WEEK 1: Probability and Normal Distribution - Thus, the probability is 0.

0668
or 6.68%
❖ Z score measures positions in a - To get the percentage form,
distribution in terms of standard just multiply the answer to
deviations from the mean. 100
❖ The sections on the LEFT side of the - See the graph:
distribution have exactly the same
areas as the corresponding sections
on the RIGHT side (symmetrical).
❖ Because the locations in the
distribution are identified by z-scores,
the percentages shown in the figure
apply to ang normal distribution
regardless of the values for the mean
and standard deviation.

● In a job fair sponsored by 3 big

❖ P(a<z<b) companies, 2,500 applicants applied
❖ denotes the probability that for a job. Their average age was found
the z-score is between a and to be 35 with a standard deviation of 5
b. years.
❖ P(z>a) a. What is the probability of the
❖ denotes the probability that job applicants who are below
the z-score is greater than a. 33 years old?
❖ P(z<a) - Given:
❖ denotes the probability that m- 35
the z-score is less than a. sd- 5
x- 33
Example: - Formula:

● Find the probability to the left of z =

-1.5.
- The area corresponds to z =
-1.5 is 0.4332
- In order to find the value of z - Solution:
you must look for the
corresponding value of 1.5 in
the z table.
- P ( z < -1.5 ) = 0.5 - 0.4332 =
0.0668
- We subtract 0.4332 (the
corresponding value of 1.5 in
the z-table) to 0.5, which is
the value of the left side of the
distribution, since we are
looking for the probability of z
= -1.5 which falls in the left
side.
 - Answer: 2208.25 or
2208

c. Find the percentage of the

applicants who are above 39
years old.
- Given:
m- 35
sd- 5
x- 39
- Formula:

- Answer: 0.3446 or
34.46%

b. How many applicants have

ages between 28 and 44 - Solution:
years?
- Given:
m- 35
sd- 5
x- 28-44
- Formula:

- Solution:

- Answer: 0.2119 or
21.19%
 WEEK 2: Hypothesis Testing - Non-directional hypothesis
(one tailed/two tailed)
❖ It is a statistical method that uses
sample data to evaluate a hypothesis Null Hypothesis
about a population. ● States the claim or assertion to be
tested
- Ex: Does a certain brand of ● It is always about population
memory enhancer really parameter. NOT about a sample
improves one’s memory? statistics
● Assumption is the NULL HYPOTHESIS
- Ex: Does a study technique is true
significantly increase test ● Always contain “=” sign which may or
scores? may not be rejected
● It states that independent variable has
- Ex: Does making landi to your no effect and there will be no
crush make him/her like you difference between the two groups
back?
Alternate Hypothesis
❖ The most important instrument in ● The opposite of the null hypothesis
research. ● Never contains the “=”
● The researcher is trying to prove and
❖ Tentative explanation made on the states that independent variable has
basis of limited evidence as a starting an effect and there will be a difference
point for further investigation. between the groups.

Logic Behind Hypothesis Testing How to determine the Null and Alternative
Hypothesis?
1. State a hypothesis about a population
2. Use the hypothesis to predict the NULL (Ho)
characteristics of the sample ● =
3. Obtain a random sample from the
● ≥
population.
● ≤
4. Compare the obtained sample data
ALTERNATIVE (Ha)
with the prediction that was made from
● ≠
the hypothesis.
● <
- If sample M is consistent with
● >
prediction, hypothesis is
reasonable.
Examples:
- If there's a big discrepancy
● The average age of psychologist in Las
between data and prediction,
Pinas is 35 years old.
the hypothesis is wrong.
- Ho: m = 35 years old
- Ha: m ≠ 35 years old
Hypothesis Category
● Based on their formulation ● The average number of calories of a
- Null Hypothesis high-calorie meal is greater than 600.
- Alternate Hypothesis - Ho: m ≤ 600
- Ha: m > 600
● Based on direction
What Tailed to Use?
- Directional hypothesis
● TWO TAILED (Test in both tails)
- Ho: Parameter = Specific Value
 - Ha: Parameter ≠ Specific Value Step 1: State Hypothesis
- Ho: m ≥ 4
● ONE TAILED TEST (LEFT) - Ha: m < 4
- Ho: Parameter ≥ Specific Value Step 2: Criteria
- Ha: Parameter < Specific Value - a: 0.01
- tail: one tailed (left)
● ONE TAILED TEST (RIGHT) - test: t-test
- Ho: Parameter < Specific Value - df: 17
- Ha: Parameter > Specific Value - Note: To determine the df, N-1
- tcrit: -2.567
What one sample test to use? Step 3: Computation
● z TEST if population standard deviation
is KNOWN and N ≥ 30
● t TEST if population standard deviation
is NOT KNOWN and N < 30

Decision Rule

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

STEP 1: State the Hypothesis

STEP 2: Set the criteria for a decision
STEP 3: Computation
STEP 4: Decision
STEP 5: Conclusion

Example:

A study shows that the average daily coffee

Step 4: Decision
consumption of a 25-35 years old students is
4 cups per day. A university claims that their
students tend to drink less than 4 cups. They
selected 18 students and found the mean of
3.5 cups with standard deviation of 1.8 cups.
Use 0.01 level of significance to test their
claim.

Given:
x = 3.5 cups
m=4
sd = 1.8 cups Step 5: Conclusion
N = 18 students The university claims about the daily
consumption of their students is FALSE
 - D= mean of differences
- SSD= sum of squares of the
WEEK 3: T Test for Correlated and Independent differences
Group - n= sample/number of subjects
- tobt= t obtained/t-value
T-Test
● A t-test is an inferential statistic used Examples:
to determine if there is a significant
difference between the means of two Dependent t test:
groups and how they are related.
A neuroscientist believes that the lateral
What type of T-Test should I use? hypothalamus is involved in eating behavior. If
● If the groups come from a single so, then electrical stimulation of that area
population (e.g., measuring before and might affect the amount eaten. To test this
after an experimental treatment), possibility, chronic indwelling electrodes are
perform a paired t test (a.k.a. implanted in 10 rats. Each rat has two
dependent t test). This is a electrodes: one implanted in the lateral
within-subjects design. hypothalamus and the other in an area where
● If the groups come from two different electrical stimulation is known to have no
populations (e.g., two different species effect. After the animals have recovered from
or people from two separate cities), surgery, they each receive 30 minutes of
perform a two-sample t test (a.k.a. electrical stimulation to each brain area, and
independent t test). This is a the amount of food eaten during the
between-subject design. stimulation is measured. Use a a = 0.05
● If there is one group being compared
against a standard value (e.g., Given:
comparing the acidity of a liquid to a
neutral pH of 7), perform a one-sample
Subject L.H. N.A. D D2
t test.
- The t-test (single sample) is 1 10 6 4 16
appropriate when the
experiment has only one 2 18 8 10 100
sample, m is specified, sd is
3 16 11 5 25
unknown and the mean of the
same is used as the basic 4 22 14 8 64
statistic.
5 14 10 4 16
Summary:
6 25 20 5 25

- One-sample t test 7 17 10 7 49
- mean is given
- Dependent/Correlated/Paired t test 8 22 18 4 16
- same subject
- before/after 9 12 14 -2 4
- matching 10 21 13 8 64
- Independent t test
- two different groups =53 =379
- using simple random sampling

Note for this symbols:

Step 1
- Ho: The electrical stimulation in the
lateral hypothalamus has no effect on
the amount of food eaten.
- Ha: The electrical stimulation in the
Step 5
lateral hypothalamus has an effect on - The electrical stimulation in the lateral
the amount of food eaten. hypothalamus has an effect on the
- amount of food eaten.
Step 2
- a: 0.05
- T-test: dependent/correlated
- Tail: two tailed
Independent t test:
- Df: 9
- Tcrit: 2.262
A neurosurgeon believes that lesions in a
Step 3
particular area of the brain, called the
thalamus, will decrease pain perception. If so,
this could be important in the treatment of
terminal illness that is accompanied by intense
pain. As a first attempt to test this hypothesis,
he conducts an experiment in which 15 rats
are randomly divided into two groups of eight
each. Animals in the experimental group
receive a small lesion in the part of the
thalamus thought to be involved with pain
perceptions. Animals in the control group
receive a comparable lesion in a brain area
believed to be unrelated to pain. Two weeks
after surgery, each animal is given a brief
electrical shock to the paws. The shock is
administered in an ascending series, beginning
Step 4 with a very low intensity level and increasing
until the animal first flinches. In this manner,
the pain threshold to electric shock is
determined for each rat. The following data are
obtained. Each score represents the current
level (milliamperes) at which flinching is first
observed. The higher the current level is, the
higher is the pain threshold. Note that one
animal died during surgery and was not
replaced.

Given:

Neutral Area Lesions Thalamic Lesions

Control Group Experimental Group
Group 1 Group 2

x1 x12 x2 x22

0.8 0.64 1.9 3.61

0.7 0.49 1.8 3.24

1.2 1.44 1.6 2.56

0.5 0.25 1.2 1.44

0.4 0.16 1.0 1.0

Step 4:
0.9 0.81 0.9 0.81

1.4 1.96 1.7 2.89

1.1 1.21

=7.0 =6.96 =10.1 =15.55

Step 5:
- The thalamus decreases the pain
perception
Step 1:
- Ho: The thalamus increases the pain
perception
- Ha: The thalamus decreases the pain
perception
Step 2:
Arranged and prepared by:
- a: 0.05
- T-test: Independent BENITO III I. MARAGRAG
- Tail: one tailed (left)
- Df: [N-2, add both N then minus 2] 13 PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OLFU-QC,
EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
- Tcrit: - 1.771
Step 3: