CMT 610

CORROSION AND MATERIAL

LABORATORY

LAB REPORT 1
Name : AMIRATUL HANIM BINTI
MOHD ZAMRI
ID No. : 2020976557
Program : AS245
Group : RAS2455C
Instructor : DR SOLHAN YAHYA
 EXPERIMENT 1: Galvanic cell
INTRODUCTION:
A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that turns a chemical process free energy
into electrical energy. Galvanic Cells are devices that allow us to utilize the electron
flow in a redox reaction to do beneficial tasks. Batteries, pH metres, and fuel cells
are all examples of such cells. The oxidation and reduction half-reactions must be
coupled by a wire and a salt bridge or porous disc, as shown in the cell arrangement.
An electrical current will be created as electrons move across the wire. To maintain
charge neutrality in each half-cell, the salt bridge or porous disc allows ions in
solution to pass through.

The standard reduction potential of each half-cell determines the direction of current
in a cell. The entire cell potential must be positive for a reaction to be spontaneous
(the rules for adding cell potentials are covered under Adding potentials). As a
result, the half-reaction with the higher reduction potential will be a reduction,
whereas the other will be an oxidation. The anode is the electrode in the oxidation
half-reaction. The cathode is the electrode in the reduction half-reaction.

CHEMICALS AND APPARATUS:

CHEMICALS APPARATUS
1. Deionized water 1. Beakers, small beakers
2. Cu(NO3)2 solutions 2. Metal strip of Iron, Zinc and Copper
3. Zn(NO3)2 solutions 3. Wire with crocodile clips
4. 0.1 M KNO3 solutions 4. Emery/ sand paper or steel wool
5. 0.001 M CuSO4 solution 5. Potentiometer
6. 6 M NH3 solution 6. Filter paper
7. 0.1 M Cu(NO3)2 solution 7. 1 mL pipet
8. 100 mL volumetric flask
PROCEDURE:

A. Galvanic Cell – Reduction Potentials of Several Redox Couples

The cell potentials for several galvanic cells are measured and the redox couples are placed in
order of decreasing reduction potentials.

1. Collect the Electrodes, Solutions and Equipment

1. Three small beakers were filled with 0.1M solutions.

2. Strips of copper, zinc and iron metal were polished with sand paper or steel
wool.
3. The strips were briefly rinsed with deionized water. These polished metals will be
used as electrodes and put in their respective beakers.
4. A potentiometer were check out with two electrical wires attached to crocodile
clips.

2. Set Up the Copper/ Zinc Cell

1. A Cu strip (electrode) was placed in the Cu(NO3)2 solution and a Zn strip

(electrode) was placed in the Zn(NO3)2 solution.
2. A piece of filter paper was rolled and flatten then wet with a 0.1M KNO3
solution.
3. The filter paper was fold and insert into the solutions in the two beakers; this is
salt bridge.
4. One electrode is connected to the negative terminal of the potentiometer and the
other to the positive terminal.

3. Determine the Copper/Zinc Cell Potential

1. The connections were reversed if the voltmeter reads a negative potential.

2. The positive cell potential was read and recorded. The metal strips that serve as
cathode (positive terminal) and anode was identified.
 3. An equation for the half-reaction occurring at each electrode were written. The
two half-reactions were combined to write the equation for the cell reaction.

4. Repeat for the Remaining Cells

1. The cell potentials for all possible galvanic cells that can be constructed from the
other redox couples were determined.
2. A ‘new’ salt bridge was prepared for each galvanic cell.

5. Determine the Relative Reduction Potentials

1.The reduction potentials of all redox couples are determined.

B. Effect of Concentration Changes on Cell Potential

The effects of changes in ion concentrations on cell potentials are observed and
analyzed.
A: Effect of Concentration Changes on Cell Potential
1. Effect of Different Molar Concentrations

1. A galvanic cell was set up using 1M CuSO4 and 0.001M CuSO4 solutions.
2. A polished copper electrode was immersed in each solution.
3. A salt bridge connected to the two redox couples was prepared.
4. Cell potential was measured. Anode and Cathode were determined. An
equation for the reaction occurring at each electrode were written.

2. Effect of Complex Formation

1. 5 mL of 6 M NH3 was added to the 0.001 M CuSO4 solution, until any

precipitate redissolves. Observe any changes in the half-cell and the cell
potential.
C. The Nernst Equation and an Unknown Concentration
1. Prepare the Diluted Solutions
 1. Solutions 1 through 4 was prepared using a 1 mL pipet and 100 mL volumetric
flasks.
2. Deionized water was used for dilution ‘to the mark’ in the volumetric flask.

2. Measure and Calculate the Cell Potential for Solution 4

1. The experiment was set up using small beakers.

2. The Zn redox couple is the reference half-cell for this part of the experiment.
3. The two half-cells was connected with a new salt bridge.
4. The electrodes was connected to the potentiometer and record the potential
difference, Ecell.
5. The theoretical cell potential was calculated using a table of standard reduction
potentials and the Nernst equation.

3. Measure and Calculate the Cell Potentials for Solution 3 and 2

1. Repeat Part C2 with solutions 3 and 2, respectively. A freshly prepared salt

bridge is required for each cell.

4. Plot the Data

1. A graph of Ecell (measured) and Ecell (calculated) versus log [Cu2+1 on a graph
paper for the four concentrations of Cu(NO3)2.

5. Determine the Concentration of the Unknown

1. Cu(NO3)2 solution with an 'unknown' copper ion concentration was obtain from lab
technician and set up a galvanic cell.
2. An Ecell was determined as in Part C2. An unknown copper ion concentration in the
solution was determined using the graph.

(Refer to Lab manual Exp. 1 CMT610 prior to answering the following Post-Lab
Questions)
 1. Write the objectives of the experiment.
• In a galvanic cell, to determine the relative reduction potentials of many
half cell (redox) couples
• To gain a better grasp of how electrons, anions, and cations move in a
galvanic cell.
• To investigate the elements that influence cell potentials.
• Using the Nernst Equation, calculate the ion concentration in a solution.

A: Galvanic Cell - Reduction Potentials of Several Half Cell Couples.

2. Sketch a labelled diagram of the galvanic cell.

VOLTMETER
CATHODE
ANODE
S
A
L
T
B
R
I
D
G
E

3. Complete the following table with your interpretations from the galvanic cells.
Galvanic Measured Anode Equation for Cathode Equation for
Cell Ecell Anode Reaction Cathode Reaction
2+ 2+
Cu – Zn +0.93 V Zn Zn(s)→Zn + 2e Cu Cu + 2e →Cu(s)
Cu – Fe +0.77 V Fe Fe(s)→Fe2+ + 2e Cu Cu2+ + 2e →Cu(s)
Zn – Fe +0.22 V Zn Zn(s)→Zn2+ + 2e Fe Fe2+ + 2e →Fe(s)
 4. Write the overall equations for the three cell reactions.

Overall Cu-Zn Cell: Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu(s)

Overall Cu-Fe Cell: Fe(s) + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu(s)
Overall Zn-Fe Cell: Zn(s) + Fe2+ → Zn2+ + Fe(s)

5. Arrange the three half cells in order of decreasing (measured) reduction potentials. List
the reduction potential for each half cell couple relative to that of the Zn2+ (0.1 M)/Zn
couple, which is – 0.79 V. Use a table of standard reduction potentials and the Nernst
equation to calculate the reduction potentials for each of these half-cell couples.

Half Reduction Potential Reduction Potential % Error

Cell (Measured) (Calculated)
Cu2+/Cu ECu2+/Cu - EZn2+/Zn = +0.93 V ECu2+/Cu = EoCu2+/Cu -0.0592 log 1 = calculated-measured x100%
calculated
n [Cu2+] = (0.31 – 0.14) x 100%
ECu2+/Cu - (-0.79) = +0.93 V 0.31
=54.48%
ECu2+/Cu = +0.34 – 0.0592 log 1
ECu2+/Cu = +0.14 V 2 (0.1)

ECu2+/Cu = +0.31 V

Fe2+/Fe ECu2+/Cu - EFe2+/Fe = +0.77 V EFe2+/Fe = EoFe2+/Fe -0.0592 log 1

(+0.34) - EFe2+/Fe = +0.77 V n [Fe2+] = calculated-measured x100%
calculated
EFe2+/Fe = -0.43V ECu2+/Cu = (-0.44) – 0.0592 log 1
= (-0.47 –(-0.43)) x 100%
-0.47
2 (0.1) = 8.51%

EFe2+/Fe - EZn2+/Zn = + 0.22V ECu2+/Cu = -0.47 V

EFe2+/Fe – (-0.79) = + 0.22V = calculated-measured x100%
EFe2+/Fe = - 0.57V calculated
= (-0.47 –(-0.57)) x 100%
-0.47
= 21.28%
 6. If the % error was high, explain why.
Due to errors made during the experiment, the percent error was considerable. This
could be because the electrode wasn’t adequately cleaned with sandpaper before the
experiment. Contaminants enter the system, altering the result.

B: Effect of Concentration Changes on Cell Potential.

1. Sketch a labeled cell diagram. Copper electrode

Copper electrode
Add 6M NH3 (5ml)

1M CuSO4 0.001 M CuSO4

Salt Bridge (KNO3)

2. Cell potential of ‘concentration cell’: 0.03 V

Write the half-cell reactions

Anode reaction : Cu → Cu2+ + 2e
Cathode reaction: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu

Explain why a potential/voltage was recorded.

The difference in solution concentration caused a minor voltage to produce, which was
recorded as a potential. The equilibrium shifts to the left as concentration rises, making
the electrode potential more positive. A reduction in concentration must have the
inverse impact, such as making it more negative.
 3. Cell potential from complex formation: 0.30 V

Explain why the potential changes with the addition of NH3 (aq).

Because more Cu2+ ions flow from the cathode and the concentration of Cu2+ ions
decrease with the addition of NH3(aq), the potential changes. The complex ion Cu
(NH3)42+ is formed when NH3 binds to the Cu2+ ion. This has the effect of lowering the
Cu2+ concentration. As a result, the potential between the two concentrations will grow.

4. How would the cell potential have been affected if the NH 3 (aq) had been added to the
1.0 M CuSO4 solution instead of the 0.0010 M CuSO4 solution of the cell? Explain.

The potential of the cell would be reduced. 1M CuSO4 has a greater copper content than
0.001 M CuSO4.

C: The Nernst Equation and an Unknown Concentration.

1. Complete the following Table. Use a table of standard reduction potentials and the
Nernst equation to calculate the Ecell.
Solutio Concentration Ecell Ecell (calculated)
n of Cu(NO3)2 (measured
Numbe )
r
1 0.1 M 0.93 V Ecell = (EoC - EoA) – 0.0592 log [Zn2+]
n [Cu2+]

= (+0.34-(-0.76) - 0.0592 log 0.1

2 (0.1)
= +1.07 V
2 0.001 M 0.88 V Ecell = (EoC - EoA) – 0.0592 log [Zn2+]
n [Cu2+]

= (+0.34-(-0.76)) - 0.0592 log 0.1

2 (0.001)
= +1.04 V

3 0.00001 M 0.82 V Ecell = (EoC - EoA) – 0.0592 log [Zn2+]

n [Cu2+]
 = (+0.34-(-0.76) - 0.0592 log 0.1
2 (0.00001 )
= +0.98 V

4 0.0000001 M 0.78 V Ecell = (EoC - EoA) – 0.0592 log [Zn2+]

n [Cu2+]

= (+0.34-(-0.76) - 0.0592 log 0.1

2 (0.0000001)
= +1.07 V

Ecell vs Log[Cu2+]
0.95
y = 0.0255x + 0.9545
R² = 0.9946
0.9
Ecell (V)

0.85

0.8

0.75
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Log[Cu2+]

2. Ecell for the solution of unknown concentration:

From the above Table, Estimate the Molar concentration of Cu2+ in the unknown.

From the graph: y=0.0255x + 0.9545

R2 = 0.9946
y=0.0255x + 0.9545

3. How would you adjust the concentrations of Cu2+ and Zn2+ for the Cu-Zn cell to
maximize the cell potential? Explain.

• Any changes to both Cu2+ and Zn2+ cause the system to move closer or further away
from equilibrium.
 • The reaction quotient, Q = [Zn2+]/[Cu2+], of the redox reaction equation Zn(s) + Cu2+
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s).
• Q=1 when all concentrations are 1M.

DISCUSSION:

A galvanic cell was created in section A by utilizing a salt bridge to connect a half
cell of Cu(NO3)2 to a half cell of Zn(NO3)2. A filter paper saturated in 0.1M KNO3
serves as a salt bridge between the two half cells. The cathode rod in this reaction is
copper, which undergoes reduction, whereas the anode is zinc, which undergoes
oxidation. The electrons will flow from the anode to the cathode, producing an
electrical potential that may be measured with a voltmeter.
For a variety of causes, the experimental result falls far short of the theoretical
value. The first possibility is that the electrode was polluted. I am unable to confirm
that the electrodes are made of pure metal. It could have oxidized because of
exposure to air and water. The second issue is that the answer produced may not be
accurate in terms of measurement. It's possible that the concentration was lower than
I anticipated. As a result, the actual value should be less than the theoretical value.
For the first stage in part B, the interaction of a half-cell by modifying the means
of its concentration was investigated. Because the concentrations in the half-cells
differed, the solution reacted to balance the concentrations, resulting in the electrical
differential. The cell potential will be increased in part C by lowering the Zn2+
content. The cell potential will be maximized by increasing the Cu2+ concentration
since a large Q will raise the Ecell.
The factors that affect cell potential were investigated in this experiment, as well
as the computation of calculating the concentration of ions in solution using the Nernst
equation. As a result, the calculated % error appears to be significant. These results
could be attributable to contaminants in the solution used during the experiment. It's
possible that it was contaminated, leading the reading to be greater than it should be.
Other factors could be the result of a random error, such as the temperature of the
room where the experiment was conducted. This is since the Nernst equation is
modified by temperature. Because the voltmeter used is not very sensitive, the value
of the reading may be influenced. The systematic error that is the voltmeter itself can
be a good contributor to this problem.
CONCLUSION:
To be concluded, the objectives which are, to determine the relative reduction
potentials of many half cell (redox) couples, to gain a better grasp of how
electrons, anions, and cations move in a galvanic cell, to investigate the elements
that influence cell potentials and to calculate the ion concentration in a solution
using the Nernst Equation are achieved.
 CMT 610
CORROSION AND MATERIAL
LABORATORY

LAB REPORT 2
Name : AMIRATUL HANIM BINTI
MOHD ZAMRI
ID No. :2020976557
Programme :AS245
Group : RAS2455C
Instructor : DR. SOLHAN YAHYA
 EXPERIMENT 2: Electrolytic cell
INTRODUCTION:
The inverse of a galvanic cell is an electrolytic cell. To produce a non-spontaneous
redox reaction, electrolytic cells consume electrical energy from an external source
emf. A galvanic cell, for example, may be formed by combining water and electricity to
produce hydrogen and oxygen in a non-spontaneous reaction, whereas an electrolytic
cell can be made by combining water and electricity to produce hydrogen and oxygen
in a non-spontaneous reaction.

Electrolytic cells, like galvanic cells, are made up of two half-cells: one for reduction,
and the other for oxidation. Although the direction of electron flow in electrolytic cells
differs from that of spontaneous electron flow in galvanic cells, the definitions of
cathode and anode are the same, with reduction occurring at the cathode and oxidation
occurring at the anode. The sign of the cell potential has been reversed, but not the
magnitude, because the directions of both half-reactions have been reversed.
Electrolytic cells are similar to voltaic (galvanic) cells in that they both require a salt
bridge, have a cathode and anode, and have a steady flow of electrons from the anode
to the cathode.

CHEMICALS AND APPARATUS:

Chemicals

• NaCl solution
• NaBr solution
• Na2SO4 solution
• Phenolphtalein indicator
Apparatus

• Carbon/ graphite rods

• Copper wires/plates
• U-tube or beaker
• Power supply or battery 6V
• Two wire leads with crocodile clips
 • Retort stands with clamp
• Blue litmus paper
PROCEDURES:

1. Set Up the Electrolysis Apparatus

1. Two wire leads with different colours that were attached to crocodile clips were
connected to a direct current (DC) power supply.
2. Glass U-tube was mounted on a ring stand.
3. The alligator clips were connected to the corresponding electrodes that were listed
in table 2.1.
2. Electrolyze the Solutions
1. The U-tube was filled with a solution from Table 2.1 until ¾ full.
2. 10 drops of phenolphthalein were added into the solution.
3. The solution was electrolyzed at 6V for 5 minutes.
4. Each electrode was observed closely for detect any reaction or changes that occur
in the anode and cathode chamber.
Solution Electrodes (Anode and Cathode)
Distilled water Carbon (graphite)
0.001 M NaCl Carbon (graphite)
0.5 M NaCl Carbon (graphite)
0.5 M NaBr Carbon (graphite)
05 M Na2SO4 Polished Copper Metal Strips
0.5 M Na2SO4 Carbon (graphite)
Table 2.1: Electrolytic Cells for Study

(Refer to the Lab manual Exp. 2 CMT610 and Lecture Notes CMT550 (can be used as
reference) to answer this Post Laboratory Questions).

1. Write the objectives of the experiment.

• To observe the electrolysis of water and the gases liberated at the electrodes and
• to identify the reactions that occur at the anode and cathode during the electrolysis of
various aqueous salt solutions
• To investigate the best electrode and aqueous solution for water splitting.
 2. Sketch a labelled diagram of the electrolytic cell (one only).

DC CURRENT

ANODE

CATHODE

ELECTROLYTE
Table 1: Observations

Electrolyte Electrodes Observations (ie: Gas Evolved? Image after 5 minutes

Solution Pink colour at electrode?) of electrolysis.

Distilled Carbon/Carbon A small amount of bubbles

Water formed at the anode and the
(C/C) cathode electrodes.

Pink solution appeared at cathode

surface.

0.001M NaCl Carbon/Carbon A small amount of bubbles

evolved at the anode and cathode
(C/C) electrodes.

Slightly pink solution appeared at

the cathode area.
0.5 M NaCl Carbon/Carbon A cloudy solution formed at the
anode electrode. Then blue litmus
(C/C) paper turned to white.

A lot of bubbles formed at the

cathode electrode and formation
of pink solution at its electrode.

0.5 M NaBr Carbon/Carbon A yellow-orange solution formed

at anode electrode.
(C/C)
A small amount of bubbles
formed at cathode and the
formation of pink solution at its
electrode.

0.5M Copper/Copper At anode, no evolution of bubbles

Na2SO4 was observed. After 3 minutes of
(Cu/Cu) electrolysis, the anode electrode
turned to/covered with slightly
black in colour.

A lot of bubbles formed at

cathode electrode.

In the bulk solution (at the middle

of u-tube) the formation of
slightly light blue suspension and
also the formation of black solid.

0.5 M A small amount of bubbles

Na2SO4 formed at both electrodes.
Carbon/Carbon
 (C/C) Pink solution formed at the
cathode electrode.

Table 2: Fill in the following table with your interpretations from the electrolytic cells.
Electrolyte Possible Migrating Expectation of selected ion discharged and
Solution Species/Ions product formed
0.001 M NaCl Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at cathode: H2O
cathode: Na+, H2O
(Dilute) Product formed at cathode: H2 gas
Species/Ions migrating to
C/C electrodes anode: Cl- , H2O Species/Ion discharged at anode: H 2O

Product at anode: O2 gas

0.5 M NaCl Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at cathode : Na+

cathode: Na+, H+
(Concentrated) Product at cathode: H2 gas
Species/Ions migrating to
C/C electrodes anode: Cl-, OH- Species/Ion discharged at anode: Cl-

Product at anode: Cl2 gas

0.5 M NaBr Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at cathode: Na+

cathode: Na+, H+
Product at cathode: H2 gas
Species/Ions migrating to
C/C electrodes anode: Br-, OH- Species/Ion discharged at anode: Br-

Product at anode: Br2 gas

Species/Ions migrating to
0.5 M Na2SO4 cathode: Na+, H+ Species/Ion discharged at cathode: H+

Product at cathode: H2 gas

C/C electrodes Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at anode: OH-
anode: SO42-, OH-
Product at anode: O2 gas

0.5 M Na2SO4 Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at cathode: H+

cathode: Na+, H+
Product at cathode: H2 gas

Cu/Cu Species/Ions migrating to Species/Ion discharged at anode: OH-

electrodes anode: SO42-, OH-
Product at anode: O2 gas

Post-Laboratory Questions

1. Would solid NaCl conduct electricity? Why did the salt make the water more
conductive to electricity?

No. This is due to the fact that solid NaCl is a soluble salt with no free electrons to
allow electric current to pass through it. The salt is aided in allowing the ions to be
free when water is present and a voltage is applied. They become more receptive to an
electric field as a result, allowing NaCl to conduct electricity.

2. What gases were formed at anode and cathode in beaker containing 0.5M NaCl?
Write the half-reaction that occurred in this beaker.

Gas formed at anode : H2, hydrogen gas

Half-cell reaction at anode : 2H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH-
Gas formed at cathode : Cl2, chlorine gas
Half-cell reaction at cathode : Cl2 + 2e → 2Cl-

3. What was the purpose of adding phenolphthalein to the solution?

As a function of indication, it detects any potential alterations.

4. If copper electrodes had been used instead of the carbon (graphite) electrodes for the
electrolytic cells, the observed reactions may have been different. Why?
 Because the carbon electrode is inert, it won't interact with the ions in the solution. By
replacing carbon with copper, which is not an inert electrode, erosion or
electrodeposition will occur instead of gas production at the electrode.

5. Why does more gas form at one electrode than at the other electrode for electrolysis
of 0.5M Na2SO4 solution?

At the cathode, reduction produces H2 gas, whereas at the anode, oxidation occurs.
Anode: O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e- 2H2O
Cathode: 2H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH-

6. Calculate the volume of H2 gas that will be collected at cathode when an aqueous
solution of Na2SO4 is electrolyzed for 2 hours with a 10 A current at 0.5 atm.

Cathode (reduction): 2H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH-

From reduction:
Assume temperature : 25℃ (room temperature)
1 mol H2 = 2e

𝑄 𝐼𝑡 ሺ10.0 𝐴ሻ × 2ℎ × 3600 𝑠ൗℎ

𝑛= = =
𝐹 𝐹 96500 𝐶ൗ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 −
= 0.746 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒−

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻2
0.746 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 − ൬ ൰ = 0.373 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒 −

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛𝑅𝑇 0.373 𝑚𝑜𝑙 × 0.08206 × 298.15 𝐾
𝑉 = = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑃 0.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 18.25 𝐿
 7. Fill in the blanks based on your findings of Exp. 2 which describing the electrolysis of
water process (including the electrochemical reactions occur at both electrodes, the
suitable electrode and electrolyte used).

Electrolysis of water – Electrochemical reactions

Anode : 2 H2O 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode : 2 H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH-
Overall : 2 H2O O2 + 2H2
Suitable of electrodes : Copper
Justification : Halide ions are reducing at cathode and OH- are oxidizing at
anode
Electrolyte : Na2SO4 solution
Justification : SO42- because it is the most difficult anion to oxidize

DISCUSSION:
Which ions will be discharged according to the electrochemical series will be
determined by the ions dissociated during the electrolysis process. When concentrated
aqueous sodium chloride was electrolyzed, the colour of blue litmus paper changed,
indicating that the gas generated at the anode was chlorine gas. This issue arises as a result of
using too much voltage during the analysis. Because Cl2 gas is more easily reduced than O2,
higher voltage was employed because oxidising Cl- would be more difficult than oxidising
H2O. Because it is the most difficult to oxidise, SO42- is the best anion.

CONCLUSION:

Finally, the processes that occur at the anode and cathode were discovered during the
electrolysis of numerous aqueous salts. The dissociated ions in an aqueous solution will
determine which ions are released according to the electrochemical series. Copper/copper and
Na2SO4 are the most appropriate electrode and aqueous solutions for water splitting because
of the electrochemical series.