CULTURE AND HISTORY

15:00-17:00 + handbooks
Handbooks: American Civilization 7th edition and British civilization 9th edition

◦ Written exam on the computer: multiple-choice questions

◦ YES/NO questions

◦ True/false questions

◦ fill in the blank sections

◦ Blank maps

◦ Open questions

◦ DATES: up to the 20th we only need to know the century of the event. 1066
Exception. After the 20th century specific dates.

CULTURE AND HISTORY UK

Terminology & basic facts
1. United Kingdom vs. Great Britain vs. The British Isles
2. Inhabitants: Britons or British people
3. Empire: the British territories during the height of colonialism
4. Commonwealth: intergovernmental organization of 53 member states, mostly former
colonies of the British Empire (e.g. Canada, India, Australia)
Note: take care of the pronunciation of British place names!
E.g.: Worcestershire, Edinburgh, Gloucester, Leicester
British Isles = UK (GB (E&W+Sc)+ Nirl) + IRL
Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales
Great Britain + Northern Ireland = The United Kingdom
Great Britain + Northern Ireland + Isle of Man + Jersey + Guernsay = The British Islands
The island of Ireland = Northern Ireland + The state of Ireland (Republic of Ireland)
The island of Ireland + The British Islands = The British Isles

Terminology: politics
1. Two main parties: Labour & Conservative Party (Tories)
Labour: left wing
Conservative Party: right wing
2. Other important parties: Liberal Democrats (Lib-Dems), Scottish National Party (SNP),
Democratic Unionist Party (DUP).
They are not big enough to get a national majority.
Lib-Dems: much more at the left that labour party
SNP: Majority in the Scottish parliament, and have quite sits in the UK parliament,
fight for Scottish independence. Closer to the labour party
DUP: biggest parties of Northern Ireland.
3. Parliament: House of Lords & House of Commons
House of commons holds most of the power
 4. MP = Member of Parliament
5. PM = Prime Minister
6. Number 10 = the office of the Prime Minister
7. Parliamentary constitutional monarchy
The monarchy is mostly symbolic, parliament is who holds the power
Basic facts: the country

UK population: 65 million

- UK capital: London
(Inhabitants: 10 million + 14 million in metropolitan area)

Other capitals:

◦ Cardiff (Wales)

◦ Edinburgh (Scotland)

◦ Belfast (Northern Ireland)

Royal Family

We only
need to know the left branch, Prince Charles and his children and grandchildren
Current Union Flag: nickname Union Jack
Dragon: Wales. No elements of it in the Union Flag
Contemporary conditions

Debates about the state and direction of contemporary British society and the role of
its institutions are common.

Diversity and change have created problems as well as advantages.

Divisions caused by factors such as

◦ the political, cultural and ethnic distinctiveness of Wales, Scotland, Northern

Ireland and England. Scotland is much more liberal than the rest and yet they
are ruled by a conservative government.

◦ cultural and economic gaps between north and south. The northern part of
the country is poorer. Not only Scotland but the north of England as well. The
north if more industrialized and poorer

◦ the dominant influence of London on the rest of the country (as well
as its separateness). People from the rest of the country feel different
from the people from London.

◦ demands for greater autonomy, democracy and accountability in

devolved and local government areas and less centralized control from
London;

◦ The political division between Labour and Conservative Party. They

are drifting further and further away and less willing to collaborate in
order to get things done.
‘Restoring’ society and the past

Contemporary British society is often measured against an assumed earlier, more

positive history, ‘the olden days’. This idea of that things used to be better.
 ◦ However, the past in Britain was not as idyllic as is sometimes nostalgically
imagined

◦ Yet the myth of a golden age and older patterns of positive behaviour still hold
considerable romantic attraction for many British people.

There is consequently a tension between presumed tradition and attempts at

modernization or change.
Three one minute biographies

◦ 1. Winston Churchill

◦ 2. Isambard Kingdom Brunel

◦ 3. Lady Diana

Or: the top 3 of the 2002 BBC poll on ‘the Greatest Briton
The Greatest Briton?

Do these really constitute the canon of key figures in British culture and history?

◦ Note: Diana, Princess of Wales was judged to be a greater historical British

figure than William Shakespeare.

◦ The top 19 entries were people of English origin.

◦ The highest-placed Scottish entry was Alexander Fleming in 20th place, with
the highest Welsh entry, Owain Glyndŵr, at number 23.

◦ 60 out of 100 lived in the 20th century.

◦ Only 13 of the top 100 were women.

◦ There were no black Britons on the list.

Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965)

Prime Minister (1940–1945, 1951–1955). During the Second World War

Historically ranked as one of the greatest British prime ministers.

Kept the nation's spirit up during World War II, when the country had to defend itself
against Hitler's attempts to invade.

He was an important figure in post-war international and national politics as well.

Received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953.

Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 – 1859)

A prominent figure during the Industrial Revolution which began in Britain, he

revolutionised public transport and modern engineering.

Brunel was one of the most versatile and audacious engineers of the 19th century,
responsible for the design of tunnels, bridges, railway lines and ships.
 Designer of the Great Western Railway, Clifton Suspension Bridge, SS Great Britain
and numerous significant ships, tunnels and bridges.
Lady Diana (1961 – 1997)

Princess Diana was Princess of Wales while married to Prince Charles.

First wife of Charles, Prince of Wales (marriage 1981–1996), and mother of Prince
William, Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry.

One of the most adored members of the British royal family, she died in a 1997 car
crash in Paris whilst being chased by paparazzi.
Admired for her philanthropic deeds

BREXIT
Britain and the EU
• 1973: Member of the EEC. European Economic Community
• 1992: Maastricht Treaty – European Union. The EU was founded. The UK was a
member since the beginning.
• 2009: Lisbon Treaty. Every member of the EU was allowed to unnatelary to leave
• Fall 2014: £ 1,7 bn extra contribution. The UK contributed to the EU. They felt that
British money should be used to help British people, not other European nations.
• June 2016: Brexit referendum. People voted to leave the EU
• January 31st, 2020: Brexit (official)
• January 1st, 2021: Brexit (practical)
Advantages of the EU
Removal of trade barriers + harmonization of different state rules
 Single market allows free movement of goods, people, services, capital
 Customs union: reduction of tariffs
Why Brexit?
- Sovereignty: too much regulation. You have the ability to rule your own country.
British people didn’t like the idea that Britain was ruled by a bigger organization, they
wanted more sovereignty, they wanted to rule themselves. They wanted more
independence. They still have this idea about the UK as this big powerful country.
- Migration. The UK thought that the increase of migration into the UK was because of
the EU. First, the EU did cost more immigration into the UK because there weren’t
borders. But also, migration from outside the EU. This issue of migration because of the
EU was only partial true.
- Financial support for other member states. A lot of British people didn’t approve to use
their financial means to help other nations.
 - ‘Better’ trade deals. People argued that the UK alone would have better trade deals, but
they were only speculations. In fact, now it has been proven that that is not true.
- International influence. They thought that they would have more international
influence, but again, they were speculations.
Brexit Campaign

• Leave campaign vs. Remain campaign

• Leave campaign based on lies and scare-mongering

The 2016 Referendum

• PM David Cameron. He organized the referendum. He was a member of the
Conservartive party, and he did not want to leave the EU (he was the one who
organized the referendum to leave but didnt want to leave). He organized it because he
wanted to consoladite his power, he thought it was an easy win, he thought people
wanted to stay.
• Result: narrow win for ‘Leave’
- 51.9% Leave
- 48.1% Remain
- Turnout: 72.2%. The vote was not obligatory, and 72% of population to vote is quite
high.
• Cameron resigns.
 Theresa May. She bacame PM. Member of Conservative Party.
• ‘Leave’ campaigners withdraw. A lot of politicians who had campaigned in favor of
leaving the EU did it because they wanted to protest.
Article 50
• Referendum ≠ exit
• Treaty of Lisbon (2007)
 right to quit unilaterally.
• Procedure:
- 2 years
- after an EU court ruling: UK allowed to make the unilateral
decision to stop Brexit
• Theresa May triggered A50 on March 29, 2017
• Trying to make an ‘exit deal’
 must be approved by majority of EU states
 can be vetoed by EU Parliament
• Extension of time only by unanimous consent of European Council
• 2 negotiating teams:
1. EU: Michel Barnier
2. UK: Brexit Secretary
• Two options:
1. Easy terms  prevent economic harm
2. Hard terms  discourage others (the EU wanted to discouraged other to consider
leaving)
Britain post-Brexit
Three simultaneous acts:
1. Negotiate a new deal with EU.
2. Negotiate new trade deals around the world.
3. Revise own governance as EU laws no longer apply
 avalanche of new legislation
Theresa May’s Brexit Deal
• Withdrawal agreement:
Fairly ‘soft’ Brexit: UK closely connected to EU single market. A big part of her party didnt
want to be close to the EU.
Voted down in Parliament on January 15 2019:
202 for vs. 432 against
 All parties voted against, including 1/3 of the Conservatives
 Biggest Commons defeat in history
 Led to ‘motion of no confidence’. Dint want Theresa May as PM. She ended up
resigning.
Boris Johnson
• PM July 2019
• General election December 12. Conservative Party had an absolute majority in
Parliament.
• Withdrawal agreement approved in December. It was much ‘harder’ than Theresa
May’s.
• UK left the EU on January 31st, 2020
• 11-month transition period
Brexit deal

EU-UK trade agreement in effect on 31st December 2020: NI = Northern Ireland

- No tariffs or quotas (partially solved NI border issue)
- Extra checks at the borders (problem for NI)
- Businesses offering services lose automatic right of access to EU markets
- Britons need a visa for stays of +90 days in the EU
- UK withdraws from Erasmus program
(Possible) negative consequences of Brexit
• Changes in legislation
• Labor shortage
• Trade friction. Transportation sector, for example.
• Economic damage.
 • Exit Scotland? Referendum for independence??
• Reduced stability in Northern Ireland.
Northern-Ireland Protocol
• Integrity of the EU single market needs to be protected
• Protest against ‘hard’ border between NI and I
 No customs at the border between NI and I
 Customs between Great Britain and NI
 Political crisis in NI
In Northern Ireland: Unionists want to be part of the UK. Nationalists want to reunite with
Ireland become one nation. The Troubles: regular riots and fights. Nationalist movements were
considered terrorism.
It was agreed that the Unionist and Nationalist ruled the country together, and the riots stopped.
One of the reasons it calmed down was because the UK entered the EU, so there were no more
borders.
A British Comeback?
• A Grand New ‘Global Britain’? What is the UK’s global position outside the EU
• TLDR UK
• [Link]

04/03/2022
Ethnic diversity
Tensions between the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon elements in the British Isles: the result of a long
history of immigrations
First settlements (500,000BC)
Old Stone Age: hunter-gatherers and fishers
New Stone Age: farming, stone and earth monuments (4,000-3,000BC)
the builders of Stonehenge (illeterate people, we do not know a lot about them)
Stonehenge
It indicates some kind of civilization
People did not have the wheel yet. It would have required a lot of collaboration. It suggests that
the society can split the people and spend time doing this instead of labor.
We do not know its function, but it aligns with the sunset in the shorter day of the year (winter
solstice) and also with the sunrise in the longest day of the year (summer solstice) (It could have
been used for religious ceremonies, burial site… etc)
The stones have been transported from very far places.
Orkneys
• Orkneys: ring o’ Brodgar
• 2500 BC?
It shows some kind of cohesion in the civilization because they were building something similar
in the south (Stonehenge)
Uffington White Horse

600 BC Celtic peoples from mainland

Europe
Iron Age Civilization
200 BC More Celtic/Belgic tribes: Britons. Still illeterate people. We know them from
the invadors persepctive
55 BC first Roman invasions
Celtic Languages
Two groups in the modern-day Insular Celtic languages:
1 Goidelic (Gaelic) group: earlier Celtic immigrants (2000-1200 BC)
Scottish Gaelic
Irish Gaelic
Manx
2 Brythonic group: later
Celtic immigrants
Welsh
Cornish (it is extinguish but they are trying to recover it)
Roman Britain
First ‘invasion’ in 55 BC by Julius Caesar. He was interested in use it as a military base.
Britain occupied in 43 AD by Claudius. They looked it as a potential new province of the
Roman Empire.
1st capital: Colchester (the oldest recorded town in Britain)
Foundation of Londinium
Romanization of cities.
The Scottish people at the north were not as easy as the Celts in the South, so they were causing
trouble to the Romans. 118 B.C, Emperor Hadrian ordered a Wall to be built. The Wall of
Hadrian. To keep out the Scottish tribes and keep England more civilized.
Roman presence
Modern place-names of Roman origin ending in
-cester/-chester/-caster Eg Worcester, Manchester . Caster was Roman for camp.
Roman remains e.g. Bath
Anglo-Saxon settlements
Collapse of Roman Britain 410. It ended because the Roman Empire was under attack of the
Visigods. Without the Roman Empire, Britain was invaved by Germanic tribes.
Angles, Saxons & Jutes settle in Britain. A lot of civilized aspects of society was lost, because
they were illiterate,
Origin of the Arthurian legends
• the so-called Heptarchy
• 6-9th centuries
Anglo-Saxon Britain
the Heptarchy. 7 major kingdoms. The Anglosaxon kings were powerful and war leaders. They
were constantly fighting each other. 6-9 centuries. This is where we situated the King Arthur
Legend. The Mercians started to took over the other kingdoms and were the 1st to call
themselves Kings of England.
First periods of Christianization
Two Traditions
 One starting from the North. From Celtic Ireland. Ireland was christianized first and
sent misionaries.
 One starting from the South. From Rome
Christian missions from the North
• from the North: Irish/Celtic Christianization starting from Ulster  Scotland  Wales,
Cornwall
• The legendary St Patrick
• shamrock = Holy Trinity
• The Book of Kells (800)
• Celtic Cross (St John's cross at the burial place of St Columba)
Christian missions from the South
• missionaries sent by Rome (Pope Gregory) in the 6-7th centuries
• St Augustine lands in Kent in 597 and builds a church and a monastery in Canterbury.
Celtic vs Roman traditions
• Continental christianity: structure of the Roman empire, with provinces divided into
dioceses, ruled by bishops
• Celtic (Irish) christianity: monastic networks ruled by abbots
• Differences over the calculation of Easter
 • 664: Synod of Whitby
By the end of the 7th century
- the English were (formally) Christianized
- well-organized church administration
- only bond between the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the heptarchy
Beda Venerabilis aka the Venerable Bede (673-735)
• Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; translated Latin texts into Anglo-Saxon
• An Ecclesiastical History of the English People
He was a reliable historian. He wrote one of the most important texts about the Anglo-Saxon
history.
Scandinavian (Viking) invasions
789-95 first Viking raids
9th-11th centuries
 Danelaw. They were ruled by the Danish.
Place names ending in -by: Grimsby -wick: Warwick -thorpe: Scunthorpe -holme: Chisholm -
thwaite: Thwaite
The main kingdom which managed not to be conquered was the Kingdom of Wessex. It was
better organized and had a better military.
Saxon  Danish  Saxon
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex (871-899)
 the only Anglo-Saxon king outside the Danelaw
 878 defeats the Danes when they attack Wessex
 Builds “burhs” and organizes country in “shires”
Alfred’s Anglo-Saxon successors gradually gain control over Danelaw regions
1013 new Danish invasion
Canute/Cnut
king of Denmark (1013)
king of England (1016)
=> Disputes about his succession
Normandy
1066 Norman Conquest. Anglosaxon kings were ruling England.
King Harold vs William, duke of Normandy
William the Conquerer crowned King of England in 1066 in Westminster Abbey
Bayeux Tapestry. Shows events of the era.

Geographical term: the British Isles

Some 920 islands
Great Britain
Ireland
The Inner and Outer Hebrides
The Shetlands
The Orkneys
Isle of Man
Isle of Wight
The Isles of Scilly
Channel Islands
Page 32 Handbook. KNOW THOSE CITIES!
Inner and Outer Hebrides (jabridis) They are islands. Need to knoe them. North west coast of

Scotland
The Orkneys & the Shetlands
North east coast of Scotland.

The isle of Man

Irish sea, between the Island of Great Britan and the island of Ireland. Separate political entity.
The isle of Wight.
Its a county. Its a separate part of England. ??? Not sure

Isles of Scilly
At the coast of Cornwall

The channel islands

In the English channel, closer to France.
Political units
1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
2. The Republic of Ireland, aka Eire
3. The Isle of Man
4. The Channel Islands

The United Kingdom: 1 England

Pop. 53 million. (2011 census estimates). London
England is divided into counties. Most of the population lives in England, and there in London.
Cornwall stills has celtic roots.
UK: 2 Wales
Cymru. Wels word for Wales3.06 million. Cardiff
Much less dense than England. Welsh is the official language as well as English.
UK: 3 Scotland
5.3 million. Edinburgh
Much less dense than England. They also speak scottish, which is a germanic language. Scottish
gaelic and scottish is not the same thing.
UK: 4 Northern Ireland
1.8 million. Belfast
Each of this 4 units has their own status within the UK. Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotlands
have their own government with different juridistictions.
Isle of Man (crown dependency)
80,058 (2006 interim census). Douglas
It is not technically part of the UK. It is a Crown Dependency the isle is a dependence of the
Brisitish Queen, they are not part of the UK. They are a possesion of the crown. The head of
state is the Queen. They have an independent government, the queen is head of state but only int
erms, they govern themselves. It was the first legislately territory to let woman vote, only single
ones, thought. Even thought, they isle is not part of the UK, its citiziens ARE british.

Channel Islands (Crown Dependencies)

130,000. Bigger islands: Bailiwick of Jersey (St Helier) and Bailiwick of Guernsey (St Peter
Port).
Smaller ones: Alderney and Sark
These territories are NOT part of the UK, but they still fall into the jurisdiction of the UK. They
are part of the Commonwealth.
WE DO NEED TO KNOW TO SITUATE THEM IN THE MAP
They are reminense of the British Empire. They were never powerful enought to become
independent from the UK or never wanted to.
Diversity
 Political diversity: 4 ‘political units’ in the British Isles, not all with the same status:
United Kingdom, Irish Republic, Isle of Man, Channel Islands
4 ‘countries’ or ‘home nations’ within the UK
not all with the same status:
England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland
Ethnic diversity
Majority White poeple, then Asian, then Black, then mixed and finally other ethnic groups
11/03/2022
Monarchs of England

 House of Wessex
(802-1066)
The first kings that we can call Kings of England, they were also the first to call themselves
that. England as a whole did not exist at the time

 House of Denmark
(1014-1042)
Dates overlapped because they coexisted for a while.

 House of Normandy
(1066-1154)
The French

 House of Anjou  House of Plantagenet

(1154-1399)

 House of Lancaster
(1399-1471)

 House of York
(1461-1485)

 House of Tudor
(1485-1603)
They died out. Heirless. The King of Scotland becomes King of England as well.

 House of Stuart
(1603-1707)

 Commonwealth
(1653-1659)

 House of Hanover
(1714-1901) They are German. Uninterrupted until today but changed their name
to Windsor

 House of Windsor
(1901-today)

We need to know the order and know the century.

1066 & after
• Anglo-Saxon vs Norman French
• Feudalisation of England. The French brought the Feudal system. The King is the head
and then there is a hierarchy.
• Strong connections with continental Europe: large possessions in France. Only the
lower classes spoke English
 1066: the last invasion of Britain
 since 1066: peaceful immigration
Norman Period
Domesday book (1085-86)
It shows how well organized the Norman kings were. Kind of census. It was a survaillence, like
inventory of the Kingdom. He knew how many poeple were and how rich they were, so he
knew how much to ask for taxes.
The Angevin Empire (1154)

Henry II & Eleanor of Aquitaine

Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine > Platagenet (The beginning of the House of Anjou)
The house of Platagenet = House of Anjou
Henry II & Thomas à Becket
Henry II appoints Thomas à Becket as his Chancellor and then as Archbishop of Canterbury
(1162)
Canon law (church law) vs common law (secular law)
Normal people would be tried in the King’s court under secular law; church poeple in the
Eclesiastic’s court under church law.
The problem of the “criminous clerks” escaping punishment. Punishment for clergy was much
milder than punishment under secular law. The King did not like that becaus e he felt like he did
not have control over his population
1/6 of the English population was “clergy”, mostly “lay clergy”
 to be tried in ecclesiastical courts or in the King’s criminal courts?
Thomas refuses to accept the King’s authority and excommunicates a number of bishops who
had supported the King in their dispute
“Murder in the Cathedral” 1170 The King’s knight thought he really wanted someone to kill
him. Thomas got killed anyway. This was an scandal. Henry blamed himself. Thomas was
declared a saint. It is important because we see for the first time the crash between the secular
and the religious power.
The shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral became an important centre of
pilgrimage and a symbol of the independence of the Church
King Richard I (1157-99) (House of Anjou)
• England in the Crusades. They were mainly going to Jerusalem. He personally led many
crusades.
• King Richard I as national hero: King Richard Lionheart. In reality, he only visited
England twice, he lived in France. He asked for money both times,
• Legends of Robin Hood
King John and the Magna Carta (1215)
House of Plantagenet. (change of House)
He was very unpopular. Under him they lost their posession in France, so people nicknamed
him Lackland
Magna Carta. 1st written limitations of the power of the Kings.
 forced the King to take advice
 increased aristocratic influence
 fair trials for citizens
 no taxes without consultation
This shows a positive approach of the monarchy, they did not want to abolish monarchy.
Henry III
Henry III's regents summoned a “parliament” in 1257, including two knights per county
 Parliamentary rebellion led by Simon de Montfort. Because taxes increased.
First instance of some parliamentary procedure
WALES
Edward I
• In 1282 Wales annexed by Edward I
• Protected by “ring of castles”
• Nickname hammer of the Scots
Eg Harlech Castle
Edward I was basically king of England and Wales, separately. It wasn’t until the 16 th that they
became a unit, part of England
1314 Battle of the Bannockburn. He also fought with Scotland
'model parliament' in 1295 summoned to raise funds for wars (France, Scotland, Wales) address
grievances with the king
 two chambers emerged: Lords/Bishops vs Commons. This distinction still exists today.
Development of Privy Council. A group of conselour that directly advised the monarch. It is
kind of the first government that England had. It can almost seen as today’s ministers.
14th century

 Hundred Years War 1337-1453. War with France. France won.

ill. Battle of Crécy (1346)

 Black death 1348. 50% death rate within a year. Open the gate for social cahnge.
 Peasant’s revolt (1381) King anounced a big tax reform, everyone had to pay
taxes, even the poor. Demanded a meeting with the king, he made some
promises and didnt keep his promises. In long terms, this revolt improved the
peasant’s status
 The Lollards. It is a movement of criticism of the curch. There was a lot of
abuses from part of the church, a lot of corruption.

The Wars of the Roses

• 1455-1487
• Civil War and rebellions between House of Lancaster and House of York (both
Plantagenet)
The Plantagenet did not have any heirs, so those both houses claimed their right to the
throne
• Henry Tudor (Lancaster) won and founded new house of Tudor.
Henry Tudor, from the Lancaster House, married a girl from the House of York. The
houses merged; Henry changed the name to the House Tudor. The rose has both colors,
red Lancaster and white York house.
House of Tudor: Henry VII
(1485-1509)
 return to royal dominance
 managed to make the landed gentry (& parliament) dependent on the king.
Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor, Elizabeth I > House of Tudor
Henry VIII against Luther
Hnery VIII founded the Church of England: he split from the church of Rome. He was not by
nature a protestant.
• Luther's work began to circulate in England in the 1520s
 • In 1521 Henry VIII published Assertio Septem Sacramentorum: against Luther and in
vindication of the Church’s teaching on the sacraments and mass, insisting on the
supremacy of the papacy. (Written with the help of Thomas More.)
• Pope Leo X confers the title of Fidei Defensor on Henry.

by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of her
other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith."

Henry VIII & Catherine of Aragon

Henry VIII married his brother Arthur’s widow Catherine of Aragon
Daughter: Mary Tudor
Henry VIII was not the oldest son of Henry VII. Hi was not the heir of the throne. It was his
brother, Arthur, but he died. Arthur made an arregement with Catherine of Aragon, connection
with Spain. Henry married his brother’s widow, but the church does not allow that. They said
that Arthur and Catherine’s marriage was never consumated, she said she was a virgin. Hnery
and Catherine only had one daughter, Mary. It was crucial for Henry to have a male heir,
because they have been out of a war recently because of the same reason.
He fell in love with Anne Boleyn. He wanted to divorce Catherine. This could only be done
with the approvement of the Pope. At the time, the Pope was spanish so he didnt allow it
because he didnt want Spain to lose the power. So, Henry said the truth about her being a virgin.
There was a trial and Catherine swore she was a virgin, the judge believed her. Thomas
Cromwell advised Henry to not be dominated by the Pope, so he started his own church, the
Church of England. = Anglicanism
Anne Boleyn; Daughter: Elizabeth
1534 Act of Supremacy
Henry VIII is declared Supreme Head of the Church of England
Thomas Cromwell
1535 Thomas More executed
Henry started to take over religious management in England. Anne Boleyn didn’t give him a
son neither. He accused Anne of adultery. This was a huge deal, categorized of treason, which is
punishable with death.
The Henrician Reformation
Henry VIII
• kept the old Catholic faith
• more protestant-inclined
• the dissolution of the monasteries
• 1536-40: 800 monasteries closed
• moveable assets  confiscated by Crown
• land  distributed among the nobility (loyal landowners)
 Henry VII x

Elizabeth of York

Arthur Henry VIII Margaret Mary

Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Aragon James IV of Scotland Louis XII of France

Mary I Tudor James V of Scotland Duke of Suffolk

Anne Boleyn Mary Queen of Scots Frances

Elizabeth I James VI and I Lady Jane Grey

Jane Seymour

Edward VI

Ann of Cleves

Katherine Howard

Catherine Parr

Edward VI
• Son of protestant Jane Seymour. She died at child labor
• counsellors introduce more protestant elements
 veneration of statues forbidden
 transubstantiation rejected. The idea of the catholic church of taking
communion, the body and blood of Christ into bread and wine.
 only two sacraments: baptism & communion
• 1553 Edward VI dies at the age of 16 (not heir)
Lady Jane Grey, the Nine-Day Queen. Edward in his deadbed pointed at her cousin, Lady
Jane as his succesor. This didnt work out. Mary took over. Henry VIII’s oldest daughter
(Catherine of Aragons’ daughter).
the "Marian restoration”
She was raised by her mother, Catherine of Aragon. She was Catholic. She never converted to
Anglicanism.
• restores ties with Rome
• persecution of protestants (followers of the Church of England)
• some 300 people executed, including Archbishop ( “Bloody Mary”)
• Mary marries prince Philip (later Philip II) of Spain
She had no heirs. Again, this crisis.
Elizabeth I Tudor
Henry VII’s second daughter with Anne Boleyn. She was part of the church of England. She
was very popular. Mainly, because of the defeat of the Spanish armada.
• back to Henry's reformation
 the Church of England
• Catholic rebellion (1569) and protestant pressure
• Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (1585)
• Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588). She fought personally.
• The Virgin Queen. Never married and never had any children, so this is how the Tudor
line came to an end.
• Renaissance period in England
 Literature & music (Shakespeare)
 explorers: Drake, Raleigh, …
 architecture

The Elizabethan ages

On Elizabeth's death (1603):
She died heirless. The crown passes on to James VI of Scotland, great-grandson of Margaret,
younger sister of Henry VIII, who had married James IV of Scotland.
personal union of the kingdoms of Scotland and England (& Wales)

Lecture 4 Esto ponerlo en otra parte para que vaya toda la historia seguida
British Politics
Political Framework
 UK PARLIAMENT

UK GOVERNMENT

SCOTTISH WELSH NORTHERN IRISH ENGLISH

PARLIAMENT & GOVT ASSEMBLY & GOVT ASSEMBLY GOVT LOCAL GOVT

SCOTTISH WELSH N-IRISH

London Assembly
LOCAL GOVT LOCAL GOVT LOCAL GOVT

The parliament is divided into two houses. It makes laws

The UK government is the executive body. It implements those laws.
Devolution. The transition of power to the national level to a more regional region.
England has not its own government body like Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
Local governments are city gov and town governments. England has this kind of government
but doesn’t have that intermediary level of government.
London Assembly. London has a very high number of population.
UK Parliament in Westminster
1 The Monarch (Queen Elizabeth II). Head of Parliament. Shes head of a lot of different
parts of the UK government. She’s also head of the Church of England.
2 The House of Commons (elected). By the general public.
3 The House of Lords (not elected). The oldest but holds the least power. It has power to
propuse ammendent but it doesnt have the power to make laws or to make them pass or
not.
Sovereignty of the Queen in Parliament
The House of Common
650 elected MPs (Member of Parliament)
Every MP represents a constituency elected by a simple majority (the first-past-the-post
system). The UK vote system is different from the one in Belgium. In a constituency, there may
be two candidates. If one gets more votes, gets the entire constituency. Even if almost of the
constituency voted for the other one, the seat goes to the other candidate, who got the majority
of votes.
A constituency: an area with 66,000 potential voters (reviewed regularly by the Boundary
Commisson)
England: 533 MPs
Scotland: 59 MPs
Wales: 40 MPs
N. Ireland: 18 MPs
This is based on the population.
The conservatives – Major party

Blue: Conservative (gvt)

Red: Labour (opposition)
Yellow: Scottish National Party
Orange: Lib-Dem
Green: Plaid Cymru + Green Party
Grey: Independent
Rust: Democratic Unionist Party
Dark yellow: Alliance Party (N-I)
Grey-blue: Sinn Fein

The Commons

The Speaker

Sir Lindsay Hoyle. He makes sure everyone get the same amount of time to speak, things go
smooth…etc
Debería verme el video
The House of Lords
Membership of House of Lords not fixed
Current: 800 members
Lords Spiritual (26)
the archbishops of Canterbury & York
& 24 senior bishops
(all Church of England)
Lords Temporal
a) 92 hereditary peers. Members of aristocracy.
b) life peers/peeresses
(no limit)
Baron Fowler
Lord Speaker of the House of Lords
The speaker, in both cases, is not linked to none of the parties.
Two-party system

“parties”

TORIES WHIGS

CONSERVATIVES LIBERALS

LIBDEMS

LABOUR

18th century. Formation of two parties: tories and whigs. Tories were royalist, maintaining lot of
power for the monarchy. Whigs were parliamentary, wanted more power to the Parliament
Tories developed to the conservative party. Whigs developed into the liberals and then split
into two; libdems and labour.
Tories
 Conservative and Unionist Party
• established values
• preservation of traditions
• business and commerce
• Church of England
• the professions
• opposed to radical ideas
Leader: Boris Johnson
LabourParty
Founded in 1906
Labour has only been in government for four short periods of the 20th century
• social justice
• strong community and strong values
• reward for hard work
• decency
• rights matched by responsibilities
Leader: Keir Starmer

LibDem
 Liberal Democrats
• The Liberal Democrats, (Lib Dems)
• formed in 1988 by merging the old Liberal Party (a direct continuation of the Whigs)
and the Social Democratic Party (split off from the Labour Party). Newest party.
• Current leader: Ed Davey
The further oppose to the conservative party (the more progressive party in the UK)

Voting is not compulsory:

General elections are held every five years and always on a Thursday. ( The government can
call an election outside the normal electoral calendar.)
Legislation: from bill to act
Preliminary White/Green paper
↓
House of Commons
↓
First Reading/Introduction of the Bill
↓
Second Reading (debate on general principles)
↓
Committee stage
↓
Report stage (amendments)
↓
Third Reading
↓
House of Lords
↓
Queen (royal assent) She really doesnt have the power to stop a bill to become a law
↓
Act of Parliament
Dont need to know this by heart
Some terms:
A by-election
• is called when an MP dies or is forced to resign.
An MP cannot resign voluntarily during a parliament
• sb who wants to resign must accept an office of profit under the Crown which legally
disqualifies them from being an MP
"the House divides"
Members are asked to vote by shouting aye or no.
The Speaker decides which side has won.
If his decision is contested, the Speaker calls for a division.
The Division Bells then ring for two minutes in the parliamentary buildings and in pubs,
restaurants and MPs' homes in the Westminster area.
After eight minutes the chamber is locked.
MPs go to either the aye or no lobbies

UK Govern
The Prime Minister
usually the leader of the largest party in the Commons
& the Cabinet
22 members
A cabinet reshuffle happens when the cabinets positions are changed.
Downing Street 10
Official residence of the Prime Minister
Her Majesty's most loyal opposition:
• the Shadow Cabinet
with shadow ministers
For each position in the official government, the opposition will have a shadow figure. The
purpose is having one person in charge of knowing what the other side is doing.
Scottish Parliament
Pàrlamaid na h-Alba -- Scots Pairlament
129 MSPs elected to the Scottish Parliament
1997 devolution
Scottish National Party (SNP) Ethnic nationalism (nazis) is not the same than civic nationalism
(in favor of more independence for Scotland). SNP is actually to the left of the political
spectrum.
First minister: Nicola Sturgeon. In England is Prime Minister

National Assembly for Wales

Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru
60 AMs total:
40 AMs elected in first-past-the-post constituencies
20 AMs elected
Proportionally (PR)

Northern Ireland Assembly

Tionól Thuaisceart Éireann -- Norlin Airlann Semmlie
108 MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly) are elected by proportional representation to
serve 5-year terms.
Six representatives are elected in each of the region's 18 constituencies
Parliament Buildings, Stormont, nr Belfast

Culture and History of the UK III

• History 1600-1800
The Union of the Crowns (1603)
• James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England
• union of the kingdoms of Scotland and England (& Wales)
• First Union Jack (1606)
• House of Stuart
 It lacks the diagonal red cross, also called the St
Patrick’s cross, 1801

James I Stuart (1603-1625) He was a protestant, he was the head of the Church of England.
• Religious conflict
• Emigration of Puritans to North America
• Further colonization
• 5 November 1605 The Gunpowder Plot (Guy Fawkes) A plot arranged by Catholics
under Guy Fawkes they wanted to blow up the House of Parliament while the king was
inside. They put gun powder in the basement of the building. The plan failed because
there were members of the Parliament who were Catholics and were warned, so they
were decent enough to warn the other members of the parliament. The English still
celebrate Bonfire Night or Guy Fawkes. Kind of a pro monarchy thing.
• 1611 King James’ Bible. First English translation of the Bible.
(based on William Tyndale's work)

 absolutist tendencies & financial problems. They felt that kingship was a divide
right and try to limit the power of Parliament.

Charles I Stuart (1625-1649)

• 2nd son of James I
• absolutist tendencies (even more than his father) He dissolved Parliament for eleven
years.
• Catholic queen. He married a Catholic woman. So, this led to some protestant.
• Religious conflicts with Scotland and Ireland because he wanted to Anglican church
over Scotland and Ireland.
• conflicts with parliament over finances.
• royalists & parliamentarians. Emergence of the two-party system. Royals in favor of the
monarchy, later turn into the Tories, parliamentarian later turn into the Whigs
• 1642: Civil War. His son James was raised Catholic. They protested against the
succession of that catholic king. The Stuarts were also the monarchs of Scotland. So,
what Charles did was to invite a Scottish invasion of England, he led the Scottish
military in England to supportive in this conflict. This was seen as a huge treason by the
Parliament. Parliament put the King on trial. This had never happened before. The King
 still believed in his divine power, so he refused to defend himself, to recognize the
authority of Parliament. In 1649, the King was convicted of treason and beheaded. This
was a extremely revolutionary act.
Civil Wars 1642-1649 (period of civil wars until the beheading of the king)
The Commonwealth 1653-1659
Oliver Cromwell 1653 declares a Republic in England, the Commonwealth. (not
confuse it with the current Commonwealth)
King executed 1649
Establishment of Commonwealth
Republic under “Lord Protector” Oliver Cromwell. He turned into a tyrant. This
republican experiment failed. He even dissolved parliament and created a new one with
the MP that he liked. He also pronounce title of Lord Protector to be hereditary, so his
son would be Lord Protector.
monarchy abolished
 House of Lords abolished
 Bishops abolished
 various parliamentary experiments
Puritan influence:
destruction of statues, crucifixes, altars, etc., theatres and inns closed, …
People did not like him. He died and his son Richard succeeded him, and after two
years he was deposed, giving him the nickname of Tumbledown Dick
People hated this republic so much that they decided to restore monarchy.
1660 The Restoration
Charles II Continuation of the Stuart line.
• Merry King. All the puritan’s restriction were lifted, and all the festivities came back.
• London as a metropolis. He made it London the city it is today.
• 1666 The Great Fire of London
• Catholic sympathies
• Anglo-Dutch Wars. Because of this wars, part of New England (USA) was transferred
from the Netherlands to the UK, England including the town of New York.
• the “Exclusion Bill” (for James II): Whigs supporting the bill, Tories opposing it
Charles II did not have any successors, so his brother would be his successor, but he was
Catholic (this was a problem). He was asked to swear an oath proclaiming his faith to
Protestantism and he refused to do this. Parliament proposed an exclusion bill. If this was
passes, would exclude James II from the line of succession. The Tories opposed it; the
Whigs support it. The Tories were majority, so James succeeded his brother Charles.
James II (1685-88)
The last Roman Catholic monarch (England, Scotland, Wales)
Refusal to take Test Act Oath
James II and Mary of Modena have a son: James, the new most likely successor
He was overthrown and he fled to Ireland.

The Glorious Revolution 1688

Parliament declares James II’ daughter Mary Queen, jointly with William of Orange
William III & Mary II (1688-1702)
House of Orange and Stuart
Declaration of Rights. Type of Constitution.
Jacobite rebellions. In favor to James II, he was in Ireland at the time. They rebelled against his
successors.
Battle of the Boyne (12 July 1690) The Jacobites were defeated. There will be more Jacobite
rebellions from many decades to come.
Act of Settlement 1701. It secured protestant succession. Not Catholic monarch could have
access to the throne again. William and Mary did not have any children, so their successor was
appointed in this act. Their successor was their cousin Anne.
Under Queen Anne we see the Treaty of Union
Treaty of Union (1707)
It officially and politically united England and Wales, on the one hand, and Scotland on the
other hand. Formation of a country called Great Britain.
From this point onward we talk about Great Britain.
The Scottish Parliament was merged with the English Parliament.
The Queen died early, and there was a fear about the Jacobites taking over, so they looked
which Protestant relative was closer, and found it in Germany.
House of Hanover (1714-1901) This is a result of the Act of Settlement.
• Act of Settlement
• House of Hanover installed, Jacobite risings. People trying to over throw this House.
• Georgian era (George I – II –III - IV)
• Age of Reason and Enlightenment
• Commercial expansion and slavery

Robert Walpole (PM 1721-1742)

 • Act of Union: single British parliament
• First prime minister: Robert Walpole (Whig)
• 10 Downing Street as gift from George II

Colonial conquests and losses

• James I: settlements in Virginia and New England
• Internal conflicts put colonial expansion on hold
• European wars with colonial dimensions
e.g. Seven Years’ War (1754-1763) Britain and Prusia fought against France and
Austria. Great Britain gained a lot of colonies.
Resistance in India (unsuccessful) and America

4 July 1776 American Independence

Culture and History of the UK IV

• History 1800-1900
Turn of the century
• Spirit of rebellion
1789 French revolution. It inspired other countries.
1798 Irish rebellion. Ireladn was not part of the UK, but England had a lot of
power over them, so the Irish rebelled against them.
1812 American war. The English tried to assert dominace and it failed.
1819 Peterloo massacre in Manchester. The 19th was the century of
Industrialization, which came with factories and poorness. Workers rebelled. This did not end
well for them.
• Revolutionary and reactionary spirit in Britain
Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man (1791). He pleaded against depotism
Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Man (1790) / Woman (1791). She is
in favor for a Republic. Then he pleded for the rights of woman (not equally rights because that
was too muhc for the time)
Slavery
• British colonies relied on slaves
• 18th c. Small black community in Britain
(freed slaves, servants, seafarers)
• Abolitionist movement. In favor of abolish slavery
• First bill rejected in 1791
 • 1807 Abolition in British Empire
• Gustavus Vassa (Equiano). Thanks to him the abolishment movement gained force.
Because he was a slave who got educated so he was able to speak in favor of
abolishment.
• 1833 slavery outlawed. It wasnt enforced until then.
Social problems
Industrialization, increased population, public health issues
• 1815 protectionist Corn Laws
• 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act:
Workhouses. Places where people could go to work if they were unable to find a job
elsewhere. They were allowed to live there and take clothes, but this led to situations of
abuse.
• 1871 Trade Unions. This led to better rights and better working conditions.
• 1875 national health system. It was very rudimentary thought. But it was a big step
forward.
• 1905-1922 reform programs for welfare state
• 1942 Beveridge report. A report by a commission that looked to the national system
and try to improve it. This led to the NHS, National Health Service.
War with France (1793-1815)
1793 Britain joined coalition against the French
1798 Napoleon invaded Egypt (Suez). England was in charge of the Suez channel. It was
vital to go to India.
1805 Napoleon plans British invasion.
Admiral Nelson: Battle of Trafalgar. Naval battle between the British and the French.
1815: Battle of Waterloo (Duke of Wellington). Napoleon was defeated.

House of Hanover: Queen Victoria

She was never meant to be queen, she was the niece of George 4th, and he died unexpecdly and
she was 18 years old and unprepared to be queen.
• °1819
• 1837-1901
• x cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Married her cousin, he was from the Royal
Belgian House. This house continues in the UK but it changed its name. They had 9
children
• ‘Grandmother of Europe’ Because of all the children she had that were ruling kind of
everywhere in Europe
 • 1861: Mourning. Albert died and she went into a permanent mourning state
• 1876: Empress of India.

New inventions, discoveries and phenomena

The Industrial Revolution started in the UK
• Steam engine
• Train and railway “mania” (1830s-1840s)
• Nationally co-ordinated clocks (1847). Result of the train and railway mania because
the trains needed to function on the same schedule.
• Coal industry.
• Electric telegraph (1837). British invention.
• Newspapers and popular press.
• Consumer culture. (and mass production) with the factories and prices were brought
down.
• 1831 Darwin’s first voyage on the HMS Beagle

The Great Exhibiton of the Works of Industry of All Nations (1851)

It was thought to exhibit inventions from everywhere in Europe, but the focus was on England.
This is the crystal palace which was destroyed in a fire.
19th century culture
• Romanticism. Put the emphasis on human emotion and human development, humanity
seen by the lens of individuals.
• Romantic reverence for nature. Because the 19th century was the beginning of the
industrialization and it brought pollution etc. so nature was missed.
• Romantic medievalism. The romantic artists looked back to the Middle Ages for
expiration.
• Neo-Gothic architecture
• Orientalism. A tendency of people in the Victorian age to get inspiration mostly fashion
and interior design from Asia.
 • Arts and Crafts Movement. It was against mass production, people crafted things by
hand and made each item unique.
The Lady of Shalott (John William Waterhouse, 1888). Romantic medievalism
Neo-Gothic architecture (George Gilbert Scott)

Rise of the middle-class Thanks to Industrialization

They tried to model the Royal Family.
Idealization of the home led to the idealization of women as homemakers. Double moral
standard
Zeal for social reform
 demand for voting rights

Women suffrage
Throughout the 19th century: campaigns to give the vote to (some) women.
In 1903 Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the
Women’s Social and Political Union
 militant actions to achieve suffrage for women. They committed actions of violence.
They were sent to prison where they went on hunger strikes.
 hunger strikes
 Cat-and-mouse Act 1913. They stopped eating and when they were very weak they
were given food and then were put in jail again, so basically, the government was playing with
them.
1918 franchise for all men over 21 and some women over 30. This was because of WWI
because a lot of men died.
1928 franchise for all over 21
The British Empire
During the Victorian, era the British empire expanded fast and started to colonize other
countries.
 This is what it looked like at its
th
peak. It wasn’t at its peak until the beginning of the 20 century.
At its peak, the British empire ruled over a quarter of the world population and a whole quarter
of the land was its territory. Nickname: the Empire where the sun never sets.

• History: 20th century

• Education & Media
The Edwardian Age
• King Edward VII (1901-1910) Son of Queen Victoria.
• House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. This is where we see the House of Hanover to the House
of Saxe… because when she married his husband, Albert, he didn’t become king but the
prince consort, but their children got their last name.
• Mixture of tradition and modernity
• Suffragette movement
• Rise of the Labour party
• 1911 social reforms: pensions and national insurance
• New inventions: telephones, the London Underground, motorcars, trams, buses, cinema,
…
• Bloomsbury Group
Modernism
There was a feeling of optimism about the future, which was ended by the WWI
First World War
• 4 August 1914 - 11 November 1918
• Battle of Gallipoli (1915), Somme offensive (1916), trench warfare, submarine attacks.
Here the perception of the war changed because there was this specific idea that it was
the war that would end with all wars. Here, everyone thought that the war was going to
be over by Christmas, but this battle was so brutal that it changed that perception.
• First voluntary service, 1916 conscription. People entered voluntary into the army
because there was this optimistic feeling, but after 1916 so many people had died that
they made it obligatory
• Zeppelin bombing raids on London
 • Armistice remembrance and “Buddy Poppies”
• Aftermath: election reforms and Spanish flu
The Spanish flu killed more people than the war had.

Interbellum
The period between WWI and WWII
Depression, social unrest, and union strikes
• 1924 first Labour government
• 1926 general strike. Initiated by coal miners because they were exploited and lasted
for 6 months, rich factory owners were the ones who won by starving the workers.
• 1929 London Crash. The great economic depression.
1931 Commonwealth (of nations). It was an organization to unite the colonies of the UK.
1936 abdication of Edward VIII. Edward was the oldest son of the previous king, so
when his father died, he became king, but he had little interest in being king. He had a
relationship with two times divorced American girl, and he chose love over the kingship
Popular entertainment and radio.

Second World War

• 3 September 1939 declaration of war (at this time, Winston Churchill was Prime
minister)
• Blitzkrieg
• Winston Churchill prime minister (he refused to surrender)
• 1940 Battle of Britain and bombing raids
• 1942 Desert War with General Montgomery. Because of the Commonwealth, a lot of
people from the colonies had to fight.
6 June 1944 D-Day. The Normandy landings (by the allies) have been called the
beginning of the end of the war in Europe

• 8 May 1945 German surrender

Postwar reforms

 1942 Beveridge report on social welfare. (Foundation of NHS, national health service
 1944 Butler Education Act (age 15) (Guaranteed compulsory education, not only
primary but secondary, too )
 1945 New Labour government, nationalization
 1946-48 NHS National Health Service.
 1965 Comprehensive schools introduced. Before that, schools were divided into 3,
grammar schools being academic-oriented towards university, secondary modern
 schools meant for middle-class students and then technical schools that prepared
students for a specific vocation or job. Comprehensive schools were meant for
everyone.

20th-century monarchy
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
Edward VII (1901-1910)
House of Windsor
George V (1910-1936)
Edward VIII (1936)
George VI (1936-1952)
Elizabeth II (1952-)
Heirs to the throne: Charles, William, George

De-colonization
1931 British Commonwealth of Nations
1940s Independence for India and Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma
Increased de-colonization after Suez Crisis
1960s Independence for Cyprus, African colonies, and West Indies

Immigration from former colonies. (England needed manpower after the war and the
government impulsed this)
Today: Commonwealth with 53 independent states
Remaining foreign territory: Falklands and Gibraltar
The British Empire no longer exists.

Margaret Thatcher (PM 1979-1990)

• Conservative Prime Minister
• Curbs on unionism. Labour unions were protesting and she had little sympathy for the
strikers, so that is why she is called the Iron Lady.
• Mass privatization. The Labour party nationalized areas like gas, electricity, water,
transportation and the Thatcher government undid all of that. They sold all of that to
private companies.
• Exploitation of oil fields. Mostly in the north sea of the coast of Scotland, which cost an
economic pool in the east.
 • Right-to-buy policy in housing. Houses were provided to people in poor situations at a
reduced cost, she let them bought but after that, the government was left with very little
social housing
• Consumerism.
• Falklands War (1982) and IRA bombings. Falklands War UK vs. Argentina. IRA Irish
Republican Army. Northern Ireland who were opposed to being part of the UK. They
were terrorists.
• Nationalism and anti-European. She was in favor of British nationalism and against
strong European influence.
Britain’s most recent prime ministers
1979-1990 Margaret Thatcher (C) Conservative
1990-1997 John Major (C)
1997-2007 Tony Blair (L) Labour
2007-2010 Gordon Brown (L)
2010-2016 David Cameron (C)
2016-2019 Theresa May (C)
2019-? Boris Johnson (C)

UK Education
Tuition Fees
• 1998 – Labour govt.
 max. £1000 / year
• Different systems Scotland, Wales, N-Ireland
• 2010  £9000 / year
• Tuition & maintenance loans
 student debt

UK Media
• 18th century: °print media
• After 1870: increase market  working class
• Political & social influence
• Dissemination of ideology
• Free press
• Controversy

Print Media
• National newspapers
- Quality (Broadsheets) vs. Popular (tabloid)
- Weekday vs. Weekend (esp. Sunday)
 - London-based (Fleet Street)
• Periodicals and magazines
• Online
• 50/70% readership in 2010

Regulation
• No state control or censorship
• No state funding
• Political orientation  bias
• Paparazzi vs. Right to privacy
Regional and ethnic newspaper
• +- 1000 regional/local newspapers
• Local & regional news
• Local & regional funding
• 9/10 read weekly
• Ethnic newspapers
Broadcasting Media
‘Public sector’ vs. ‘independent sector’:
• The BBC
• Independent broadcasting (Ofcom – the Office of Communication)
- ITV
- Channel 4
- Sky
 - …
BBC
• Not a state organization, controlled by the government
• But: not fully independent of political pressures:
- Charter has to be renewed by Parliament
- Pressure: license fee renewal
• Try to be neutral in political matters
• The major parties have equal rights to broadcast short party-political recordings on the
BBC and independent television, usually at election times.
Two main television channels:
1. BBC1: mass-appeal channel
2. BBC2: more ‘serious’ programming
Other channels: BBC3, BBC4, BBC Parliament
BBC Radio:
- 5 national stations
- 40 local stations