EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
An equipotential surface is one on which the points are all at the same electrical potential and
there is no net electrical work done in moving a charge from one point to another
For isolated charges the equipotential surfaces are spheres centered on the charge
Note
1. Equipotential surfaces always at right angles to the lines of force
2. A charge can move freely on an equipotential surface without any work done
Equipotential for a dioplole
Consider
𝑑𝑉 𝒅 𝒅
∇V = 𝒊 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒋 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒌
𝑑𝑥
The unit vector in the direction of the normal to the equipotential surface
𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 is given by
𝑑𝑉 𝒅 𝒅
∇𝑉 [ 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌]
𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛
𝑛̂ = ∇𝑉 =
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 2
√{( ) +( ) +( ) }
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Find the unit vector normal to the equipotential surface
𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑎𝑡 (0,0,2)
The electric field intensity at (x,y,z) is
𝑬 = −∇𝑉
𝑑𝑉 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
= − 𝑑𝑥 𝒊 − 𝒅𝒚 𝒋 − 𝒅𝒛 𝒌
𝑑𝑉 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
= − (𝑑𝑥 𝒊 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒋 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒌)
𝑑𝑉 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
Hence, the direction cosines of E are also proportional to𝑑𝑥 , 𝒅𝒚, 𝒅𝒛
Hence, the direction of the electric field intensity E at any point is
normal to the equippotential surface through the point.
The potential gradient points in the direction in which V increases most
rapidly with a change in position.
At each point, the direction of E is the direction in which V decreases most
rapidly and is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface through point.
Moving in direction of E means moving in direction of decreasing potential
For a positive point charge, the electric potential is
𝑸
𝑽(𝒓) = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
𝟎𝒓
Therefore, for a given radial distance r, all points on the spherical surface
Of radius r have the same potential
Note :
1. A charge can move freely on an equipotential surface without any
work done.
2. The electric field lines must be perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces. (Why?)
On an equipotential surface, V = constant
∇V = 0 E. d𝐥 = 0
Where d𝐥 is tangent to equipotential surface
E must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
The equipotential surfaces are concentric spherical surfaces
The relationship between V and E for a positive charge
𝑣(𝑟)
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
0 r
THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole consists of two unlike charges of equal magnitude by distance d
−𝑞 +𝑞
For a uniform electric field
Note the V always decreases in the direction of the field
FORCE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Consider an electric dipole of moment p in a uniform external electric field of intensity E, as
shown
Force due to the external field on +𝑣𝑒 and −𝑣𝑒 charges are equal and
opposite in direction.
Total external force on dipole = 0.
If the field is not uniform, then we would expect that usually the force is non-zero, consequently
the dipole does not undergo translation
However, the two forces –qE and + qE constitute a couple of moment
Magnitude of torque Ʈ = Ʈ+𝑣𝑒 + Ʈ−𝑣𝑒
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝐹. 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹. 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝐹𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝐸𝑞𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑝𝐸𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑝 = 𝑞𝐸
The torque on a dipole is zero when the dipole is aligned with the
electric field and a maximum when it is at right angles to the field.
In a vector form
Ʈ = 𝑝˄𝐸
𝑝˄𝐸 𝑝˄𝐸
NOTE 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = ∴ 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝˄𝐸 = 𝑃𝑋𝐸
𝑝𝐸 𝑝𝐸
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
Suppose the electric dipole is initially aligned with the electric field
−𝑞 P +𝑞
−qE +qE
When the dipole P rotates d𝜃, the E-field does work.
Work done by external E-field on the dipole:
𝑑𝑤 = Ʈ𝑑𝜃
Negative sign here because torque by E-field acts to decrease 𝑑𝜃
.
BUT: Because E-field is a conservative force field , we can define a
Potential energy (U) for the system, so that
𝑑𝑈 = −𝑑𝑤 = −Ʈ𝑑𝜃 = −𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝑈(𝜃) = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = −𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝑷. 𝑬
𝑃.𝐸 𝑃.𝐸
Note 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑃 = = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑷. 𝑬
𝐸 𝑃𝐸
