Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41783-021-00129-w

REVIEW PAPER

Edible Coating and Edible Film as Food Packaging Material: A Review

Shubham Chhikara1 · Dharmender Kumar1

Received: 19 May 2021 / Accepted: 20 November 2021 / Published online: 27 November 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Indian Institute of Packaging 2021

Abstract
This review is an attempt to describe the utility of edible films and edible coatings used in food packaging. We know that by
the increasing load of the non-biodegradable materials on the environment harming our mother earth. Hence, there comes an
urgent need to develop the edible packing and films. These natural films and coating are extracted from plants and animals
in the form of polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins. The principle components for producing edible/biodegradable films,
are film forming biopolymers which includes the carbohydrates, proteins, solubilizing medium [water, ethanol, etc.] and
plasticizers, etc. The optional components interacts with each other by the cross-linking agents, colorants, surface active
agents or lipid-based materials. Hence, they can improve the properties of the films. The major advantage of the use of such
components occurs in the form of properties viz. moisture resistance, water-soluble nature, gelling properties, good thermal
and mechanical properties, antimicrobial activity, heat-based sealing, flexible colorless, etc. With the advances in technol-
ogy, the market cap of these types of packaging are also increasing. It is predicted that due to their environmental beneficial
concerns, they might replace the existing materials very soon and therefore, this seem to be the active area of research. Hence,
the application of edible films and coating will benefit the society due to their substitute of the existing and conventional
materials. In this direction, the lignocellulose-based agro-wastes can be used as alternative packaging material. Here, the
different parts of plant such as stem, leaf, fruit, seed, etc. and plant such as rice straw, wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, canola
oilseed, etc. and be used as Green technology food packaging products.

Keywords Biodegradable packaging · Edible packaging · Cross-linking agents · Wet methods · Dry methods

Abbreviations Introduction
BSM Balangu seed mucilage
HPMC Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose The food product quality depends upon their hygiene, nutri-
MC Methylcellulose tional and organoleptic characteristics. These are mainly
CMC Carboxymethyl cellulose triggered by interactions between different food compo-
CO2 Carbon dioxide nents. In today’s world, the concept of ‘Farm to Fork’ is
UV light Ultra violet light being followed to process the food on a large scale and dif-
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide ferent processing techniques are used to make it edible, to
NaOH Sodium hydroxide maintain the quality and shelf life, hence, after the process-
RH Relative humidity ing, it is necessary to pack the food products with primary,
secondary and tertiary packaging to avoid any chemical,
physical or biological attack. Over the last century, the
widespread use of synthetic packaging in the food indus-
try have adverse effects on the environment because, the
burning of these films causes air pollution, otherwise, it gets
deposited in the lands and the oceans, thereby harming the
living creatures [51]. Edible file also used to process soy
* Dharmender Kumar protein concentrates in food products [17]. The efficiency
[email protected] of these materials is measured through their effectiveness
1
Department of Biotechnology, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram
in reducing the exchanges between food items and storage
University of Science and Technology, Murthal, Sonipat, media through maintaining their permeability. To increase
Haryana 131039, India

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
2 Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

the efficacy of food preservation through packaging, the products to increase their product life [23]. The edible bio-
combination of natural and synthetic package has been ini- degradable coatings and films gave a substitution and leads
tiated [45]. Packaging of foods is important to safeguard to additionally stop the spoilage of products by the natural
it from the environment as well as to extend its shelf life layers to control aroma, solute movement and moisture loss
[1]. In the last 1 decade, the bio-based packaging materi- from the food. This has been possible by taking into account
als have been used as a green alternative and resulted in the controlled exchange of gases through these layers medi-
preference for the biodegradable and edible films. Due to ated by the respiration of food products through involvement
their environmental friendly nature, easy accessibility and of via gases such as ethylene, carbon dioxide, and oxygen
cost effectiveness. The edible coatings/films thereby have a [24].
great potential for improving shelf life, functionality, food The advancements in technology is helping us to develop
quality and safety [69]. They can be utilized as individually new things every day. Considering this fact from environ-
in the form of active ingredient carriers, coating materials, ment point of view lignocellulosic materials produced by
packaging materials. We know from the ancient times, they the plants and be used as food packaging materials. The
have been used to protect the food products from spoiling. lignocellulosic materials can be used as both as a whole
The biodegradable and edible materials are being used since and as additives to develop agro-based packaging materials.
12th century, but have not been popularized fully due to their Scientists are trying to reduce the load of non-biodegradable
availability and high cost. The primary difference between from the earth planet. The example for the same can be put-
the edible and biodegradable packaging is that for edible ting ban on single use plastics which is non-biodegradable
packaging, all the components selected should be of edible and can take thousands of year to degrade. To combat thus,
origin. the Green technology is helping to grow and develop such
Biodegradable film was used in China in the twelfth cen- products which are renewable and biodegradable. In this
tury with citrus fruit for the first time. Later in England, lard- direction, the lignocellulosic agriculture biomass is being
ing process was used to increase the storage period for meat developed which will replace the existing polymer based
products [36]. The application of edible coatings on food food packaging. The common type of lignocellulosic agro-
materials is not a novel method in use. It has been in practice wastes are obtained from different parts of plant such as
since at least the sixteenth century, when the fats were used stem, leaf, fruit, seed, etc. of plant such as rice straw, wheat
to coat the meat cuts [44]. In the last century, gelatin was straw, sugarcane bagasse, canola, oilseed, etc. [40, 63].
used as a coating to preserve the meat and other food items Muthukumar et al. [52] in a review described that the sul-
[18]. Since the fifteenth century, Yuba which is an edible fated polysaccharides due to their biological properties, hav-
film of protein, extracted from boiled soy milk skin, was ing applications in food and pharmaceutical industry. The
utilized for food preservation and to improve its physical marine macroalgae/or seaweed are the rich natural source of
appearance in Asia [32]. In the nineteenth century, sucrose polysaccharides that possesses a wide variety of phytonutri-
was potentially used as an edible coating for hazelnuts, nuts ents having food and pharmaceutical applications.
and almonds, to prevent rancidity and oxidation during pre-
serving. Fruits are coated with an emulsion of oil and wax,
in water to make them look shinier, better color and softness. Edible Coating and Edible Film as Packaging
It is also used to slow down the ripening process and also Material
prevents water loss due to high temperature. Several edible
coatings of polysaccharides such as alginates, carrageenan The recent developments in this concept have indicated that
and starch derivatives, etc. have been used to improve the the edible film based on Balangu seed mucilage [BSM] pro-
quality of preserved meat [18]. duced by manufacturing several different films with differ-
In the last 4 decades, the various studies has been con- ent concentration of BSM and glycerol are further tested
ducted for edible films and coating-based formulations in for various parameters such as water permeability, light
food sector. The increasing consumer awareness and con- transmittance, moisture content, colour measurement, and
cerns about quality of food, nutritional profile and health other thermal and mechanical properties. This has helped
benefits are motivating the researchers to purpose the ways to develop bio-based packing material as a green alterna-
to improve food quality with minimum effect on the nutri- tive which is environment friendly. It can also improve the
tional profile of the food product and which is environment shelf life of various products [66]. The innovative edible
friendly, too. Utilization of the biopolymers such as starch, packaging has been developed from mango kernel starch
chitosan/chitin cellulose based materials, the plant- or by employing the casting technique to make a mixture of
animal-based proteins are perceived to be safe for humans. sorbitol and glycerol [1:1 ratio]. It is tested on the basis of
Therefore such types of materials provide the chance of sealing strength, colour value, pungency, etc. and is used for
attenuated coatings and film to envelop fresh or prepared the packing of red chilli powder [53], Martín et al. [48] have

13
Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10 3

developed a natural edible peanut coating over the roasted which is essential in determining the quality standard of food
peanut which enhances its shelf life property. products. Several other approaches can be implemented to
Apart from such type of materials, they can be utilized for control these issues of coating’s wetting ability. In addition
this purpose and easily coated the product and/or can be uti- to this, the knowledge of diffusion characteristics and gas
lized in a way it can form non separating layer between the permeability, surface of food and expertise about the interior
different components of food [37]. The coating/or films were gas composition of food helps us to determine for the suit-
produced by various methods such as compression mould- ability of coatings to be used in food packaging [19].
ings, extrusion and casting. In this review paper, we will
review about the different Biodegradable/Edible coatings/ Edible Film Components
films developed in the last 5 years that will include the types
of material we are using, their methodology, the techniques Edible film has three significant components viz lipids, poly-
used for their testing, recent trends and development, and saccharides and proteins. Proteins utilized in an edible film
their future scopes. incorporate casein, whey, corn zein, soy, wheat gluten, and
collagen. Appropriate lipids has been used in films to incor-
Methods for Preparing Edible Films and Coatings porate waxes, acylglycerol, and the unsaturated fats [60].
The composite films contained has both hydrocolloid and
Two methods has been primarily used for developing edible lipid parts. For the improvement of properties of the edible
films, these are, (i) dry method based on extrusion or com- films, the plasticizers are regularly added to film framing
pression moulding (ii) wet method based on solvent casting. concentration in the film. These are regular and small parti-
In the first technique, the edible bi-polymeric material is cles of with subatomic weight having high boiling points and
spread over the base material and thereafter this is dried and good to be used with polymers for example the polyethylene
held for some time to allow the desired film to form. The glycol, glycerol, mannitol, and sorbitol will increases adapt-
moisture content of the desired film should be between 5 and ability of the film, reduces brittleness, which is a significant
8%. During peeling, it is desired for peeling of the film from requirement for packaging [9]. Each type of plasticizers
the base, otherwise, it will have wrinkling and tearing effect. used impacts the film’s properties, elasticity, and barrier.
Also, during the drying process due to solvent evaporation The mechanical properties decreases when significant levels
the polymer solubility decreases [72]. of plasticizers are added in the film [15, 30, 31]. Water is
The edible coatings are generally produced by following another significant plasticizer for protein films [46]. Basic
techniques: (a) spraying, (b) spreading (c) dipping (d) flu- covalent cross-linking agents viz. the lactic corrosive, tannic
idized bed processing and € panning. The spraying can be corrosive, calcium chloride, glutaraldehyde, etc. has been
carried out traditionally or electro-spraying method. Drop- utilized to improve resistance from water, cohesiveness,
let size is approximately 20 nm in the conventional pro- inflexibility, mechanical quality, and the barrier properties
cess while, in electro-spraying method, it is approximately [36]. The UV light exposure increases protein film cohesion
100 nm in size. For getting the thick coating, the dipping by the formation of cross-linkage between individual units
method is used. The quality parameters of minimally pro- [12]. Along with this, there are active biocomponents which
cessed vegetarian and non-vegetarian products are typically are used for the film formation and their incorporation in the
improved by this method. The other different parameters form of packaging material. This occurs in accordance with
including viz. surface tension, density and viscosity can be the dose of release of antioxidants, vitamins and antimi-
used to monitor the thickness of the coating. A unique vari- crobials, occurs with the specific matrix [47]. The different
ant of the dipping method can be accomplished with an elec- types of bioactive compounds used for packaging material
trostatic approach. It uses physical or chemical interactions are, mustard extract [55, 56] pomegranate peel extract [38,
for connecting two or more layers. This method is used for 50, 73], virgin coconut oil [27, 75], clove [34], Litopenaeus
coating the confectionary products. The coating is brushed vannamei [39], clove oil/ethylene diaminetetraacetate [67],
over the food surface in the dipping methods. lemon grass [7], ascorbic acid [35],
In addition to the above-mentioned methods, the brush-
ing and spraying can also be used for preparing of edible Types of Materials Used for Developing Films
coatings. While, the edible coatings display many potential and Coatings
advantages certain challenges are also associated with these
systems. For instance, it is important to carefully monitor the Edible coatings and films can be classified into different
thickness of food coatings which may create possible issues categories, they can easily be made with help of natural
inside the food systems. In particular, thick coating layer polymers available from the nature which can be used to
raises the carbon dioxide concentration and reduces oxygen develop these coatings and films. While, these films are not
in the food material. This has led to anaerobic fermentation an alternative to traditional packing material and they can

13
4 Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

be used to improve food longevity that reduces the exchange Their characteristics such as biodegradable nature, taste-
between the food and its environment; for the reduction in less, and odourless nature. The cellulose and its deriva-
surface contamination not only extends the effectiveness of tives are used to make edible films [25]. Particularly, they
food packaging but it also reduces the requirement for petro- have exceptional properties for forming films with thermal
leum-derived polymers They can be composed of lipids, pro- gelatinization and act as water-soluble polymer [5]. Starch
teins and polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are substances, is a natural polymeric carbohydrate having a hydrophilic,
commonly available in nature, they are non-toxic and are semi-crystalline granular form which is often utilized for
selectively permeable to carbon dioxides as well as oxygen the production of biodegradable films. Starch granules swell
[25]. Polysaccharides such as: xanthan gum, pectin, alginate, up by the absorption of the molecules of water around the
and starch are utilized as biopolymers for the formation of free hydroxyl groups and the process of swelling continues
edible coatings and films so that the typically used plastic until a critical concentration is achieved. This required con-
packaging can be decreased [26]. They can be categorized centration of starch allows them to inhibit the entire batch at
into two types, first, the animal-based polysaccharides and 95 °C temperature and these results leads for the formation
second, the plant-based polysaccharides (Table 1). of cooling gel. Therefore, the films formed from cellulose
are used to protect the product from ­O2, moisture and oil,
Animal Origin Polysaccharides respectively.
Pectin is an anionic polysaccharide present in fruits and
Chitosan and Chitin vegetables, for example, in the citrus peel, and has a struc-
ture of [1→4]-linked α-d-galacturonic acid unit. The superb
Chitin is the most abundant biopolymers found in nature mechanical properties, excellent oil, oxygen and odour
after cellulose, found in the crustaceans exoskeleton, in the repellent make pectin a good material for food packaging,
cell wall of fungi and the other substances of biological ori- but they are poor in locking the moisture, are less elastic
gin. It is a β-1, 4-linked linear polymer of 2-acetamido-2-de- and are quite brittle; but they can be made more flexible
oxy-D-glucopyranosyl residues. Chitin deacetylation method by mixing them with plasticizer [33]. Films of pectin show
is used to prepare Chitosan, here the fusion of chitin occurs reasonable mechanical properties when interlinked with
with alkali. This cationic polysaccharide has a high weight calcium. The food with low moisture can be protected with
of molecules with remarkable capacity to form film and has much effectiveness using pectin films/gels. Nowadays, the
antifungal and antibacterial activities [29]. The various types fresh fruits and vegetables, such as apple, berries, tomato,
of food materials has been packed in Chitosan film due to avocado, etc. can be packed by pectin films [73]. This has
their property of to form film when combined with other indicated the wide application of gelling, thickening, and
substances. Chitosan is widely used in different industries stabilizing in food products like jams, ice cream, yoghurt,
such as biomedical, chemical and food industries because of and milk [26]. Gum arabic is the most industrial employed
its features such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and polysaccharide extracted from stems of various Acacia. It
non-toxicity [25]. Chitosan films/coating substances reduces consists of a complex mixture of glucuronic acid, arabinose,
the partial pressure of oxygen in the package and helps to rhamnose, and galactose [6]. It has characteristics such as
check respiration and temperature between the internal as film formation, emulsification and encapsulation [3]. It helps
well as the external environment of food. It reduces the fruit in increasing the quality as well as the shelf life of banana
browning due to enzymatic reactions and suspends losses tomatoes and papaya [4].
due to dehydration. The chitosan also enhances the emulsify-
ing effect which resulted in the improvement of the flavor, Polysaccharides of Marine Origin
texture, deacidification and colour stabilization [22]. These
are transparent, durable, flexible and resistant to lipids. But, Alginate, a natural polysaccharide, is derived from brown
they are extremely susceptible to moisture. Therefore, the marine algae [Phaeophyceae] and is made up by blocks of
chitosan is used in different forms such as films, gels, fibers, a-L-guluronate [G] and R-Dmannuronate [M] at distinct
beads, sponges. sequences and ratio in the [1–4] bonds. Adding calcium ions
the G blocks are involved in the formation of gels, resulting
Polysaccharides of Plant Origin in higher concentration and gel strength of G-units. Such
coatings may also enhance the shelf life and maintain qual-
As discussed earlier, the most abundant organic compound ity by retarding fat oxidation, maintaining the flavour and
on earth is Cellulose. It is prepared from D-glucose units increasing the water barrier. Despite being a poor moisture
formed by β-1, 4 glycoside bonds. The derivatives which are barrier, the addition of calcium reduces the permeability of
mostly used are hydroxypropyl methylcellulose [HPMC], water vapour, thereby, becoming insoluble in water [57]. On
methylcellulose [MC], and carboxymethyl cellulose [CMC]. reacting with calcium cations, alginate produces a secure

13
 Table 1  The various types of materials, methodology and their applications for the use of edible and biodegradable packaging materials used in food sector
Sr No Types of material used Methodology involved Applications in food sector References

1. Balangu seed mucilage-novel carbohydrate Fabricating several distinct films with different Bio-based packaging material as a green alter- Sadeghi-Varkani et al. [66]
source concentration of BSM and glycerol native which is environment friendly and
also improves the shelf life of product
2. Chitosan from crab waste, pectin from orange Casting methods in different CH: P ratio, Edible and biodegradable film which can be Baron et al. [10]
Glycerol is used as a plasticizer used in food industry for packaging purposes
3. Natural cassava starch, casein, gelatin, sorbitol Blending formation, FTIR-ATR, Spectropho- Fruit surface coating purpose to enhance Pellá et al. [61]
as a plasticizer tometer shelf-Life
Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

4. Carrageenan powder (Eucheuma cotton), ana- Gas and mechanical properties of Carra- Food packaging film Nur Fatin Nazurah and Nur Hanani [54]
lytical grade plant oils, soybean oil, olive oil, geenan-based bipolymer film
(and sunflower oil, Tween 80 (emulsifier)
and food-grade glycerol
5. Starch from mango (Chaunsa variety), films were prepared by casting technique Used for packaging of red chilli Nawab et al. [53]
β-carotene, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin using glycerol, sorbitol and 1:1 mixture of
glycerol and sorbitol
6. Gelatin nanofibers with essential oil of pep- Blending Formation, Electrospinning Edible and biodegradable film which can be Tang et al. [71]
permint and chammomile used in food industry for packaging purposes
7. Edible pectin and crystalline nano cellulose Biohybrid barrier films from fluidized pectin Biodegradable and renewable packaging Chaichi et al. [13]
and Nano clay material
8. High methyl ester pectin, Chitosan and Cup- Casting methods Edible film for food packaging application Melo et al. [49]
uassu puree
9. Fruit and vegetable residue flour and potato Mixing and casting methods Edible film and coating for acerola Ferreira et al. [28]
peel flour
10. Defatted peanut flour is a by-product obtained Film preparation with high protein defatted Edible fil coating for roasted peanuts for its Martín et al. [48]
while peanut oil extraction peanut flour: characterization and potential chemical and sensory stability
use as food packaging
11. Thai rice seed (O. sativa cv. KhaoDawk- Microencapsulation consisting of extract solu- Bioactive biodegradable packaging material to Rodsamran and Sothornvit [64]
Mali105), Maltodextrin, commercial tion and maltodextrin was prepared using reduce plastic packaging in the food industry
carboxymethyl cellulose the freeze-drying method

13
5
6 Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

insoluble polymer. Alginate–calcium gel is used in rational- the surface of freshly cut fruits. These aloe vera gel layers
ised foods such as cocktail berries, meat products, crabsticks proved out to be useful in preserving the fruits as they have
and onion rings etc. Agar is a jelly like substance which can features such as lightness, firmness, weight loss, and surface
be extracted from red algae found naturally. It is a hydro- and texture values, in comparison to those crops that were
colloid which is a mixture of agarose and agaropectin. Its not being treated.
chemical structure consists of repeating units of D-galac-
tose and 3, 6-anhydro-L-galactose. It is insoluble in cold Resins
but soluble in hot water. From the point of view of using it
as packaging material, it possesses several characteristics Resins are compounds formed in plant cells as a result
such as good physical and mechanical properties. It helps of injuries or other factors in the barks of trees. They are
as a gel inducer in candy and desserts [62]. Carrageenan is also produced and marketed commercially by the help of
made up of several complex polysaccharides, extracted from an insect Laccifer lacca, and are called shellac resins. The
red seaweeds (Rhodophyceae) is used for various things such developed layers comprise of characteristics like sound
as pharmaceutical, dairy, and food industries for stabilizing, emulsion stability, transparency, luster and quick drying
emulsifying, and gelling the ingredients. The carrageenan nature. Most of these layers are semisolid or solid in nature
edible films have been reported in various applications such and are generally pellucid with yellow brownish color [8].
as poultry, oil foods, sausage, dry solid foods, meat, fish and Chauhan et al. [14] and Chitravathi et al. [16] came up with
poultry for preventing superficial dehydration [43]. digestible layers of shellac; these were experimented on
the surface of tomatoes and green chilies. Once the layers
Lipid‑Based Edible Coatings are applied to the surface of the food, it would ultimately
increase the shelf life by 2 weeks, because it does not allow
Lipids are derived from native sources such as plants, ani- water to pass through it.
mals and insects. These are the compounds containing of
all forms of glycerides, fatty acids, neutral fats, waxes and Plasticizers
cortisone [2]. Lipids edible coatings and films provide many
features such as give glossy textures, minimise dampness, Plasticizers are low molecular-weight substances which
and reduce packaging costs and complexity [2, 24]. Hence, escalate the flexibility of the films. The common plasticiz-
recently, the attention is being paid towards the significance ers are polysorbates and glycerol. Addition of plasticizers
of edible coating and films in the food industry. to thin films is done to enhance the transmission of water
vapors and water permeability because of its ability to
Essential Oils reduce the intermolecular forces in a polymer. Compatibil-
ity, efficiency, permanence, and economics are the features
Oils and fats generally have two sources that are, animal and considered while selecting the plasticizers.
plants with internal components generally consisting of tri-
glycerides mixtures. We know that the oils are fluid, whereas Protein‑Based Edible Films
fats are solids so, they are similar in chemical composition
but are physically different. Application of these films can Development of the edible packages is centered on the use
be used on different food products. Essential oils are vola- of biopolymers. The aim is to combine each of the main
tile and hydrophobic in nature. They possess an essential features of polysaccharides, lipids, or protein molecules to
antimicrobial activity that includes extraction from aromatic get the best outcome. Other targets of edible films are to
compounds, terpenes and terpenoids. Although these films achieve adequate standards to protect them from pathogens
have been imparted with antimicrobial characteristics, but and promote good health. The composition of edible film
water and tensile properties have not shown any effect. consists of lipids and combined hydrocolloids. Hydrocol-
loids are polymers containing animal, vegetable or microbial
Waxes hydroxyls. Proteins are the hetero polymers which are made
up of several amino acids. These amino acids are linked to
Waxes have higher molecular weight as it comprises of long each other by peptide bonds. The amino acids consist of a
chain acid of alcohol and/or esters. Waxes are of plant and central carbon bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group
animal origin; they have a protective covering tissue fea- and hydrogen and R groups. Proteins are compounds that
ture and have an application of edible films for efficiently can exist naturally in the form of fibrous proteins or globular
minimizing the moisture transfer of elevated water repel- proteins. The globular proteins are rolled over their selves,
lency [2]. Saucedo-Pompa et al. [68] developed a thin layer and the fibrous proteins are bonded to each other in a par-
covering of Candelilla wax and Aloe vera gel for preserving allel way. Compounds such as the lactic serum, collagen,

13
Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10 7

caseinate, and seine are present between the proteins. These of collagen. According to Djagny et al. [21], pure and dry
proteins can be used in the edible films. It has been observed gelatin is light yellow in color, odorless, brittle, is clear,
that the proteins have better mechanical properties than tasteless, and glassy solid. Collagen is highly present in ani-
polysaccharides, owing to their distinctive structure. But, mal muscles, skins, connective tissues and bones. Collagen
when compared to synthetic polymers, proteins have poor is pretreated with a solution of acid or alkaline and further
mechanical strength and the films have greater water vapor heated to 40 °C to produce gelatin. Before the products made
permeability [11]. up of meat are processed, the meat industry uses collagen
films. It serves as an edible layer on heating and allows cook-
Milk Proteins ing of the meat [41]. The edible film of gelatin is obtained
by dissolving it in hot water. After casting the solution on a
They are categorized as casein and whey proteins. Casein plate, it is further dried in a microwave. According to Jong-
is made up of 80 percent of milk protein. These include jareonrak et al. [42], the water vapor permeability of the
components like α, β and ÿ casein. Whey proteins are edible film decreases with increase in the content of proteins,
composed of various compounds. These compounds are but it increases film thickness and mechanical properties.
bovine serum albumin immunoglobulins, β-Lacto globulin,
α-Lactalbumin, and proteose peptones [59]. Caseinates that Zein
are available commercially can be obtained by skimming
milk at 20 °C, having pH of 4.6 and further precipitation in Zein is a major protein obtained from corn. It consists a
done by base solutions. Casein-based layers stand constant group of prolamins the protein which are soluble in alco-
at variety of temperatures, pH and salt concentrations. The hol], it has antioxidant property, shiny, resistant to bacteria,
milk of cow typically contains 33 g of protein/liter. Whey insoluble in water, and can form adhesive film. Thus, it has
protein precipitation of casein protein results in production virtual hydrophobic and thermoplastic properties. It is used
of whey protein. Whey protein can act as a carrier of certain in pharmaceutical industry, confectionary items and it also
dietary supplements. These food additives contain com- reduces the moisture loss and respiration rates from the veg-
pounds such as antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, and col- etables and fruits [60].
orants [65, 74]. These milk proteins develop into tasteless,
flexible, and transparent films. Casein is another milk protein Soy Protein
that forms edible films. These films are formed from aqueous
solutions of caseinate. The solution obtained through the Soy protein is obtained from soybeans [35]. Its films are
process is washed and mixed in a basic solution to enhance flexible, clear and have smooth texture [20]. The isolates of
the pH to 7. Eventually, these are dried up until they form soy protein are majorly used to develop the films, because
edible films. Calcium caseinate is formed in case when the film formability is negatively impacted by the non-
Ca(OH)2 is used in the process. Sodium caseinate is made protein fraction of concentrate and flour. To produce Soy
in case when NaOH is used for increasing the pH value. The protein films, Yuba or baked method is used. When soy
films made up of sodium caseinate have effective tensile and milk is boiled, it forms the surface dehydration films. For
optical properties. Whey is also used to make edible films. the application perspective, it can be applied to pre-cooked
The 90% protein is known as whey protein isolate. At low or meat to prevent lipid oxidation and moisture loss, and is
intermediate relative humidity [RH], these eatable protein also used as a coating on fruits, vegetables and cheese as
films are effective oxygen barrier. But, these films are inef- it is highly permeable to water. It can be accessed from the
fective against water vapor. The concentrate of whey having markets in the forms such as soy flour, soy concentrates and
a total of 25–80% also helps in forming edible films [58]. soy isolates. The soy concentrate contains 65% protein and
18% carbohydrates, soy flour has a protein and carbohydrate
Lactic Serum content of 56% and 34%, respectively, and the soy isolates
contain 90% and 2% protein and carbohydrates [70]
Lactic serum is very fragile but it is considered as a good
barrier for ­CO2. Primary step in fabricating it is using a
denatured concentrated protein solution. Furthermore, it is Conclusions
refrigerated to remove the trapped gases and develop the
material for packaging. Plasticizer, such as glycerol, is used The current scenario everyone is becoming more aware
to increase the physical strength of lactic serum. Humid- about the adverse effects of non-biodegradable food pack-
ity in meat products was already formed by collagen-based aging on the environment and our everyday life. Hence,
edible films. These films give the meat a uniform quality. there is a challenge for researchers to speed up the pace
Gelatin is a product which is formed using the hydrolysis of research and development for producing such edible

13
8 Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

films and coatings from biodegradable edible ingredi- References

ent, possessing superior quality, which will benefit our
current society as well as our future generation. Edible 1. Ahmad M, Benjakul S, Prodpran T, Agustini T (2012) Physico-
films and coatings can be developed by animal and plants mechanical and antimicrobial properties of gelatin film from the
skin of unicorn leatherjacket incorporated with essential oils.
sources and are healthy for human consumption as they do Food Hydrocoll 28(1):189–199. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​foodh​
not deliver any health risk, and also, sometimes, it could yd.​2011.​12.​003
be nutritional, too. These films and coatings generally 2. Akoh CC, Min DB (2008) Food lipids. chemistry, nutrition, and
increases the shelf life of the products. We have observed biotechnology, 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
3. Ali A, Maqbool M, Alderson PG, Zahid N (2013) Effect of gum
that many fruits and vegetables have extended their shelf arabic as an edible coating on antioxidant capacity of tomato
life and have a better ripening rate. Edible coatings and (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit during storage. Postharvest Biol
films keep the fresh and processed food products safe Technol 76:119–124
and also enhance their quality parameters. These natural 4. Ali U, Bijalwan V, Basu S, Kesarwani A, Mazumder K (2017)
Effect of β-glucan-fatty acid esters on microstructure and physical
films as already discussed, are extracted from plants and properties of wheat straw arabinoxylan films. Carbohydr Polym
animals which includes sub-classification of polysaccha- 161:90–98. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​carbp​ol.​2016.​12.​036
rides, lipids, and proteins. The advantages of these films 5. Almasi H, Ghanbarzadeh B, Entezami AA (2010) Physicochemi-
are that they are natural, biodegradable, non-toxic, and cal properties of starch–CMC–nanoclay biodegradable films. Int
J Biol Macromol 46:1–5
sustainable. The major advantage is that they have prop- 6. Anderson D, Millar J, Weiping W (1991) Gum Arabic (Acacia
erties to resist moisture, water soluble, gelling properties, senegal): Unambiguous identification by13C-NMR spectroscopy
good thermal and mechanical properties, antimicrobial as an adjunct to the revised jecfa specification, and the application
activity, heat sealing ability, flexible, colorless, etc. But of 13C-NMR spectra for regulatory/legislative purposes. Food
Addit Contam 8(4):405–421. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 080/0​ 26520​ 3910​
also, no individual developed film is enriched with all the 93739​91
characteristics, therefore, if we use them as synergistic 7. Azarakhsh N, Osman A, Ghazali H, Tan C, Mohd AN (2014)
and integrated composite ingredients, they could fulfill the Lemongrass essential oil incorporated into alginate-based edible
properties of a desired film. As from the future perspec- coating for shelf-life extension and quality retention of fresh-cut
pineapple. Postharvest Biol Technol 88:1–7. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
tive, films are generally developed from the wet methods 1016/j.​posth​arvbio.​2013.​09.​004
and are not used more often for the processed foods; and 8. Baldwin EA, Hagenmaier R, Bai J (eds) (2011) Edible coatings
that is why, the research in this field has increased and the and films to improve food quality. CRC Press, London
use of edible films and coatings will benefit the society as 9. Banker G, Gore A, Swarbrick J (1966) Water vapour transmis-
sion properties of free polymer films. J Pharmacy Pharmacol
they would prove to be a better alternative to these exist- 18(7):457–466. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/j.​2042-​7158.​1966.​tb079​
ing conventional films. Hopefully, in the coming years, we 06.x
would be able to use them more effectively. 10. Baron R, Pérez L, Salcedo J, Córdoba L, Sobral P (2017) Produc-
tion and characterization of films based on blends of chitosan from
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Department of Bio- blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) waste and pectin from Orange
technology, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Tech- (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) peel. Int J Biol Macromol 98:676–683.
nology, Murthal, Sonipat-131039, Haryana, India, for providing neces- https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijbio​mac.​2017.​02.​004
sary facilities during work. 11. Bourtoom T (2008) Factors affecting the properties of edible film
prepared from Mung Bean proteins. Int Food Res J 15(2):167–180
12. Brault D, D’Aprano G, Lacroix M (1997) Formation of free-stand-
Author Contributions Both the authors were involved in writing and ing sterilized edible films from irradiated caseinates. J Agric Food
editing of this publication. DK also supervised the manuscript. Chem 45(8):2964–2969. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​jf960​955u
13. Chaichi M, Hashemi M, Badii F, Mohammadi A (2017) Prepara-
Funding No funding was received for conducting this study. tion and characterization of a novel bionanocomposite edible film
based on pectin and crystalline nanocellulose. Carbohydr Polym
Availability of Data and Materials Not applicable. 157:167–175. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​carbp​ol.​2016.​09.​062
14. Chauhan O, Nanjappa C, Ashok N, Ravi N, Roopa N, Raju P
Code Availability Not applicable. (2013) Shellac and Aloe vera gel based surface coating for shelf
life extension of tomatoes. J Food Sci Technol 52(2):1200–1205.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13197-​013-​1035-6
Declarations 15. Cherian G, Gennadios A, Weller CL, Chinachoti P (1995) Ther-
momechanical behavior of wheat gluten films: effect of sucrose,
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of glycerin, and sorbitol. Biol Syst Eng 72(1):1–6.
interest. 16. Chitravathi K, Chauhan O, Raju P (2014) Postharvest shelf-life
extension of green chillies (Capsicum annuum L.) using shellac-
Ethical Approval Not applicable. based edible surface coatings. Postharvest Biol Technol 92:146–
148. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​posth​arvbio.​2014.​01.​021
Consent to Participate Not applicable. 17. Cho SY, Park JW, Batt HP, Thomas RL (2007) Edible films made
from membrane processed soy protein concentrates. LWT-Food
Consent for Publication All authors agreed for this submission. Sci Technol 40(3):418–423

13
Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10 9

18. Contreras-Medellin R, Labuza TP (1981) Prediction of moisture antimicrobial properties of fish gelatin films as active packaging.
protection requirements for foods. Cereal Food World 26(7):335 Food Hydrocolloids 89:253–259
19. Dehghani S, Hosseini SV, Regenstein JM (2018) Edible films 39. Jasour MS, Ehsani A, Mehryar L, Naghibi SS (2015) Chi-
and coatings in seafood preservation: a review. Food Chem tosan coating incorporated with the lactoperoxidase system:
240:505–513 an active edible coating for fish preservation. J Sci Food Agric
20. Denavi G, Tapia-Blácido DR, Añón MC, Sobral PJA, Mauri AN, 95(6):1373–1378
Menegalli FC (2009) Effects of drying conditions on some phys- 40. Jawaid M, Abdul Khalil HPS (2011) Effect of layering pattern on
ical properties of soy protein films. J Food Eng 90(3):341–349 the dynamic mechanical properties and thermal degradation of oil
21. Djagny VB, Wang Z, Xu S (2001) Gelatin: a valuable protein palm-jute fibers reinforced epoxy hybrid composite. BioResources
for food and pharmaceutical industries: review. Crit Rev Food 6:2309–2322
Sci Nutr 41(6):481–492. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​20014​09109​ 41. Jeevahan J, Chandrasekaran M, Durairaj R, Mageshwaran G,
1904 Joseph GB (2017) A brief review on edible food packing materi-
22. Duran A, Kahve HI (2016) The use of chitosan as a coating mate- als. J Global Eng Probl Solut 1(1):9–19
rial. Acad J Sci 05(01):167–172 42. Jongjareonrak A, Benjakul S, Visessanguan W, Tanaka M (2006)
23. Elsabee MZ, Abdou ES (2013) Chitosan based edible films and Effects of plasticizers on the properties of edible films from skin
coatings: a review. Mater Sci Eng C 33(4):1819–1841. https://d​ oi.​ gelatin of bigeye snapper and brownstripe red snapper. Eur Food
org/​10.​1016/j.​msec.​2013.​01.​010 Res Technol 222(3):229–235
24. Embuscado ME, Huber KC (2009) Edible films and coatings for 43. Karbowiak T, Debeaufort F, Champion D, Voilley A (2006) Wet-
food applications, 9th edn. Springer, New York ting properties at the surface of iota-carrageenan-based edible
25. Erginkaya Z, Kalkan S, Ünal E (2014) Use of antimicrobial edible films. J Colloid Interface Sci 294(2):400–410
films and coatings as packaging materials for food safety. Food 44. Kester JJ, Fennema OR (1986) Edible films and coatings: a review.
processing: strategies for quality assessment. Springer, New York, Food Technol 39:47–59
pp 261–295 45. Krochta JM (1992) Control of mass transfer infood with edible
26. Espitia PJP, Du WX, de Jesús A-B, Soares NDFF, McHugh TH coatings and films. In: Singh RP, Wirakartakusumah MA (eds)
(2014) Edible films from pectin: physical-mechanical and antimi- Advances in food engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 517
crobial properties-a review. Food Hydrocoll 35:287–296 46. Krochta JM (2002) Proteins as raw materials for films and coat-
27. Fangfang Z, Xinpeng B, Wei G, Wang G, Shi Z, Jun C (2020) ings: definitions, current status, and opportunities. Protein Based
Effects of virgin coconut oil on the physicochemical, morphologi- Films Coat 1:1–40
cal and antibacterial properties of potato starch-based biodegrad- 47. Linke M, Geyer M (2013) Condensation dynamics in plastic film
able films. Int J Food Sci Technol 55(1):192–200 packaging of fruit and vegetables. J Food Eng 116(1):144–154
28. Ferreira AR, Torres CA, Freitas F, Sevrin C, Grandfils C, Reis 48. Martín MP, Riveros CG, Paredes AJ, Allemandi DA, Nepote V,
MA, Coelhoso IM (2016) Development and characterization of Grosso NR (2019) A natural peanut edible coating enhances the
bilayer films of FucoPol and chitosan. Carbohydr Polym 147:8–15 chemical and sensory stability of roasted peanuts. J Food Sci
29. Ferreira CO, Nunes CA, Delgadillo I, Lopes-da-Silva JA (2009) 84(6):1529–1537
Characterization of chitosan–whey protein films at acid pH. Food 49. Melo PTS, Nunes JC, Otoni CG, Aouada FA, de Moura MR
Res Int 42(7):807–813 (2019) Combining cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) puree,
30. Galietta G, Di Gioia L, Guilbert S, Cuq B (1998) Mechanical pectin, and chitosan nanoparticles into novel edible films for food
and thermomechanical properties of films based on whey pro- packaging applications. J Food Sci 84(8):2228–2233
teins as affected by plasticizer and crosslinking agents. J Dairy 50. Moghadam M, Salami M, Mohammadian M, Khodadadi M,
Sci 81(12):3123–3130 Emam-Djomeh Z (2020) Development of antioxidant edible
31. Gennadios A (2002) Proteins as raw materials for films and coat- films based on mung bean protein enriched with pomegranate
ings: definitions, current status, and opportunities. Protein-based peel. Food Hydrocoll 104:105735
films and coatings. CRC Press, London, pp 21–62 51. Muscat D, Adhikari B, Adhikari R, Chaudhary, DS (2012) Com-
32. Gennadios A, Weller CL, Testin RF (1993) Property modification parative study of film forming behaviour of low and high amyl-
of edible wheat, gluten-based films. Trans Am Soc Agric Eng ose starches using glycerol andxylitol as plasticizers. J Food Eng
36(2):465 109(2):189–201
33. Giancone T, Torrieri E, Di Pierro P, Cavella S, Giosafatto CV, 52. Muthukumar J, Chidambaram R, Sukumaran S (2020) Sulfated
Masi P (2011) Effect of surface density on the engineering proper- polysaccharides and its commercial applications in food indus-
ties of high methoxyl pectin-based edible films. Food Bioprocess tries: a review. J Food Sci Technol. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
Technol 4(7):1228–1236 s13197-​020-​04837-0
34. Gómez-Estaca J, De Lacey AL, López-Caballero ME, Gómez- 53. Nawab A, Alam F, Haq MA, Haider MS, Lutfi Z, Kamaluddin
Guillén MC, Montero P (2010) Biodegradable gelatin–chitosan S, Hasnain A (2018) Innovative edible packaging from mango
films incorporated with essential oils as antimicrobial agents for kernel starch for the shelf life extension of red chili powder. Int J
fish preservation. Food Microbiol 27(7):889–896 Bological Macromol 114:626–631
35. Guerreiro AC, Gago CM, Faleiro ML, Miguel MG, Antunes MD 54. Nur Fatin Nazurah R, Nur Hanani ZA (2017) Physicochemical
(2015) The use of polysaccharide-based edible coatings enriched characterization of kappa-carrageenan (Euchema cottoni) based
with essential oils to improve shelf-life of strawberries. Posthar- films incorporated with various plant oils. Carbohydr Polym
vest Biol Technol 110:51–60 10(157):1479–1487. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​carbp​ol.​2016.​11.​
36. Guilbert S (1986) Technology and application of edible protective 026
films. In: Mathlouthi M (ed.) Food packaging and preservation: 55. Olaimat AN, Fang Y, Holley RA (2014) Inhibition of Campylo-
theory and practice, Elsevier Applied Science Publishing Co., bacter jejuni on fresh chicken breasts by κ-carrageenan/chitosan-
London, UK , pp 371–399 based coatings containing allyl isothiocyanate or deodorized ori-
37. Guilbert S, Gontard N, Cuq B (1995) Technology and applications ental mustard extract. Int J Food Microbiol 18(187):77–82. https://​
of edible protective films. Packag Technol Sci 8(6):339–346 doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijfoo​dmicro.​2014.​07.​003
38. Hanani ZN, Yee FC, Nor-Khaizura MAR (2019) Effect of pome- 56. Olaimat AN, Holley RA (2016) Inhibition of Listeria monocy-
granate (Punica granatum L.) peel powder on the antioxidant and togenes on cooked cured chicken breasts by acidified coating

13
10 Journal of Packaging Technology and Research (2022) 6:1–10

containing allyl isothiocyanate or deodorized oriental mustard 67. Sánchez-Ortega I, García-Almendárez BE, Santos-López EM,
extract. Food Microbiol 57:90–95 Reyes-González LR, Regalado C (2016) Characterization and
57. Olivasa GI, Barbosa-Cánovas GV (2008) Alginate–calcium films: antimicrobial effect of starch-based edible coating suspensions.
water vapor permeability and mechanical properties as affected Food Hydrocoll 52:906–913
by plasticizer and relative humidity. LWT-Food Sci Technol 68. Saucedo-Pompa S, Jasso-Cantú D, Ventura-Sobrevilla JM, Sáenz-
41(2):359–366 Galindo A, Rodríguez-Herrera R, Aguilar CN (2007) Effect of
58. Oses J, Fabregat-Vázquez M, Pedroza-Islas R, Tomás SA, Cruz- candelilla wax with natural antioxidants on the shelf life quality
Orea A, Maté JI (2009) Development and characterization of com- of fresh-cut fruits. J Food Qual 30:823–836. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
posite edible films based on whey protein isolate and mesquite 1111/J.​1745-​4557.​2007.​00165.X
gum. J Food Eng 92(1):56–62 69. Sharma L, Singh C (2016) Sesame protein based edible films:
59. Oyinloye AM, Enujiugha VN (2019) Antioxidant properties of development and characterization. Food Hydrocoll 61:139–147.
African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) seed phenolics https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/J.​FOODH​YD.​2016.​05.​007
as influenced by extraction solvents and heat treatments. Appl 70. Swain SN, Biswal SM, Nanda PK, Nayak PL (2004) Biodegrad-
Trop Agric 24:42–48 able soy-based plastics: opportunities and challenges. J Polym
60. Park JW, Testin RF, Park HJ, Vergano PJ, Weller CL (1994) Fatty Environ 12(1):35–42
acid concentration effect on tensile strength, elongation, and 71. Tang Y, Zhou Y, Lan X, Huang D, Luo T, Ji J, Wang W (2019)
water vapor permeability of laminated edible films. J Food Sci Electrospun gelatin nanofibers encapsulated with peppermint and
59(4):916–919 chamomile essential oils as potential edible packaging. J Agric
61. Pellá MC, Silva OA, Pellá MG, Beneton AG, Caetano J, Simões Food Chem 67(8):2227–2234
MR, Dragunski DC (2020) Effect of gelatin and casein additions 72. Tharanathan RN (2003) Biodegradable films and composite
on starch edible biodegradable films for fruit surface coating. coatings: past, present and future. Trends Food Sci Technol
Food Chem 309:125764.89764 14(3):71–78
62. Phan TD, Debeaufort F, Luu D, Voilley A (2005) Functional prop- 73. Valdés A, Garcia-Serna E, Martínez-Abad A, Vilaplana F, Jime-
erties of edible agar-based and starch-based films for food quality nez A, Garrigós MC (2020) Gelatin-based antimicrobial films
preservation. J Agric Food Chem 53(4):973–981 incorporating pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seed juice by-
63. Prusty JK, Patro SK, Basarkar SS (2016) Concrete using agro- product. Molecules 25(1):166
waste as fine aggregate for sustainable built environment: a 74. Wagh YR, Pushpadass HA, Emerald FME, Nath BS (2014)
review. Int Sustain Built Environ 5(2):312–333 Preparation and characterization of milk protein films and their
64. Rodsamran P, Sothornvit R (2018) Microencapsulation of Thai application for packaging of Cheddar cheese. J Food Sci Technol
rice grass (O. Sativa cv. Khao Dawk Mali 105) extract incorpo- 51(12):3767–3775
rated to form bioactive carboxymethyl cellulose edible film. Food 75. Yang F, Hu S, Lu Y, Yang H, Zhao Y, Li L (2015) Effects of coat-
Chem 242:239–246 ings of polyethyleneimine and thyme essential oil combined with
65. Sabato SF, Ouattara B, Yu H, D’aprano G, Le Tien C, Mateescu chitosan on sliced fresh Channa argus during refrigerated storage.
MA, Lacroix M (2001) Mechanical and barrier properties of J Food Process Eng 38(3):225–233
cross-linked soy and whey protein based films. J Agric Food
Chem 49(3):1397–1403 Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
66. Sadeghi-Varkani A, Emam-Djomeh Z, Askari G (2018) Physico- jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
chemical and microstructural properties of a novel edible film
synthesized from Balangu seed mucilage. Int J Biol Macromol
108:1110–1119

13