Chapter 3

Structural materials

3.1 Introduction igneous rocks. These ‘solid’ units can be used

in conjunction with a variety of different
The shapes which are adopted for structural mortars to produce a range of masonry types.
elements are affected, to a large extent, by the All have certain properties in common and
nature of the materials from which they are therefore produce similar types of structural
made. The physical properties of materials element. Other materials such as dried mud,
determine the types of internal force which pisé or even unreinforced concrete have similar
they can carry and, therefore, the types of properties and can be used to make similar
element for which they are suitable. types of element.
Unreinforced masonry, for example, may only The physical properties which these
be used in situations where compressive stress materials have in common are moderate
is present. Reinforced concrete performs well compressive strength, minimal tensile strength
when loaded in compression or bending, but and relatively high density. The very low tensile
not particularly well in axial tension. strength restricts the use of masonry to
The processes by which materials are elements in which the principal internal force
manufactured and then fashioned into is compressive, i.e. columns, walls and
structural elements also play a role in compressive form-active types (see Section
determining the shapes of elements for which 4.2) such as arches, vaults and domes.
they are suitable. These aspects of the In post-and-beam forms of structure (see
influence of material properties on structural Section 5.2) it is normal for only the vertical
geometry are now discussed in relation to the elements to be of masonry. Notable exceptions
four principal structural materials of masonry, are the Greek temples (see Fig. 7.1), but in
timber, steel and reinforced concrete. these the spans of such horizontal elements as
are made in stone are kept short by
subdivision of the interior space by rows of
3.2 Masonry columns or walls. Even so, most of the
elements which span horizontally are in fact of
Masonry is a composite material in which timber and only the most obvious, those in the
individual stones, bricks or blocks are bedded exterior walls, are of stone. Where large
in mortar to form columns, walls, arches or horizontal spans are constructed in masonry
vaults (Fig. 3.1). The range of different types of compressive form-active shapes must be
masonry is large due to the variety of types of adopted (Fig. 3.1).
constituent. Bricks may be of fired clay, baked Where significant bending moment occurs in
earth, concrete, or a range of similar materials, masonry elements, for example as a
and blocks, which are simply very large bricks, consequence of side thrusts on walls from
can be similarly composed. Stone too is not rafters or vaulted roof structures or from out-of-
one but a very wide range of materials, from plane wind pressure on external walls, the level
the relatively soft sedimentary rocks such as of tensile bending stress is kept low by making
22 limestone to the very hard granites and other the second moment of area (see Appendix 2) of
 Structural materials

Fig. 3.1 Chartres Cathedral,

France, twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. The Gothic church
incorporates most of the various
forms for which masonry is
suitable. Columns, walls and
compressive form-active arches
and vaults are all visible here.
(Photo: Courtauld Institute)

the cross-section large. This can give rise to relation to the total effective thickness of the
very thick walls and columns and, therefore, to wall concerned. The fin and diaphragm walls of
excessively large volumes of masonry unless recent tall single-storey masonry buildings (Fig.
some form of ‘improved’ cross-section (see 3.2) are twentieth-century equivalents. In the
Section 4.3) is used. Traditional versions of this modern buildings the bending moments which
are buttressed walls. Those of medieval Gothic occur in the walls are caused principally by
cathedrals or the voided and sculptured walls wind loading and not by the lateral thrusts
which support the large vaulted enclosures of from roof structures. Even where ‘improved’
Roman antiquity (see Figs 7.30 to 7.32) are cross-sections are adopted the volume of
among the most spectacular examples. In all of material in a masonry structure is usually large
these the volume of masonry is small in and produces walls and vaults which act as 23
Structure and Architecture

(a) effective thermal, acoustic and weathertight

barriers.
The fact that masonry structures are composed
of very small basic units makes their construction
relatively straightforward. Subject to the structural
constraints outlined above, complex geometries
can be produced relatively easily, without the
need for sophisticated plant or techniques and
very large structures can be built by these simple
means (Fig. 3.3). The only significant
constructional drawback of masonry is that
horizontal-span structures such as arches and
(b) (c) vaults require temporary support until complete.
Other attributes of masonry-type materials are
that they are durable, and can be left exposed in
both the interiors and exteriors of buildings. They
are also, in most locations, available locally in
some form and do not therefore require to be
transported over long distances. In other words,
masonry is an environmentally friendly material
the use of which must be expected to increase in
the future.
Fig. 3.2 Where masonry will be subjected to significant
bending moment, as in the case of external walls exposed
to wind loading, the overall thickness must be large
enough to ensure that the tensile bending stress is not Fig. 3.3 Town Walls, Igerman, Iran. This late mediaeval
greater than the compressive stress caused by the brickwork structure demonstrates one of the advantages of
gravitational load. The wall need not be solid, however, masonry, which is that very large constructions with
and a selection of techniques for achieving thickness complex geometries can be achieved by relatively simple
efficiently is shown here. building processes.

24
 Structural materials

3.3 Timber

Timber has been used as a structural material

from earliest times. It possesses both tensile
and compressive strength and, in the structural
role is therefore suitable for elements which
carry axial compression, axial tension and
bending-type loads. Its most widespread
application in architecture has been in
buildings of domestic scale in which it has
been used to make complete structural
frameworks, and for the floors and roofs in
loadbearing masonry structures. Rafters, floor
beams, skeleton frames, trusses, built-up
beams of various kinds, arches, shells and
folded forms have all been constructed in
timber (Figs 3.4, 3.6, 3.9 and 3.10).
The fact of timber having been a living Fig. 3.4 Methodist church, Haverhill, Suffolk, UK; J. W.
Alderton, architect. A series of laminated timber portal
organism is responsible for the nature of its
frames is used here to provide a vault-like interior. Timber
physical properties. The parts of the tree which is also used for secondary structural elements and interior
are used for structural timber – the heartwood lining. (Photo: S. Baynton)
and sapwood of the trunk – have a structural
function in the living tree and therefore have,
in common with most organisms, very good such as occur in the vicinity of mechanical
structural properties. The material is fasteners such as bolts and screws. This can be
composed of long fibrous cells aligned parallel mitigated by the use of timber connectors,
to the original tree trunk and therefore to the which are devices designed to increase the
grain which results from the annual rings. The area of contact through which load is
material of the cell walls gives timber its transmitted in a joint. Many different designs
strength and the fact that its constituent of timber connector are currently available
elements are of low atomic weight is (Fig. 3.5) but, despite their development, the
responsible for its low density. The lightness in difficulty of making satisfactory structural
weight of timber is also due to its cellular connections with mechanical fasteners is a
internal structure which produces element factor which limits the load carrying capacity of
cross-sections which are permanently timber elements, especially tensile elements.
‘improved’ (see Section 4.3). The development in the twentieth century of
Parallel to the grain, the strength is structural glues for timber has to some extent
approximately equal in tension and compression solved the problem of stress concentration at
so that planks aligned with the grain can be joints, but timber which is to be glued must be
used for elements which carry axial very carefully prepared if the joint is to develop
compression, axial tension or bending-type its full potential strength and the curing of the
loads as noted above. Perpendicular to the grain glue must be carried out under controlled
it is much less strong because the fibres are conditions of temperature and relative
easily crushed or pulled apart when subjected to humidity1. This is impractical on building sites
compression or tension in this direction.
This weakness perpendicular to the grain
causes timber to have low shear strength when
1 A good explanation of the factors which affect the
subjected to bending-type loads and also gluing of timber can be found in Gordon, J. E., The New
makes it intolerant of the stress concentrations Science of Strong Materials, Penguin, London, 1968. 25
Structure and Architecture

(a) (b) (c) Fig. 3.5 Timber

connectors are used to
reduce the concentration
of stress in bolted
connections. A selection
of different types is
shown here.

and has to be regarded as a pre-fabricating conditions if damage to the timber is to be

technique. avoided. The controlled drying out of timber is
Timber suffers from a phenomenon known known as seasoning. It is a process in which
as ‘moisture movement’. This arises because the timber must be physically restrained to
the precise dimensions of any piece of timber prevent the introduction of permanent twists
are dependent on its moisture content (the and other distortions caused by the differential
ratio of the weight of water which it contains to shrinkage which inevitably occurs, on a
its dry weight, expressed as a percentage). This temporary basis, due to unevenness in the
is affected by the relative humidity of the drying out. The amount of differential
environment and as the latter is subject to shrinkage must be kept to a minimum and this
continuous change, the moisture content and favours the cutting of the timber into planks
therefore the dimensions of timber also with small cross-sections, because the greatest
fluctuate continuously. Timber shrinks variation in moisture content occurs between
following a reduction in moisture content due timber at the core of a plank and that at the
to decreasing relative humidity and swells if surface where evaporation of moisture takes
the moisture content increases. So far as the place.
structural use of timber is concerned, one of Timber elements can be either of sawn
the most serious consequences of this is that timber, which is simply timber cut directly
joints made with mechanical fasteners tend to from a tree with little further processing other
work loose. than shaping and smoothing, or manufactured
The greatest change to the moisture content products, to which further processing has been
of a specimen of timber occurs following the applied. Important examples of the latter are
felling of a tree after which it undergoes a laminated timber and plywood.
reduction from a value of around 150 per cent The forms in which sawn timber is available
in the living tree to between 10 and 20 per are, to a large extent, a consequence of the
cent, which is the normal range for moisture arboreal origins of the material. It is
content of timber in a structure. This initial convenient to cut planks from tree trunks by
drying out causes a large amount of shrinkage sawing parallel to the trunk direction and this
26 and must be carried out in controlled produces straight, parallel-sided elements with
 Structural materials

rectangular cross-sections. Basic sawn-timber

components are relatively small (maximum
length around 6 m and maximum cross-section
around 75 mm ⫻ 250 mm) due partly to the
obvious fact that the maximum sizes of cross-
section and length are governed by the size of
the original tree, but also to the desirability of
having small cross-sections for the seasoning
process. They can be combined to form larger,
composite elements such as trusses with
nailed, screwed or bolted connections. The
scale of structural assemblies is usually
modest, however, due to both the small sizes
of the constituent planks and to the difficulty
(already discussed) of making good structural
connections with mechanical fasteners.
Timber is used in loadbearing-wall
structures both as the horizontal elements in
masonry buildings (see Fig. 1.13) and in all-
timber configurations in which vertical timber
elements are spaced close together to form
wall panels (Fig. 3.6). The use of timber in
skeleton frame structures (beams and columns
as opposed to closely spaced joists and wall
panels) is less common because the
concentration of internal forces which occurs
in these normally requires that a stronger
material such as steel be adopted. In all cases
spans are relatively small, typically 5 m for
floor structures of closely spaced joists of
rectangular cross-section, and 20 m for roof
structures with triangulated elements. All-
timber structures rarely have more than two or Fig. 3.6 The all-timber house is a loadbearing wall form of
three storeys. construction in which all of the structural elements in the walls, floors
Timber products are manufactured by gluing and roof are of timber. An internal wall of closely spaced sawn-timber
elements is here shown supporting the upper floor of a two-storey
small timber elements together in conditions building. Note temporary bracing which is necessary for stability until
of close quality control. They are intended to cross-walls are inserted. (Photo: A. Macdonald)
exploit the advantages of timber while at the
same time minimising the effects of its
principal disadvantages, which are variability, solid timber elements of rectangular cross-
dimensional instability, restrictions in the sizes section. The obvious advantage of the process
of individual components and anisotropic is that it allows the manufacture of solid
behaviour. Examples of timber products are elements with much larger cross-sections than
laminated timber, composite boards such as are possible in sawn timber. Very long
plywood, and combinations of sawn timber elements are also possible because the
and composite board (Fig. 3.7). constituent boards are jointed end-to-end by
Laminated timber (Fig. 3.7c) is a product in means of finger joints (Fig. 3.8). The laminating
which elements with large rectangular cross- process also allows the construction of
sections are built up by gluing together smaller elements which are tapered or have curved 27
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 3.7 The I-beam

with the plywood web
(b) and the laminated
beam (c) are examples (a)
of manufactured timber
products. These
normally have better
technical properties
than plain sawn timber
elements such as that
shown in (a). The high
levels of glue
impregnation in
manufactured beams (b)
reduce dimensional
instability, and major
defects, such as knots,
are removed from
constituent sub- Fig. 3.9 Sports Dome, Perth, Scotland, UK. Laminated
elements. timber built-up sections can be produced in a variety of
configurations in addition to straight beams. Here a series
of arch elements is used to produce the framework of a
dome.

(c)

profiles. Arches (Figs 3.9 and 3.10) and portal

frame elements (Fig. 3.4) are examples of this.
The general quality and strength of
laminated timber is higher than that of sawn
timber for two principal reasons. Firstly, the
use of basic components which have small
cross-sections allows more effective seasoning,
with fewer seasoning defects than can be
achieved with large sawn-timber elements.
Secondly, the use of the finger joint, which
causes a minimal reduction in strength in the
constituent boards, allows any major defects
which are present in these to be cut out. The
principal use of laminated timber is as an
extension to the range of sawn-timber
elements and it is employed in similar
structural configurations – for example as
closely spaced joists – and allows larger spans
to be achieved. The higher strength of
laminated timber elements also allows it to be
used effectively in skeleton frame construction.
Composite boards are manufactured
products composed of wood and glue. There
are various types of these including plywood,
blockboard and particle board, all of which are
Fig. 3.8 ‘Finger’ joints allow the constituent boards of
laminated timber elements to be produced in long lengths. available in the form of thin sheets. The level
They also make possible the cutting out of defects such as of glue impregnation is high and this imparts
28 knots. (Photo: TRADA) good dimensional stability and reduces the
 Structural materials

Fig. 3.10 David Lloyd

Tennis Centre, London,
UK. The primary
structural elements are
laminated timber arches
which span 35 m.
(Photo: TRADA)

Fig. 3.12 Sports Stadium at Lähderanta, Sweden. The

primary structural elements are plywood timber arches
with rectangular box cross-sections. (Photo: Finnish
Plywood International)

extent to which anisotropic behaviour occurs.

Most composite boards also have high
resistance to splitting at areas of stress
concentration around nails and screws.
Composite boards are used as secondary
Fig. 3.11 Built-up-beams with I-shaped cross-sections components such as gusset plates in built-up
consisting of sawn timber flanges connected by a timber structures. Another common use is as
plywood web. The latter is corrugated which allows the
the web elements in composite beams of I- or
necessary compressive stability to be achieved with a
very thin cross-section. (Photo: Finnish Plywood rectangular-box section in which the flanges
International) are sawn timber (Figs 3.11 and 3.12). 29
Structure and Architecture

To sum up, timber is a material which offers 3.4 Steel

the designers of buildings a combination of
properties that allow the creation of The use of steel as a primary structural
lightweight structures which are simple to material dates from the late nineteenth century
construct. However, its relatively low strength, when cheap methods for manufacturing it on a
the small sizes of the basic components and large scale were developed. It is a material that
the difficulties associated with achieving good has good structural properties. It has high
structural joints tend to limit the size of strength and equal strength in tension and
structure which is possible, and the majority of compression and is therefore suitable for the
timber structures are small in scale with short full range of structural elements and will resist
spans and a small number of storeys. axial tension, axial compression and bending-
Currently, its most common application in type load with almost equal facility. Its density
architecture is in domestic building where it is is high, but the ratio of strength to weight is
used as a primary structural material either to also high so that steel components are not
form the entire structure of a building, as in excessively heavy in relation to their load
timber wall-panel construction, or as the carrying capacity, so long as structural forms
horizontal elements in loadbearing masonry are used which ensure that the material is
structures. used efficiently. Therefore, where bending
loads are carried it is essential that ‘improved’

Fig. 3.13 Hopkins House, London, UK; Michael Hopkins, architect; Anthony Hunt Associates, structural engineers. The
floor structure here consists of profiled steel sheeting which will support a timber deck. A more common configuration is
for the profiled steel deck to act compositely with an in situ concrete slab for which it serves as permanent formwork.
30 (Photo: Pat Hunt)
 Structural materials

cross-sections (see Section 4.3) and

longitudinal profiles are adopted.
The high strength and high density of steel
favours its use in skeleton frame type
structures in which the volume of the structure
is low in relation to the total volume of the
building which is supported, but a limited
range of slab-type formats is also used. An
example of a structural slab-type element is
the profiled floor deck in which a profiled steel
deck is used in conjunction with concrete, or
exceptionally timber (Fig. 3.13), to form a
composite structure. These have ‘improved’
corrugated cross-sections to ensure that
adequate levels of efficiency are achieved. Deck
units consisting of flat steel plate are
uncommon.
The shapes of steel elements are greatly
influenced by the process which is used to
form them. Most are shaped either by hot- Fig. 3.14 The heaviest steel sections are produced by a
rolling or by cold-forming. Hot-rolling is a hot-rolling process in which billets of steel are shaped by
primary shaping process in which massive red- profiled rollers. This results in elements which are straight,
hot billets of steel are rolled between several parallel sided and of constant cross-section. These
sets of profiled rollers. The cross-section of the features must be taken into account by the designer when
steel is used in building and the resulting restrictions in
original billet, which is normally cast from form accepted. (Photo: British Steel)
freshly manufactured steel and is usually
around 0.5 m ⫻ 0.5 m square, is reduced by
the rolling process to much smaller
dimensions and to a particular precise shape
(Fig. 3.14). The range of cross-section shapes
which are produced is very large and each
requires its own set of finishing rollers.
Elements that are intended for structural use
have shapes in which the second moment of
area (see Appendix 2.3) is high in relation to
the total area (Fig. 3.15). I- and H- shapes of
cross-section are common for the large
elements which form the beams and columns
of structural frameworks. Channel and angle
shapes are suitable for smaller elements such
as secondary cladding supports and sub-
elements in triangulated frameworks. Square,
circular and rectangular hollow sections are
produced in a wide range of sizes as are flat
plates and solid bars of various thicknesses.
Details of the dimensions and geometric
properties of all the standard sections are
listed in tables of section properties produced
by steelwork manufacturers. Fig. 3.15 Hot-rolled steel elements. 31
Structure and Architecture

The other method by which large quantities sound and of consistent quality throughout. In
of steel components are manufactured is cold- the early years of ferrous metal structures in
forming. In this process thin, flat sheets of the nineteenth century, when casting was
steel, which have been produced by the hot- widely used, many structural failures occurred
rolling process, are folded or bent in the cold – most notably that of the Tay Railway Bridge
state to form structural cross-sections (Fig. in Scotland in 1879. The technique was rarely
3.16). The elements which result have similar used for most of the twentieth century but
characteristics to hot-rolled sections, in that technical advances made possible its re-
they are parallel sided with constant cross- introduction. Prominent recent examples are
sections, but the thickness of the metal is the ‘gerberettes’ at the Centre Pompidou, Paris
much less so that they are both much lighter (Figs 3.17 & 7.7) and the joints in the steelwork
and, of course, have lower load carrying of the train shed at Waterloo Station, London
capacities. The process allows more (Fig. 7.17).
complicated shapes of cross-section to be Most of the structural steelwork used in
achieved, however. Another difference from building consists of elements of the hot-rolled
hot-rolling is that the manufacturing type and this has important consequences for
equipment for cold-forming is much simpler the layout and overall form of the structures.
and can be used to produce tailor-made cross- An obvious consequence of the rolling process
sections for specific applications. Due to their is that the constituent elements are prismatic:
lower carrying capacities cold-formed sections they are parallel-sided with constant cross-
are used principally for secondary elements in sections and they are straight – this tends to
roof structures, such as purlins, and for impose a regular, straight-sided format on the
cladding support systems. Their potential for structure (see Figs iv, 1.10 and 7.26). In recent
future development is enormous. years, however, methods have been developed
Structural steel components can also be for bending hot-rolled structural steel
produced by casting, in which case very elements into curved profiles and this has
complex tailor-made shapes are possible. The extended the range of forms for which steel
technique is problematic when used for can be used. The manufacturing process does,
structural components, however, due to the however, still impose quite severe restrictions
difficulty of ensuring that the castings are on the overall shape of structure for which
steel can be used.
The manufacturing process also affects the
Fig. 3.16 Cold- level of efficiency which can be achieved in
formed sections are steel structures, for several reasons. Firstly, it
formed from thin is not normally possible to produce specific
steel sheet. A greater
variety of cross-
tailor-made cross-sections for particular
section shapes is applications because special rolling
possible than with the equipment would be required to produce
hot-rolling process. them and the capital cost of this would
normally be well beyond the budget of an
individual project. Standard sections must
normally be adopted in the interests of
economy, and efficiency is compromised as a
result. An alternative is the use of tailor-made
elements built up by welding together
standard components, such as I-sections built
up from flat plate. This involves higher
manufacturing costs than the use of standard
32 rolled sections.
 Structural materials

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.17 The so-called ‘gerberettes’ at the Centre Pompidou in Paris,
France, are cast steel components. No other process could have
produced elements of this size and shape in steel. (Photo: A. Macdonald)

A second disadvantage of using an ‘off-the- can also be unsightly unless carefully

peg’ item is that the standard section has a detailed. Welded joints are neater and
constant cross-section and therefore constant transmit load more effectively, but the
strength along its length. Most structural welding process is a highly skilled operation
elements are subjected to internal forces which and requires that the components concerned
vary from cross-section to cross-section and be very carefully prepared and precisely
therefore have a requirement for varying aligned prior to the joint being made. For
strength along their length. It is, of course, these reasons welding on building sites is
possible to vary the size of cross-section which normally avoided and steel structures are
is provided to a limited extent. The depth of an normally pre-fabricated by welding and
I-section element, for example, can be varied bolted together on site. The need to
by cutting one or both flanges from the web, transport elements to the site restricts both
cutting the web to a tapered profile and then the size and shape of individual components.
welding the flanges back on again. The same
type of tapered I-beam can also be produced
by welding together three separate flat plates
to form an I-shaped cross-section, as described
above.
Because steel structures are pre-
fabricated, the design of the joints between
the elements is an important aspect of the
overall design which affects both the
structural performance and the appearance of
the frame. Joints are made either by bolting
or by welding (Fig. 3.18). Bolted joints are
less effective for the transmission of load
Fig. 3.18 Joints in steelwork are normally made by a
because bolt holes reduce the effective sizes combination of bolting and welding. The welding is usually
of element cross-sections and give rise to carried out in the fabricating workshop and the site joint is
stress concentrations. Bolted connections made by bolting. 33
Structure and Architecture

Fig. 3.19 Renault Sales Headquarters, Swindon, UK, 1983; Foster Associates, architects; Ove Arup & Partners, structural
engineers. Joints in steelwork can be detailed to look very neat and to convey a feeling of great precision. (Photo: Alastair
Hunter)

Steel is manufactured in conditions of very temperatures, and its high chemical instability,
high quality control and therefore has which makes it susceptible to corrosion. Both
dependable properties which allow the use of of these have been overcome to some extent
low factors of safety in structural design. This, by the development of fireproof and corrosion
together with its high strength, results in protection materials, especially paints, but the
slender elements of lightweight appearance. exposure of steel structures, either internally,
The basic shapes of both hot- and cold-formed where fire must be considered, or externally,
components are controlled within small where durability is an issue, is always
tolerances and the metal lends itself to very problematic.
fine machining and welding with the result that To sum up, steel is a very strong material
joints of neat appearance can be made. The with dependable properties. It is used
overall visual effect is of a structure which has principally in skeleton frame types of structure
been made with great precision (Fig. 3.19). in which the components are hot-rolled. It
Two problems associated with steel are its allows the production of structures of a light,
poor performance in fire, due to the loss of slender appearance and a feeling of neatness
34 mechanical properties at relatively low and high precision. It is also capable of
 Structural materials

producing very long span structures, and

structures of great height. The manufacturing
process imposes certain restrictions on the
forms of steel frames. Regular overall shapes
produced from straight, parallel-sided (a) (b)
elements are the most favoured.

3.5 Concrete

Concrete, which is a composite of stone

(c) (d)
fragments (aggregate) and cement binder, may be
regarded as a kind of artificial masonry because it
has similar properties to stone and brick (high
density, moderate compressive strength, minimal
tensile strength). It is made by mixing together
dry cement and aggregate in suitable proportions Fig. 3.20 In reinforced concrete, steel reinforcing bars are
and then adding water, which causes the cement positioned in locations where tensile stress occurs.
to hydrolyse and subsequently the whole mixture
to set and harden to form a substance with stone-
like qualities. suitable for all types of structural element
Plain, unreinforced concrete has similar including those which carry bending-type
properties to masonry and so the constraints loads. It is also a reasonably strong material.
on its use are the same as those which apply Concrete can therefore be used in structural
to masonry, and which were outlined in configurations such as the skeleton frame for
Section 3.2. The most spectacular plain which a strong material is required and the
concrete structures are also the earliest – the resulting elements are reasonably slender. It
massive vaulted buildings of Roman antiquity can also be used to make long-span structures
(see Figs 7.30 to 7.32). and high, multi-storey structures.
Concrete has one considerable advantage Although concrete can be moulded into
over stone, which is that it is available in semi- complicated shapes, relatively simple shapes
liquid form during the building process and are normally favoured for reasons of economy
this has three important consequences. Firstly, in construction (Fig. 3.21). The majority of
it means that other materials can be
incorporated into it easily to augment its
properties. The most important of these is steel
in the form of thin reinforcing bars which give
the resulting composite material (reinforced
concrete) (Fig. 3.20) tensile and therefore
bending strength as well as compressive
strength. Secondly, the availability of concrete
in liquid form allows it to be cast into a wide
variety of shapes. Thirdly, the casting process
allows very effective connections to be provided
between elements and the resulting structural
continuity greatly enhances the efficiency of the
Fig. 3.21 Despite the mouldability of the material,
structure (see Appendix 3). reinforced concrete structures normally have a relatively
Reinforced concrete possesses tensile as simple form so as to economise on construction costs. A
well as compressive strength and is therefore typical arrangement for a multi-storey framework is shown. 35
Structure and Architecture

reinforced concrete structures are therefore cantilevered beyond the perimeter columns,
post-and-beam arrangements (see Section 5.2) and the Lloyd’s Building, in London (Fig. 7.9),
of straight beams and columns, with simple in which an exposed concrete frame was given
solid rectangular or circular cross-sections, great prominence and detailed to express the
supporting plane slabs of constant thickness. structural nature of its function. The buildings
The formwork in which such structures are cast of Richard Meier (see Fig. 1.9) and Peter
is simple to make and assemble and therefore Eisenman (see Fig. 5.18) are also examples of
inexpensive, and can be re-used repeatedly in structures in which the innate properties of
the same building. These non-form-active reinforced concrete have been well exploited.
arrangements (see Section 4.2) are relatively Sometimes the geometries which are
inefficient but are satisfactory where the spans adopted for concrete structures are selected for
are short (up to 6 m). Where longer spans are their high efficiency. Form-active shells for
required more efficient ‘improved’ types of which reinforced concrete is ideally suited are
cross-section (see Section 4.3) and profile are examples of this (see Fig. 1.4). The efficiency of
adopted. The range of possibilities is large due these is very high and spans of 100 m and
to the mouldability of the material. Commonly more have been achieved with shells a few
used examples are coffered slabs and tapered tens of millimetres in thickness. In other cases
beam profiles. the high levels of structural continuity have
The mouldability of concrete also makes made possible the creation of sculptured
possible the use of complex shapes and the building forms which, though they may be
inherent properties of the material are such expressive of architectural meanings, are not
that practically any shape is possible. particularly sensible from a structural point of
Reinforced concrete has therefore been used view. A well-known example of this is the roof
for a very wide range of structural geometries. of the chapel at Ronchamp (see Fig. 7.40) by
Examples of structures in which this has been Le Corbusier, in which a highly individual and
exploited are the Willis, Faber and Dumas inefficient structural form is executed in
building (see Fig. 7.37), where the mouldability reinforced concrete. Another example is the
of concrete and the level of structural Vitra Design Museum by Frank Gehry (see Fig.
continuity which it makes possible were used 7.41). It would have been impossible to make
to produce a multi-storey structure of these forms in any other structural material.
irregularly curved plan with floors which

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