UNIT – V

ADVANCED NDE TECHNIQUES-II

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing:

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden redistribution of
stress in a material. When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature),
localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the surface and are
recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers (10 -12 m) can be
identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and growth of
cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase transformations in metals. In composites, matrix
cracking and fiber breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic emissions. AE‟s have also been measured and
recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials.

Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a
discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many industrial
applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for leaks, or monitoring weld quality) and is
used extensively as a research tool.

Acoustic Emission is unlike most other non destructive testing (NDT) techniques in two regards. The first difference
pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AET simply listens
for the energy released by the object. AE tests are often performed on structures while in operation, as this provides
adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions.

The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a material. This is particularly

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meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to discern between
developing and stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go undetected altogether if the
loading is not high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing usually provides an immediate
indication relating to the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other advantages of AET include fast and
complete volumetric inspection using multiple sensors, permanent sensor mounting for process control, and no need
to disassemble and clean a specimen.

Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure. In order to
obtain quantitative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often ultrasonic
testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments which contribute extraneous
noise to the signals. For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction are crucial.

A Brief History of AE Testing

Although acoustic emissions can be created in a controlled environment, they can also occur naturally. Therefore, as a
means of quality control, the origin of AE is hard to pinpoint. As early as 6,500 BC, potters were known to listen for
audible sounds during the cooling of their ceramics, signifying structural failure. In metal working, the term "tin cry"
(audible emissions produced by the mechanical twinning of pure tin during plastic deformation) was coined around
3,700 BC by tin smelters in Asia Minor. The first documented observations of AE appear to have been made in the
8th century by Arabian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan. In a book, Hayyan wrote that Jupiter (tin) gives off a „harsh
sound‟ when worked, while Mars (iron) „sounds much‟ during forging.

Many texts in the late 19th century referred to the audible emissions made by materials such as tin, iron, cadmium and
zinc. One noteworthy correlation between different metals and their acoustic emissions came from Czochralski, who
witnessed the relationship between tin and zinc cry and twinning. Later, Albert Portevin and Francois Le Chatelier
observed AE emissions from a stressed Al-Cu-Mn (Aluminum-Copper-Manganese) alloy.

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 Fig: Modern Tensile Testing Machine (H. Cross Company)

The next 20 years brought further verification with the work of Robert Anderson (tensile testing of an aluminum alloy
beyond its yield point), Erich Scheil (linked the formation of martensite in steel to audible noise), and Friedrich
Forster, who with Scheil related an audible noise to the formation of martensite in high-nickel steel. Experimentation
continued throughout the mid-1900‟s, culminating in the PhD thesis written by Joseph Kaiser entitled "Results and
Conclusions from Measurements of Sound in Metallic Materials under Tensile Stress.” Soon after becoming aware of
Kaiser‟s efforts, Bradford Schofield initiated the first research program in the United States to look at the materials
engineering applications of AE. Fittingly, Kaiser‟s research is generally recognized as the beginning of modern day
acoustic emission testing.

AE Sources:

As mentioned in the Introduction, acoustic emissions can result from the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and
dislocation movements, twinning, or phase transformations in metals. In any case, AE‟s originate with stress. When a
stress is exerted on a material, a strain is induced in the material as well. Depending on the magnitude of the stress and
the properties of the material, an object may return to its original dimensions or be permanently deformed after the
stress is removed. These two conditions are known as elastic and plastic deformation, respectively.

The most detectible acoustic emissions take place when a loaded material undergoes plastic deformation or when a
material is loaded at or near its yield stress. On the microscopic level, as plastic deformation occurs, atomic planes slip
past each other through the movement of dislocations. These atomic-scale deformations release energy in the form of
elastic waves which “can be thought of as naturally generated ultrasound” traveling through the object. When cracks
exist in a metal, the stress levels present in front of the crack tip can be several times higher than the
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surrounding area. Therefore, AE activity will also be observed when the material ahead of the crack tip undergoes
plastic deformation (micro-yielding).

Two sources of fatigue cracks also cause AE‟s. The first source is emissive particles (e.g. nonmetallic inclusions) at
the origin of the crack tip. Since these particles are less ductile than the surrounding material, they tend to break more
easily when the metal is strained, resulting in an AE signal. The second source is the propagation of the crack tip that
occurs through the movement of dislocations and small-scale cleavage produced by triaxial stresses.

The amount of energy released by an acoustic emission and the amplitude of the waveform are related to the
magnitude and velocity of the source event. The amplitude of the emission is proportional to the velocity of crack
propagation and the amount of surface area created. Large, discrete crack jumps will produce larger AE signals than
cracks that propagate slowly over the same distance.

Detection and conversion of these elastic waves to electrical signals is the basis of AE testing. Analysis of these
signals yield valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a discontinuity in a material. As discussed in
the following section, specialized equipment is necessary to detect the wave energy and decipher which signals are
meaningful.

Activity of AE Sources in Structural Loading:

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AE signals generated under different loading patterns can provide Basic AE history plot showing Kaiser effect
valuable information concerning the structural integrity of a (BCB), Felicity effect (DEF), and emission
material. Load levels that have been previously exerted on a material during hold (GH) 2
do not produce AE activity. In other words, discontinuities created in
a material do not expand or move until that former stress is exceeded. This phenomenon, known as the Kaiser Effect,
can be seen in the load versus AE plot to the right. As the object is loaded, acoustic emission events accumulate
(segment AB). When the load is removed and reapplied (segment BCB), AE events do not occur again until the load
at point B is exceeded. As the load exerted on the material is increased again (BD), AE‟s are generated and stop when
the load is removed. However, at point F, the applied load is high enough to cause significant emissions even though
the previous maximum load (D) was not reached. This phenomenon is known as the Felicity Effect. This effect can be
quantified using the Felicity Ratio, which is the load where considerable AE resumes, divided by the maximum
applied load (F/D).

Knowledge of the Kaiser Effect and Felicity Effect can be used to determine if major structural defects are present.
This can be achieved by applying constant loads (relative to the design loads exerted on the material) and “listening”
to see if emissions continue to occur while the load is held. As shown in the figure, if AE signals continue to be
detected during the holding of these loads (GH), it is likely that substantial structural defects are present. In addition, a
material may contain critical defects if an identical load is reapplied and AE signals continue to be detected. Another
guideline governing AE‟s is the Dunegan corollary, which states that if acoustic emissions are observed prior to a
previous maximum load, some type of new damage must have occurred. (Note: Time dependent processes like
corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement tend to render the Kaiser Effect useless)Noise.

The sensitivity of an acoustic emission system is often limited by the amount of background noise nearby. Noise in
AE testing refers to any undesirable signals detected by the sensors. Examples of these signals include frictional
sources (e.g. loose bolts or movable connectors that shift when exposed to wind loads) and impact sources (e.g. rain,
flying objects or wind-driven dust) in bridges. Sources of noise may also be present in applications where the area
being tested may be disturbed by mechanical vibrations (e.g. pumps).

To compensate for the effects of background noise, various procedures can be implemented. Some possible
approaches involve fabricating special sensors with electronic gates for noise blocking, taking precautions to place
sensors as far away as possible from noise sources, and electronic filtering (either using signal arrival times or
differences in the spectral content of true AE signals and background noise).

Pseudo Sources
In addition to the AE source mechanisms described above, pseudo source mechanisms produce AE signals that are
detected by AE equipment. Examples include liquefaction and solidification, friction in rotating bearings, solid-solid
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phase transformations, leaks, cavitation, and the realignment or growth of magnetic domains (See Barkhausen Effect).

Wave Propagation

A primitive wave released at the AE source is illustrated in the figure right. The displacement waveform is a step-like
function corresponding to the permanent change associated with the source process. The analogous velocity and stress
waveforms are essentially pulse-like. The width and height of the primitive pulse depend on the dynamics of the
source process. Source processes such as microscopic crack jumps and precipitate fractures are usually completed in a
fraction of a microsecond or a few microseconds, which explains why the pulse is short in duration. The amplitude
and energy of the primitive pulse vary over an enormous range from submicroscopic dislocation movements to gross
crack jumps.

Waves radiates from the source in all directions, often having a strong directionality depending on the nature of the
source process, as shown in the second figure. Rapid movement is necessary if a sizeable amount of the elastic energy
liberated during deformation is to appear as an acoustic emission.

As these primitive waves travel through a material, their form is changed considerably. Elastic wave source and elastic
wave motion theories are being investigated to determine the complicated relationship between the AE source pulse
and the corresponding movement at the detection site. The ultimate goal of studies of the interaction between elastic
waves and material structure is to accurately develop a description of the source event from the output signal of a
distant sensor.

However, most materials-oriented researchers and NDT inspectors are not concerned with the intricate knowledge of
each source event. Instead, they are primarily interested in the broader, statistical aspects of AE. Because of this, they
prefer to use narrow band (resonant) sensors which detect only a small portion of the broadband of frequencies
emitted by an AE. These sensors are capable of measuring hundreds of signals each second, in contrast to the more
expensive high-fidelity sensors used in source function analysis. More information on sensors will be discussed later
in the Equipment section.

The signal that is detected by a sensor is a combination of many parts of the waveform initially emitted. Acoustic
emission source motion is completed in a few millionths of a second. As the AE leaves the source, the waveform
travels in a spherically spreading pattern and is reflected off the boundaries of the object. Signals that are in phase
with each other as they reach the sensor produce constructive interference which usually results in the highest peak of
the waveform being detected. The typical time interval from when an AE wave reflects around the test piece
(repeatedly exciting the sensor) until it decays, ranges from the order of 100 microseconds in a highly damped,
nonmetallic material to tens of milliseconds in a lightly damped metallic material.
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Primitive AE wave released at a source. The primitive wave is essentially a stress pulse corresponding to a permanent
displacement of the material. The ordinate quantities refer to a point in the material.

Attenuation

The intensity of an AE signal detected by a sensor is considerably lower than the intensity that would have been
observed in the close proximity of the source. This is due to attenuation. There are three main causes of attenuation,
beginning with geometric spreading. As an AE spreads from its source in a plate-like material, its amplitude decays
by 30% every time it doubles its distance from the source. In three-dimensional structures, the signal decays on the
order of 50%. This can be traced back to the simple conservation of energy. Another cause of attenuation is material
damping, as alluded to in the previous paragraph. While an AE wave passes through a material, its elastic and kinetic
energies are absorbed and converted into heat. The third cause of attenuation is wave scattering. Geometric
discontinuities (e.g. twin boundaries, nonmetallic inclusions, or grain boundaries) and structural boundaries both
reflect some of the wave energy that was initially transmitted.

Measurements of the effects of attenuation on an AE signal can be performed with a simple apparatus known as a
Hsu-Nielson Source. This consists of a mechanical pencil with either 0.3 or 0.5 mm 2H lead that is passed through a
cone-shaped Teflon shoe designed to place the lead in contact with the surface of a material at a 30 degree angle.
When the pencil lead is pressed and broken against the material, it creates a small, local deformation that is relieved in
the form of a stress wave, similar to the type of AE signal produced by a crack. By using this method, simulated AE
sources can be created at various sites on a structure to determine the optimal position for the placement of sensors
and to ensure that all areas of interest are within the detection range of the sensor or sensors.

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Angular dependence of acoustic emission radiated from a growing microcrack. Most of the energy is directed in the
90 and 270odirections, perpendicular to the crack surfaces.

Wave Mode and Velocity

As mentioned earlier, using AE inspection in conjunction with other NDE techniques can be an effective method in
gauging the location and nature of defects. Since source locations are determined by the
time required for the wave to travel through the material to a sensor, it is important that
the velocity of the propagating waves be accurately calculated. This is not an easy task
since wave propagation depends on the material in question and the wave mode being
detected. For many applications, Lamb waves are of primary concern because they are
able to give the best indication of wave propagation from a source whose distance from
the sensor is larger than the thickness of the material. For additional information on
Lamb waves, see the wave mode page in the Ultrasonic Inspection section.

Equipment:

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Acoustic emission testing can be performed in the field with portable instruments or in a stationary laboratory setting.
Typically, systems contain a sensor, preamplifier, filter, and amplifier, along with measurement, display, and storage
equipment (e.g. oscilloscopes, voltmeters, and personal computers). Acoustic emission sensors respond to dynamic
motion that is caused by an AE event. This is achieved through transducers which convert mechanical movement into
an electrical voltage signal. The transducer element in an AE sensor is almost always a piezoelectric crystal, which is
commonly made from a ceramic such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Transducers are selected based on operating
frequency, sensitivity and environmental characteristics, and are grouped into two classes: resonant and broadband.
The majority of AE equipment is responsive to movement in its typical operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1
MHz. For materials with high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower frequencies may be used to better
distinguish AE signals. The opposite holds true as well Ideally, the AE signal that reaches the mainframe will be free
of background noise and electromagnetic interference. Unfortunately, this is not realistic. However, sensors and
preamplifiers are designed to help eliminate unwanted signals. First, the preamplifier boosts the voltage to provide
gain and cable drive capability. To minimize interference, a preamplifier is placed close to the transducer; in fact,
many transducers today are equipped with integrated preamplifiers. Next, the signal is relayed to a bandpass filter for
elimination of low frequencies (common to background noise) and high frequencies. Following completion of this
process, the signal travels to the acoustic system mainframe and eventually to a computer or similar device for
analysis and storage. Depending on noise conditions, further filtering or amplification at the mainframe may still be
necessary.

Schematic Diagram of a Basic Four-channel Acoustic Emission Testing System

After passing the AE system mainframe, the signal comes to a detection/measurement circuit as shown in the figure

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directly above. Note that multiple-measurement circuits can be used in multiple sensor/channel systems for source
location purposes (to be described later). At the measurement circuitry, the shape of the conditioned signal is
compared with a threshold voltage value that has been programmed by the operator. Signals are either continuous
(analogous to Gaussian, random noise with amplitudes varying according to the magnitude of the AE events) or burst-
type. Each time the threshold voltage is exceeded, the measurement circuit releases a digital pulse. The first pulse is
used to signify the beginning of a hit. (A hit is used to describe the AE event that is detected by a particular sensor.
One AE event can cause a system with numerous channels to record multiple hits.) Pulses will continue to be
generated while the signal exceeds the threshold voltage. Once this process has stopped for a predetermined amount of
time, the hit is finished (as far as the circuitry is concerned). The data from the hit is then read into a microcomputer
and the measurement circuit is reset.

Hit Driven AE Systems and Measurement of Signal Features:

Although several AE system designs are available (combining various options, sensitivity, and cost), most AE systems
use a hit-driven architecture. The hit-driven design is able to efficiently measure all detected signals and record digital
descriptions for each individual feature (detailed later in this section). During periods of inactivity, the system lies
dormant. Once a new signal is detected, the system records the hit or hits, and the data is logged for present and/or
future display.

Also common to most AE systems is the ability to perform routine tasks that are valuable for AE inspection. These
tasks include quantitative signal measurements with corresponding time and/or load readings, discrimination between
real and false signals (noise), and the collection of statistical information about the parameters of each signal.

AE Signal Features

With the equipment configured and setup complete, AE testing may begin. The sensor is coupled to the test surface
and held in place with tape or adhesive. An operator then monitors the signals which are excited by the induced
stresses in the object. When a useful transient, or burst signal is correctly obtained, parameters like amplitude, counts,
measured area under the rectified signal envelope (MARSE), duration, and rise time can be gathered. Each of the AE
signal feature shown in the image is described below.

Amplitude, A, is the greatest measured voltage in a waveform and is measured in decibels (dB). This is an important

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parameter in acoustic emission inspection because it determines the detectability of the signal. Signals with
amplitudes below the operator-defined, minimum threshold will not be recorded.

Rise time, R, is the time interval between the first threshold crossing and the signal peak. This parameter is related to
the propagation of the wave between the source of the acoustic emission event and the sensor. Therefore, rise time is
used for qualification of signals and as a criterion for noise filter.

Duration, D, is the time difference between the first and last threshold crossings. Duration can be used to identify
different types of sources and to filter out noise. Like counts (N), this parameter relies upon the magnitude of the
signal and the acoustics of the material.

MARSE, E, sometimes referred to as energy counts, is the measure of the area under the envelope of the rectified
linear voltage time signal from the transducer. This can be thought of as the relative signal amplitude and is useful
because the energy of the emission can be determined. MARSE is also sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the
signal, but does not use counts or user defined thresholds and operating frequencies. MARSE is regularly used in the
measurements of acoustic emissions.

Counts, N, refers to the number of pulses emitted by the measurement circuitry if the signal amplitude is greater than
the threshold. Depending on the magnitude of the AE event and the characteristics of the material, one hit may
produce one or many counts. While this is a relatively simple parameter to collect, it usually needs to be combined
with amplitude and/or duration measurements to provide quality information about the shape of a signal.

Data Display
Software-based AE systems are able to generate graphical displays for analysis of the signals recorded during AE
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inspection. These displays provide valuable information about the detected events and can be classified into four
categories: location, activity, intensity, and data quality (crossplots).

Location displays identify the origin of the detected AE events. These can be graphed by X coordinates, X-Y
coordinates, or by channel for linear computed-source location, planar computed-source location, and zone location
techniques. Examples of each graph are shown to the right.

Activity displays show AE activity as a function of time on an X-Y plot (figure below left). Each bar on the graphs
represents a specified amount of time. For example, a one-hour test could be divided into 100 time increments. All
activity measured within a given 36 second interval would be displayed in a given histogram bar. Either axis may be
displayed logarithmically in the event of high AE activity or long testing periods. In addition to showing measured
activity over a single time period, cumulative activity displays (figure below right) can be created to show the total
amount of activity detected during a test. This display is valuable for measuring the total emission quantity and the
average rate of emission. ) can be created to show the total amount of activity detected during a test. This display is
valuable for measuring the total emission quantity and the average rate of emission.

Intensity displays are used to give statistical information concerning the magnitude of the detected signals. As can be
seen in the amplitude distribution graph to the near right, the number of hits is plotted at each amplitude increment
(expressed in dB‟s) beyond the user-defined threshold. These graphs can be used to determine whether a few large
signals or many small ones created the detected AE signal energy. In addition, if the Y-axis is plotted logarithmically,
the shape of the amplitude distribution can be interpreted to determine the activity of a crack (e.g. a linear distribution
indicates growth).

The fourth category of AE displays, crossplots, is used for evaluating the quality of the data collected. Counts versus
amplitude, duration versus amplitude, and counts versus duration are frequently used crossplots. As shown in the final
figure, each hit is marked as a single point, indicating the correlation between the two signal features. The recognized
signals from AE events typically form a diagonal band since larger signals usually generate higher counts. Because
noise signals caused by electromagnetic interference do not have as many threshold-crossing pulses as typical AE
source events, the hits are located below the main band. Conversely, signals caused by friction or leaks have more

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threshold-crossing pulses than typical AE source events and are subsequently located above the main band. In the case
of ambiguous data, expertise is necessary in separating desirable and unwanted hits.

AE Source Location Techniques:

Multi-Channel Source Location Techniques:

Locating the source of significant acoustic emissions is often the main goal of an inspection. Although the magnitude
of the damage may be unknown after AE analysis, follow up testing at source locations can provide these answers. As
previously mentioned, many AE systems are capable of using multiple sensors/channels during testing, allowing them
to record a hit from a single AE event. These AE systems can be used to determine the location of an event source. As
hits are recorded by each sensor/channel, the source can be located by knowing the velocity of the wave in the
material and the difference in hit arrival times among the sensors, as measured by hardware circuitry or computer
software. By properly spacing the sensors in this manner, it is possible to inspect an entire structure with relatively
few sensors.

Source location techniques assume that AE waves travel at a constant velocity in a material. However, various effects
may alter the expected velocity of the AE waves (e.g. reflections and multiple wave modes) and can affect the
accuracy of this technique. Therefore, the geometric effects of the structure being tested and the operating frequency
of the AE system must be considered when determining whether a particular source location technique is feasible for a
given test structure.

Linear Location Technique`

Several source location techniques have been developed based on this method. One of the commonly used computed-
source location techniques is the linear location principle shown to the right. Linear location is often used to evaluate
struts on truss bridges. When the source is located at the midpoint, the time of arrival difference for the wave at the
two sensors is zero. If the source is closer to one of the sensors, a difference in arrival times is measured. To calculate
the distance of the source location from the midpoint, the arrival time is multiplied by the wave velocity.
Whether the location lies to the right or left of the midpoint is
determined by which sensor first records the hit. This is a linear relationship and applies to any event sources between
the sensors.

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Because the above scenario implicitly assumes that the source is on a line passing through the two sensors, it is only
valid for a linear problem. When using AE to identify a source location in a planar material, three or more sensors are
used, and the optimal position of the source is between the sensors. Two categories of source location analysis are
used for this situation: zonal location and point location.

Zonal Location Technique

As the name implies, zonal location aims to trace the waves to a specific zone or region around a sensor. This method
is used in anisotropic materials or in other structures where sensors are spaced relatively far apart or when high
material attenuation affects the quality of signals at multiple sensors. Zones can be lengths, areas or volumes
depending on the dimensions of the array. A planar sensor array with detection by one sensor is shown in the upper
right figure. The source can be assumed to be within the region and less than halfway between sensors.

When additional sensors are applied, arrival times and amplitudes help pinpoint the source zone. The ordered pair in
lower right figure represents the two sensors detecting the signal in the zone and the order of signal arrival at each
sensor. When relating signal strength to peak amplitude, the largest peak amplitude is assumed to come from the
nearest sensor, second largest from the next closest sensor and so forth.

Point Location
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In order for point location to be justified, signals must be detected in a minimum number of sensors: two for linear,
three for planar, four for volumetric. Accurate arrival times must also be available. Arrival times are often found by
using peak amplitude or the first threshold crossing. The velocity of wave propagation and exact position of the
sensors are necessary criteria as well. Equations can then be derived using sensor array geometry or more complex
algebra to locate more specific points of interest.

AE Barkhausen Techniques:

Barkhausen Effect

The Barkhausen effect refers to the sudden change in size of

ferromagnetic domains that occur during magnetization or
demagnetization. During magnetization, favorably oriented domains
develop at the cost of less favorably oriented domains. These two
factors result in minute jumps of magnetization when a ferromagnetic
sample (e.g. iron) is exposed to an increasing magnetic field (see
figure). Domain wall motion itself is determined by many factors like

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microstructure, grain boundaries, inclusions, and stress and strain. By the same token, the Barkhausen effect is too a
function of stress and strain.

Barkhausen Noise
Barkhausen noise can be heard if a coil of wire is wrapped around the sample undergoing magnetization. Abrupt
movements in the magnetic field produce spiking current pulses in the coil. When amplified, the clicks can be
compared to Rice Krispies or the crumbling a candy wrapper. The amount of Barkhausen noise is influenced by
material imperfections and dislocations and is likewise dependent on the mechanical properties of a material.
Currently, materials exposed to high energy particles (nuclear reactors) or cyclic mechanical stresses (pipelines) are
available for nondestructive evaluation using Barkhausen noise, one of the many branches of AE testing.

Applications

Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather information about a material or structure. Acoustic
Emission testing (AET) is be applied to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, bridges,
aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic components. It is also used in process control
applications such as monitoring welding processes. A few examples of AET applications follow.

Weld Monitoring

During the welding process, temperature changes induce stresses between the weld and the base metal. These stresses
are often relieved by heat treating the weld. However, in some cases tempering the weld is not possible and minor
cracking occurs. Amazingly, cracking can continue for up to 10 days after the weld has been completed. Using
stainless steel welds with known inclusions and accelerometers for detection purposes and background noise
monitoring, it was found by W. D. Jolly (1969) that low level signals and more sizeable bursts were related to the
growth of microfissures and larger cracks respectively. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring of
continuous welding.

Bucket Truck (Cherry Pickers) Integrity Evaluation

Accidents, overloads and fatigue can all occur when operating bucket trucks or other aerial equipment. If a
mechanical or structural defect is ignored, serious injury or fatality can result. In 1976, the Georgia Power Company
pioneered the aerial manlift device inspection. Testing by independent labs and electrical utilities followed. Although
originally intended to examine only the boom sections, the method is now used for inspecting the pedestal, pins, and
various other components. Normally, the AE tests are second in a chain of inspections which start with visual checks.
If necessary, follow-up tests take the form of magnetic particle, dye penetrant, or ultrasonic inspections. Experienced
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personnel can perform five to ten tests per day, saving valuable time and money along the way. ASTM F914 governs
the procedures for examining insulated aerial personnel devices.

Gas Trailer Tubes

Acoustic emission testing on pressurized jumbo tube trailers was authorized by the Department of Transportation in
1983. Instead of using hydrostatic retesting, where tubes must be removed from service and disassembled, AET
allows for in situ testing. A 10% over-pressurization is performed at a normal filling station with AE sensors attached
to the tubes at each end. A multichannel acoustic system is used to detection and mapped source locations. Suspect
locations are further evaluated using ultrasonic inspection, and when defects are confirmed the tube is removed from
use. AET can detect subcritical flaws whereas hydrostatic testing cannot detect cracks until they cause rupture of the
tube. Because of the high stresses in the circumferential direction of the tubes, tests are geared toward finding
longitudinal fatigue cracks.

Bridges

Bridges contain many welds, joints and connections, and a combination of load and environmental factors heavily
influence damage mechanisms such as fatigue cracking and metal thinning due to corrosion. Bridges receive a visual
inspection about every two years and when damage is detected, the bridge is either shut down, its weight capacity is
lowered, or it is singled out for more frequent monitoring. Acoustic Emission is increasingly being used for bridge
monitoring applications because it can continuously gather data and detect changes that may be due to damage
without requiring lane closures or bridge shutdown. In fact, traffic flow is commonly used to load or stress the bridge
for the AE testing.

Aerospace Structures

Most aerospace structures consist of complex assemblies of components that have been design to carry significant
loads while being as light as possible. This combination of requirements leads to many parts that can tolerate only a
minor amount of damage before failing. This fact makes detection of damage extremely important but components are
often packed tightly together making access for inspections difficult. AET has found applications in monitoring the
health of aerospace structures because sensors can be attached in easily accessed areas that are remotely located from
damage prone sites. AET has been used in laboratory structural tests, as well as in flight test applications.
NASA's Wing Leading Edge Impact Detection System is partially based on AE technology. The image to the right
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shows a technician applying AE transducers on the inside of the Space Shuttle Discovery wing structure. The impact
detection system was developed to alert NASA officials to events such as the sprayed-on-foam insulation impact that
damaged the Space Shuttle Columbia's wing leading edge during launch and lead to its breakup on reentry to the
Earth's atmosphere.

Others
Fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, in particular glass-fiber reinforced parts or structures (e.g. fan blades)
Material research (e.g. investigation of material properties, breakdown mechanisms, and damage behavior)
Inspection and quality assurance, (e.g. wood drying processes, scratch tests)
Real-time leakage test and location within various components (small valves, steam lines, tank bottoms)
Detection and location of high-voltage partial discharges in transformers
Railroad tank car and rocket motor testing
There are a number of standards and guidelines that describe AE testing and application procedures as supplied by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Examples are ASTM E 1932 for the AE examination of small
parts and ASTM E1419-00 for the method of examining seamless, gas-filled, pressure vessels.

Leak testing:

It is conventional to use the term "leak" to refer to an actual discontinuity or passage through which a fluid flows or
permeates. "Leakage" refers to the fluid that has flown through a leak. "Leak rate" refers to the rate of fluid per unit of
time under a given set of conditions, and is properly expressed in units of mass per unit time. Modern leak testing is
thus based on the notion that all containment systems leak, the only rational requirement that can be imposed is that
such systems leak at a rate no greater than some finite maximum allowable rate, however small that may be as long as
it is within the range of sensitivity of a measuring system.

There are two basic types of leaks : one is an essentially localized i.e., a discrete passage through which fluid may
flow (crudely, a hole). Such a leak may take the from of a tube, crack, orifice, or the like. A system may also leak
through permeation of a somewhat extended barrier; such a leak is called a distributed leak. Gases may flow through
solids having no holes large enough to permit more than a small fraction of the gas to flow through any one hole. This
process involves diffusion through the solid and may involve various surface phenomena such as absorption,
dissociation, migration, and desorption of gas molecules.

A distinction may be drawn between "real" and "virtual" leaks. Real leaks are the type described above, "virtual leak"
refers to gradual desorption of gases from surfaces or components within a vacuum system. It is not uncommon for a
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vacuum system to have real and virtual leaks simultaneously.

It is convenient to categorize leak-testing methods according to whether the method is primarily applicable to the
testing of internally pressurized systems or to vacuum systems. There are two basic ways to detect leaks in internally
pressurized gas systems: (1) any reduction in the total quantity of gas contained within the system may be detected
and (2) the escaping gas may itself be detected. For small leaks in pressurized gas systems, some method of directly
sensing the escaping gas is usually necessary, especially when it is essential to locate the leak. Some of the methods
used for this purpose are described here. The sound produced by the escaping gas may be listened to. The pressurized
test system may be submerged in a liquid bath and visually observed. A soap solution may be applied on the outer
surface of a pressurized system and bubbles formed due to escaping gas be observed. Detectors which are sensitive to
specific gases may be used such as mass spectrometers as helium leak detectors and the radiation detectors for
detection of leaking radioactive krypton-85 gas. The leak testing of vacuum systems also makes use of several
specially adopted versions of specific gas detectors.

Typical applications of leak testing include testing of metals and non-porous materials, enclosures and seals, vacuum
leak test of experimental and operating equipment, testing of welds, testing of brazing and adhesive bonds, testing of
vacuum chambers and metal gasket seals, reactor fuel element inspection and testing of liquid-metal containers and
components.

The application of leak testing techniques is, however, limited because direct access is required to at least one side of
the test system and special type of sniffer or probe is required. Smeared metal or containments may plug the leak
passage. Radiation and other residual gas hazards are possible.

Computed Tomography:

Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning is any computer-aided tomographic process; usually X-ray computed
tomography, that uses irradiation to produce three-dimensional internal and external representations of a scanned
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object. Industrial CT scanning has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of
the key uses for industrial CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and
reverse engineering applications.[1][2] Just as in medical imaging, industrial imaging includes both nontomographic
radiography (industrial radiography) and computed tomographic radiography (computed tomography).

Types of scanners:

Line beam scanning is the traditional process of industrial CT scanning. X-rays are produced and the beam is
collimated to create a line. The X-ray line beam is then translated across the part and data is collected by the detector.
The data is then reconstructed to create a 3-D volume rendering of the part.

Fig: Line beam scanning

In cone beam scanning, the part to be scanned is placed on a rotary table. As the part rotates, the cone of X-rays
produce a large number of 2D images that are collected by the detector. The 2D images are then processed to create a
3D volume rendering of the external and internal geometries of the part.

Fig: Cone beam scanner

Analysis and inspection techniques:

Various inspection uses and techniques include part-to-CAD comparisons, part-to-part comparisons, assembly and
defect analysis, void analysis, wall thickness analysis, and generation of CAD data. The CAD data can be used for
reverse engineering, geometric dimensioning and tolerance analysis, and production part approval

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Assembly:

One of the most recognized forms of analysis using CT is for assembly, or visual analysis. CT scanning provides
views inside components in their functioning position, without disassembly. Some software programs for industrial
CT scanning allow for measurements to be taken from the CT dataset volume rendering. These measurements are
useful for determining the clearances between assembled parts or the dimension of an individual feature.

Fig: An industrial computed tomography (CT) scan conducted on an aluminum casting to identify internal failures
such as voids. All color coordinated particles within casting are voids/porosity/air pockets, which can additionally be
measured and are color coordinated according to size.

Void, crack and defect detection:

Fig: Flight through a 3D reconstruction of a disposable pepper grinder. Glass in blue.

Traditionally, determining defects, voids and cracks within an object would require destructive testing. CT scanning
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can detect internal features and flaws displaying this information in 3D without destroying the part. Industrial CT
scanning (3D X-ray) is used to detect flaws inside a part such as porosity, [7] an inclusion, or a crack.
Metal casting and moulded plastic components are typically prone to porosity because of cooling processes, transitions
between thick and thin walls, and material properties. Void analysis can be used to locate, measure, and
analyze voids inside plastic or metal components.

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing analysis:

Traditionally, without destructive testing, full metrology has only been performed on the exterior dimensions of
components, such as with a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) or with a vision system to map exterior surfaces.
Internal inspection methods would require using a 2D X-ray of the component or the use of destructive testing.
Industrial CT scanning allows for full non-destructive metrology. With unlimited geometrical complexity, 3D printing
allows for complex internal features to be created with no impact on cost, such features are not accessible using
traditional CMM. The first 3D printed artefact that is optimised for characterisation of form using computed
tomography CT

Image-based finite element methods

Image-based finite element method converts the 3D image data from X-ray computed tomography directly into meshes
for finite element analysis. Benefits of this method include modelling complex geometries (e.g. composite materials) or
accurately modelling "as manufactured" components at the micro-scale.

Aapplications of Computed Tomography (CT):

The number of industrial applications of Computed Tomography (CT) is large and rapidly increasing. After a brief
market overview, the paper gives a survey of state of the art and upcoming CT technologies, covering types of CT
systems, scanning capabilities, and technological advances. The paper contains a survey of application examples from
the manufacturing industry as well as from other industries, e.g., electrical and electronic devices, inhomogeneous
materials, and from the food industry. Challenges as well as major national and international coordinated activities in
the field of industrial CT are also presented.

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