1~~i.~.
'/.,j, I, 17f/2S J
I/ 0• T-, ,t, 11 •,
I L_r_,,,
l/jtlf1, tr,-J z ')
..-.,! IJ t O o
-~ ••
•.~- .~:
Landscape ·
i\';~·t •·~.. •
,~i -
r.;
•
Architecture
~N INTRODUCTION
Robert Ho lde n &
\
Jamie Liversedge
0
ram1111mm111111111111
1$~~~=-i 03747
Few lay people really understand what landscape architecture actually
is something to do with planting schemes. or with laying out the space
between buildings? Certainly both of those act1v1t1es are involved. but the
landscape architecture profession is much brooder than that. This book
aims to give a comprehensive overview of what landscape architecture
1s and some idea of how it may develop over the next 40 or 50 years
It 1s addressed 1n particular to those currently considering entering it
as a profession.
Pul simply, landscape architects plan. and hence landscape architecture ,s
design and manage the landscape also concerned with urban design
Landscape architecture ,s an aesthetically While ,ts origins are ,n des,gn. certain
based profession founded on an forms of landscape architecture pract,ce
understand,ng of the landscape That are planning and management based
understanding requ11es knowledge of the In some areas such as parks and
land sciences. geology. so,ts. hydrology. gardens there can be an overlap
botany. horticulture and ecology, and between garden des,gn and landscape
also of biology. chemistry and physics architecture Both of the authors of
this book. for instance. are landscape
Landscape architecture grew out of arch,tec ts who have des,gned
garden des,gn. and indeed landscape pnvate gardens Both. however.
architecture and garden des,gn continue have also been involved 1n large-scale
to be hnked The cnt,cal difference planning proiects. have undertaken
between the two 1s that gardens tend enwonmental assessment work and
to be enclosed and to be designed have worked on urban design proiects.
for the private 1nd1v1dual. whereas If landscape architecture grew out
landscape architecture ,s concerned of landscape garden,ng and was
with open space. the pubhc realm. and primarily a matter of aesthetics
the relat1onsh1p between mankind's m the nineteenth century. 1n the
development act,v,lles and the natural twent,eth century ,t became more
envtronment Landscape architecture 1s ecolog,cally focused In the twenty-
concerned w,th the public good. with first century 1t has developed again.
community values and with human to become ,ncreas,ngly concerned
development and ,ts impact on the w,th susta1nab1hty It now deals
land The scale of landscape plann,ng with issues such as climate change
may be regional or even national and b1od1vers1ty - while. of course.
landscape architects can design whole continuing to address visual matters
new agricultural landscapes and torests It ,s an applled an based on
Landscape embraces the townscape sc1ent1fic understanding
THE INTERRELATED SYSTEMS OF LANDSCAPE
$PACE:
TlMf;
E:COL06ICAL/
HE:ALTH HUMAN/5 0CIAL
VI5UAL & HYD1WL0 6ICAL/
5PATIAL NATURAL
5e:TTIN6 PROCE:55&5
CULTURAL/
POLmCAL / NATURAL Hl5TORY
RE:6ULATORY
INF'RA$TR UCTURt/
TRAN5PO RT/ UTILITTE:$
CIRCULATORY
Landscape archl!ecture dealing with
the public realm
A The H19h Line, New York
B The South Bank. London
Garden design applied to a private development
C Aphrodite Hills resort Cyprus
Introduction
9
Landscape architects clients are
usually communiiy (e g central
and tocal government charities) or
corporate leg developers) The classic
tandscaoe architecture practice 1s
a privc1te consultancy. consisting of
either a single person or a larger team
B.it landscape archilects may also
work in mult1d1sc1pl,nary architectural.
planning eng1neenng and urban design
consultancies. or for quarrying and
forestry companies Many are likewise
employed directly on a salaried basis
by central and local governmenl or
by char11able foundations such as the
Natoonal Trust or Groundwork Trust
1n Britain
Landscape architects are unlikely 10 Lanoscape architecture deals with a very
become rich They tend to be less v. de range of prOJects
0
well paid tnan other development
professionals such as architects. A P"rc Citroen Cevennes Paris town park
on o,d 1ndustoal s,te
eng neers and surveyors though this
B kmas Tower Duba, ,,_, ddle-Eastern eoty des,gn
s tuation has begun 10 change 1n many
C Tower Place London urban spaces ,n
countries In the UK the Landscape commerc,al development
lnslitule reported that the average salary D Lonoon 2012 Otymp,c Park derel•ct land
for chartered landscape architects ,n reC!amatton ma,or world event and leaa-ng
2012 was (41055 wn,1e in the US the to long-term legacy
Deoartment of Labor ngures for 2010 Zoe:ermeer Floriade 1992 the Netherlands
reported a median annual salary of 1ntematt0nal exposition
S62.090 labour the same as 1n the UK) f Pare O,deroL Par,s urban ne,ghbourhood park
Both hgures are above the national G Barge Gardens London aHordaole.
svs1a nable urban hovs•ng
average bul landscape arch!lecrure
H The Grand Al<e Par,s coty planning
1s not a highly paid profession
I H,ghcross Ouaner Le,cester UK urban des,gn
J Venlo Fioroade 2012 the Netherlands
Thanks to telev,s1on. some chefs and 1n:ernauonal exposition
garden designers enJoy high public
orohles This 1s nor lhe case with
landscape architects Nonetheless. A
despite the often large amounts of
adm1rnstra1,ve work involved. 11 can still
be a highly rewarding pursuit After all.
this ,s a profess,on that deals w,th crucial
environmental concerns Sixty per cent
of most towns and c1t1es consist of
streets. yards gardens and parks.
wh,ch together form open space -
the province of the landscape architect
All or the land we live on ,s the concern
or landscape architects
JO
Introduction
11
-
A landscape arch,tect needs a lechn,cal understanding of construction
and a thorough knowledge of plants
A Westergasfabnek. Amsteraam native wetlano planting
B More London nils and use of Kilkenny Blue Limestone laid flexibly
C Pa,nsh,11 Park. Surrey UK conserved w,th plants available 1n the 1740s and ·sos
D Chavasse Park. Liverpool One development. Liverpool. UK 1mmed1ate effect
planting for commercial city centre shopping and open space development
Dresden GorMz-Krauters,edlung Germany swales and sustainable drainage
for rehtted system-built housing estate
r The Bur Juman Centre. Duba, ,ntenor planting
G Rue ra,dherbe. L,lfe road construct,on detailing and street furniture design
12
What is a landscape architect?
The work or a landscape architect 1s The word landscape - often spelled
twofold 1l involves work outside. where landsk1p' or lantsk1p - became current
you have to relate lo lots of d1 f1erent sorts 1n English 1n the seventeenth century It
or people but 1t can also often involve comes from the Dutch /andschap and
lots of work 1n an office. maybe spending was originally a painter's term. meaning
hours or days at a lime 1n front of a ·a picture representing inland scenery A ElegJnl structural des•gn or
computer screen To work successfully as distinct from a seascape Soon 1t precast coricrele steps
as a landscope architect. you need also came to encompass ·a background B Tht> Pa11s cfflce of D Pa1sage
1s lyp cal of many med,um-
of scenery 1n a portrait' and then a
s,zed landscaoe Jrch lecture
to be able to design and therefore prospect of inland scenery· and then
orhces 1Jtel1er~ 1n French
to drow. a birds-eye view (from 1723) Today a
v,,n,ch sounds less corporJte
to be able to write and present a case principal meaning of landscape 1s ·an
and tndica~es the creat•"e
for conserving what 1s good in an extensive area of land regarded as being de!)19n amb,tion of the
existing site while proposing changes visually distinct (The Amencan Her,cage French protess,onl
to be oble to work with people . .ind o,cvonary of rhe Enghsh Language)
to communica te ideas. According to the European Landscape
• a technical understanding of Convention s dehnit1on "Landscape·
constructio n. of building materials means an area as perceived by people.
ond how to use and assemble whose character 1s the result of the
them. ond therefore a reasonable action and 1nteract1on of natural and/
comprehen sion of chemistry and or human factors· In short landscape
physics as well as of building industry means land as seen or perceived
procedures.
a thorough knowledge of plants and
how to cultivate and manage them
an understanding of geology. SOIis
and geomorpho logy. or how the land
1s formed. and of human. plant and
animal ecology.
patience. Geoffrey Jell1coe began
work on the Hope Cement Works
and Quarry. Derbyshire. UK. 1n 1940
and continued adv1s1ng on 1t until the
1990s, landscape proJects can take
a long time. often years and even
decades.
hnanc1al acumen You are charged
with spending other people's money
and must do so responsibly and
accountabl y You need to be able to
administer. keep records. and take
part 1n and often to chair meetings
r, , ·-11.·1::11 - - : ~ - - - - - - - - -
., :
Introduction What 1s a landscape architect'
13
A thOfougn unoerst.ind ng of ecology hort.c:ultuie ana the use or plants appropuate
to place are funaamental to landscape archllecture
A Lne,pool One de,e\Opment Lrverl)OOI UK use of grasses
B Hotel R,u Garopa Sal Cape Verde pa1m trees
C Le Jard,n des Geants Lille France large grasses 1n a public park
D More London use of monospec1hc block planting and box hedges
E Vento Flo,1ade 2012 1tie Netherlanas herbaceous llovver o,splay
Th,1sse Park Amstelveen I/le Netherlands a controlled educat,onal display usmg
nauve peat bog plants
G Keneh Villa Garden. Aptirod•le Hills Cyprus Mediterranean plants
H The Mehd, Garden. Hadlow College Kent UK use ol large grasses and autumn colour display
Barcelona Botanic Garoens Spain Mt.'d terranean chmat.c: zone plants
14
Landscape architecture Is about site Given that landscape architecture
without a locus (Lalin for 'place'). originated In the United States. one
landscape archilecture has no ra,son should also look to the description
d'~tre The classical idea of the gen,us offered by the American Society of
loc,. or pres1d1ng guardian or sp,rIt of a Landscape Architects (ASLA). which was
place. ,s still central to the practice of founded ,n 1899 landscape Architecture
landscape design A landscape architect encompasses the analysis. planning,
should be able to 'read· the landscape des,gn, management, and stewardship
and understand the cultural forces that of the natural and built environment •
have influenced ,ts formation The story Stewardship ,s spec,ned ,n addition to
of CIVlhzat,on has been one of explo,t,ng management s,nce ,t suggests a more
the land forests have been cleared to comprehensive approach. and analys,s
create arable farmland and pasture. has been added to the IFLA's trio of
minerals have been mined. and ex,st,ng planning. design and management
land ownership patterns have been This ,s s1gn,hcant ,n terms of the growth
reorgan,zed for economic, soc,al and of landscape character assessment ,n
pol1t1cal reasons The land ,s a document the past 20 years
of such developments
The metaphor of the palimpsest can
be useful in explaining how to read a
landscape A palimpsest was a piece of
goat's hide on which medieval scribes
wrote. When they needed to reuse the
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IS A TRINITY OF
valuable skin. they would scrape away the
DESIGN, PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT.
original text with a knife before writing
over the traces As a result. a palimpsest
would come to hold traces of earlier
layers of writing This ,s comparable
to the way many landscapes have
developed. A landscape may contain the
lines of Roman roads crossing prehistoric
drovers· routes and Celtic neld systems,
remains of medieval nshponds have
become ornamental lakes.
DennItIons of landscape architecture
include the art. science and management
of landscape. The International
Federation of Landscape Architects
(IFLA) dennit,on of 2003 has been
lodged with the International Labour
Organization as a proposed entry ,n its
International Standard Class1ncat1on
of Occupations and reads. 'Landscape
Architects conduct research and advise
on planning, design and management
of the outdoor environment and spaces.
both within and beyond the built
environment. and its conservation
and susta1nab1lity of development.'
MANA(if;Mf;NT
Introduction What ,s a landscape architect? 15
-~ .. . ..
...
,
: •. :" • ,.. I• .., . •
.. ; .. -~ '!
:• ,
, ... .' .,~.. .~
., .
. :
/~-- :·,_\:/.,{
.... ,. .
';.·: •
. . ,,. . . . . ' . . . j _ " .... , .
Finally. one should also look at the lnst.tu:e s ,nclus1on of landscape A Th1Jsse Park. Amstelveen. the Netherlands.
dehn1t1on offered by the oldest management and science memberships demonstrates an ecolog,cal awareness and
professional body In Europe, Germanys represents peatland habitat
,s atyp cal In most other countries.
Buna Deutscher landschaftsarch,rekten landscape architects· professional
(BOLA). founded 1n 1913 'Lanctscape assoc,at1ons emphasize design and
design expresses the sp1r1t of the time planning Nature conservationists may
it Is a cultural language and involves both also be included In their number
the conservation and reinterpretation In some countries the term 'landscape
of landscapes Landscape architects arch,tect Is little used In Russia. for
combine ecological awareness and
u
instance. landscape architects often
expertise with planning competence graduate in green engineering while 1n
they assess and prove the feas1b1l1ty of France and Spain landscape architects
plans and realize proJects They take are not allowed to use the professionally
creative respons1b1lity for our natural protected word ·architect' In their titles
reserves and for the interplay of the and so call themselves paysag,stes
environment with our social and built or pa,sapsras instead In Germany,
environment· The s1gnrhcant point landscape planning Is very important
about the BOLA dehnrtton Is that 1t refers and many government landscape
to landscape as a cultural construct architects are planners In the UK. the
A (a cultural language') and includes an distinct profession of town planning Is
IC ecological awareness It also emphasizes well established so there are far fewer
the executive nature of the profession landscape architects engaged 1n town
A
B
landscape architects realize proJects· and country planning than there are.
C This 1s also expl1c1t In the use of the say 1n Germany In the US. landscape
C word architect· In the BOLA's own name architects often undertake plot layouts
E But note that the nature of landscape for housing estates or the design of road
architecture varies from country layouts. In some other countries. these
to country and from landscape to tasks would be undertaken by surveyors
landscape In the UK. the Landscape or CIVIi engineers
16
How this book is structured
Chapter l begins with an 1ntroduct1on Finally, 1n chapter 7, we end with a
to the scope of landscape architecture, look at future opportun1t1es and roles
looking at its origins and historical for landscape architects
development. and then focuses on how
1t relates to political and economic forces Thoughoul lhe book case studies
Afterwards we look at the aesthetic and are used to illustrate and give meaning
environmental concerns that landscape to. and provide context for, the main
architecture addresses and outline some points 1n the text
of the ideas of ecology and sustainability
that have influenced landscape
architecture 1n the past half-century
In chapter 2. we then look at pre-design
work, discuss the definition of the brief.
and review the sorts of clients landscape a Landscape architecture Is a wide-rang ,ng
architects can work for We briefly discuss profession that Is often at the centre of
costs and d1st1ngu1sh capital costs and placemak,ng 9/11 PldZa water feature. New York.
management and maintenance costs designed by Michael Arad and Peter Walker
and the revenue needed lo pay for
management This leads to a d1scuss1on
about fees Finally, as part of pre-design
work we look at site survey Knowledge
of site 1s fundamental to the development
of the brief. 1t 1s also fundamental lo
landscape architecture.
In chapter 3, there 1s a description of
design and of the design process and its
basic elements. such as the significance
of site, of 1nsp1rat1on, hierarchy and
human scale. linearity. colour. form
and texture. and human flow. and ideas
of process and change
Following this, 1n chapter 4. we discuss
different techniques of presenting
designs such as manual drawing and
digital design, modelling and use of fllm
and video, and mapping and Bu1ld1ng
Information Modelling. Geographic
Information Systems. Zones of
Theoretical Vis1b1lity and report
writing and public presentations.
ProJect coord1nat1on and implementation
are discussed 1n chapter 5, focusing
on the nature of the design team and
introducing the economics of parks and
also long-term management. Here we
go into the capital costs of landscape
projects in some detail.
How to become a landscape architect
is covered in chapter 6. This includes
applying for a university course. obtaining
work experience during education
(internship), getting a job and thoughts
on setting up your own practice.
Introduction How this book 1s structured 17
Tr.e n,s,;:.r,es ot g:;1ocns. pari<s. ag11culture and urban setlleme nt are
,,,.- pc, ,3nt to tr.<c' practice of lundscap e architect ure and des.,1n 1n the
p·esent L·,e most art forrns. landscap e arcrutecture is ,n constan t
0?c-g1.,e \v :h ,ts i;-ast and 11s origins To be a good landscap e architect.
•1 s therE-fcre essent;al to i<Pow about the d1sc,pt1nes deve,--...,p
ment across
tl~e cer,tt.,r,es ar:d cl:ang1ng emphase s 1n protess,o r-31 practice The focus
s on tl-.e t·,,stcry of Hie landscap e architect ure protess en History permits
us to see .::.ur i;,ace in the flow of time. and even to C3t.:h a glimpse of the
fut.1e F.:x sure. the future ,s one of change Tl"',s Ct".3pter 1s designed to
Ser·.-e as an 1ntroduc1 1on to all of these areas
Beginnings
Each c1v,1tzat1on ,nttuences and shapes the landscape
GJrr1e,1Ing is Jn anr,t.>nt aL1Iv1ty. wnI, n In E.;;1 3 tre hrst gardens that we
ct'.!JJn ,is scvn JS man ,tarred hv,n;i ,n ~r.::"' .::· :::e,elope d ,n China. perhaps A fohbOurne Roman Palace Gardens Sussex. England
,.,, ·r 1~e s~aoig dynasty (c 1700-104 6 8 MocJel of the hrst·centur y AO F,shbourne Roman
t::.wr\s -,,e . 1..11!1·,atton of otants was
,_ ar .'.l certainly by the time of the O1n Palace the layout illustrates Roman symmetry
lne n-1ap1 step 1n rnanl<1nj s mo,,e rrom
C The Acropohs Alhens. Goeece Athenian asymmetry
n·in-~1:J,c '1,1111m:i and ,ante neroIng r:, c, - a;,:>' ·'1 221 i;c The earliest ,mperoal
D The Nasrid Palaces Alhambra Palace. Granada
1
,1q11ct1lt.1r.JI "e' tter,cnt. 1Nh1ch 1nv:1 v~d c:;c.•:Je" s said to have been the Shanglin
Spa,n with commandin g s,te and enclosed
oe:ipte II•w•:J w;ietner In larger grouos 93·oe-i ou1lt by the emperor Qin Sh, courtyards and gardens integrated
--a·g at X·anyang As In the West. so
Gurcten oe:;1:Jn 1s n,,th a p::,pular act •• ty -. ::!'11ra. there were hunting parks,
iln:j an ,r;pect of ,m;;L,cr3t ,c ;,rid •:::,a1 gardens and also merchant s' and
l~L-lLl ..~j '"'~tll:h f·Ae~.:Jp::.,taiT,.:>n ~J-... ,,e '"'3"darons· gardens known as 'ilterat,·
the r,:11-. wr :n
c1e,1et:1t,,·a the 1:1;,;a of garoens Japanese gardens. which
s•,,1;, ID give rt3e tn the Moj:lle A;ies 1.:, _,;,rnately achieved a huge level of
t,:,:h tne ncIn-I·ig grc,und arid t,e ,::,al sophIst1cat1on developed later from the
r,.:1rk c1",j t:r~r rn the r11'"·,=·~=-rt+i c=... _..... hrst millennium AD on and were much
l::» t'1: C'l.ac11,c: r--wn,c ,;:131 cBr~ E;,,:· :i"' nfluenced by Chinese examples The
anj R:, 1·n:1n c. h.'1 .:_!,· ,:,r..s a :,:, f: $-:--re.:, Japanese also had palace. private and
C,!lri\3 :s:-,:, 93f o:.:-ns n t:•Ll'\i s t l'"\e ..a:•:!r temple gardens
\I\'~'= :: 1ur~?1·~s er:.i:;e--:i c-.r r::1.ses
,~ tn-:' c:::w-· 1 .,~.je t~•:'y t,-e,e,3"T"',ea seres
c1 '=-1: ::':-0 s:t~:~ w!-? f cf;ia- zeo
a3 :;11_ .. :,:r.:,,. , :,o~ .i
C
1 The Hi Story of Landscape Architecture Beginnings 21
