage Control and Reactive Droop Compensation

In the constant voltage control mode the voltage will return to the original
voltage set point after a load has been applied or rejected. However in parallel
operation this would cause instability as explained above.

In the droop voltage control or reactive droop compensation mode the voltage
will decrease by a fixed percentage when the generator is loaded from no-load to
full load. This provides a stable working point for each load in case of parallel
operation.

Constant Voltage Control Droop Voltage Control

The droop slope is a fixed setting mostly between 2 and 4%. But the operator or
power management system could adjust the voltage set point in order to:

 return to the rated voltage in stand-alone operation

 change the generator reactive power (MVAR) in parallel operation.

Identification Code: E.T.O. TRAINING PROGRAMME Page 350 of 395

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