MICP211

MICROBIOLOGY and PARASITOLOGY Transcribed by: arlene anne mendoza

Lesson 1: OUTLINE PATHOGENS
I. MICROBIOLOGY - Microorganism that causes illness or disease.
II. MICROORGANISMS
Bacteriophages
III. PATHOGENS
- A special type of virus that primarily infects
A. Bacteria
bacteria
i. Archaea
B. Virus
EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOLOGY
C. Protozoa
D. Algae - Archeologist and evolutionists have
E. Bacteriophages uncovered the evidences of primitive
i. Helminths microorganisms like fossils dating back to as
IV. EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOLOGY early as 3.5 billion years ago.
V. CELL THEORY - Infectious diseases have existed for
VI. EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES thousands of years like the Plague which
A. Eukaryotes broke out in Egypt in 1122.
B. Prokaryotes
Before the actual discovery of microbiology in the 17th
VII. SIGNIFICANCE TO THE NURSING
century:
PROFESSION
JAINISM
VIII. BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY
- Postulated the existence of unseen
IX. MICROBES AND HUMANS
microbiological life.
X. MICROSCOPE
- They written the first century book, On
A. Types of Microscopes
Agriculture. (by Marcus Terentius Varro
INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY IN NURSING
AND THE MICROSCOPE MARCUS TERENTIUS VARRO
- Varro suggested the possibility of disease
MICROBIOLOGY
spreading by unseen organisms.
- It came from the Greek words:
- First to propose microorganisms can cause
 Mikros: small
disease.
 Bio: Life
 Logos/ Logia: means “study” ROBERT HOOKE
- The study of all living organisms that are too - 1635-1703
small (minute) to be visible with the naked eye - He was the first to use a microscope to
- Collectively known as microbes observe living things using silver cork
MICROORGANISM - He discovered cell
- There are two microorganism categories:  Basic unit of a living organism
 Cellular  Foundation of CELL THEORY in 1665
→ Unicellular
→ Multicellular (prokaryotes & ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
eukaryotes) - 1632-1723
 Acellular - Father of Microbiology
- Father of Bacteriology
→ Viruses
- Father of Protozoology
- Other terms for microorganisms are:
- Created what today are known as single-lens
 Microbes
microscopes or simple microscopes.
 Germs
- 1670: In many of the specimens, he observed
→ It came from the Latin word: various tiny living creatures, which he called
➢ Germen: to sprout or germinate “animalcules”
 EDWARD JENNER (English Physician) ROBERT KOCH
- 1749-1823 - 1843 – 1910
- In 1796, he reported the use of material - Proved the Germ Theory with the use of the
scraped from the skin of an individual Koch’s Postulate
infected with cowpox to immunize a child - isolated the specific bacteria that caused
against smallpox diseases like:
- he pioneered the concept of vaccines ➢ Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1882
including creating the smallpox vaccine, the ➢ vibrio cholerae cholerae in 1883
world's first ever vaccine. (cowpox against ➢ anthrax bacillus (Bacillus anthracis, the
smallpox) (he prevent small pox) cause of anthrax) in 1876
- perfected the technique of isolating bacteria
LOUIS PASTEUR in pure culture
- 1822 - 1895 - He also established the Koch’s Four
- Father of Modern Microbiology Postulates
1. Microorganism must be observed in every case
- Father of Bacteriology - introduced
of the disease
“aerobes” and “anaerobes”
2. It must be isolated a grown in pure culture
- Developed the process of pasteurization to 3. The pure culture, when inoculated in animals,
kill microbes that were causing wine to must reproduce the disease
spoilage 4. Microorganism must be recovered from the
- Developed a vaccine to prevent rabies in diseased animal
dogs and successfully used the vaccine to
treat human rabies. JULIUS RICHARD PETRI
- Discovered that in alcoholic fermentation, - A German microbiologist who is generally
Acetobacter convert glucose to acetic acid credited with inventing the device known as
Petri dish.
JOSEPH LISTER
- 1827 – 1912 ALEXANDER FLEMING
- Father of Antiseptic Surgery - 1881-1955
- applied germ theory to medical procedure - In 1929, he discovered the first antibiotic
hence the start of aseptic surgery penicillin from a mold called Penicillium
- one of the pioneers of Infection Control Nonatum.
- Founder of antiseptic medicine
HANS CHRISTIAN GRAM
➢ Introduced aseptic techniques for
control of microbes by the use of - 1853 – 1938
physical and chemical agents. - Inventor of the Gram staining technique
- pioneer in preventive medicine - pioneering biologist who devised the system
- included handwashing, sterilizing of classification which led to 30,000 formally
instruments, and dressing wounds with named species of bacteria
carbolic acid
- Antiseptic means – absence of THEODOR ESCHERICH
microorganisms. - 1857 – 1911
- Discovered the bacterium which he called
“bacterium coli commune” and which was
later to be called Escherichia coli in 1919
 JOHN TYNDALL
- 1820 – 1893 PAUL EHRLICH
- Discovered highly resistant bacterial - Discovered the first antibiotic for Syphilis called
structure, later known as ENDOSPORE, in Salvarsan
the infusion of hay. - Heralded the “magic bullet” of chemotherapy
➢ Tyndallization: process of prolong which is the treatment of disease by chemical
boiling or intermittent heating to kill agents
spores, to make the infusion completely - Marked the beginning of chemotherapy and use
sterilized. of chemicals that selectively inhibit or kill
pathogens without causing damage to the
ALBERT LUDWIG SIGESMUND NEISSER patient.
- He found that the dye Trypan Red was active
- 1855 – 1916
against trypanosome that causes African
- discovered the causative agent (pathogen) of sleeping sickness
gonorrhea, a strain of bacteria that was
named in his honor (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) Significance of Microbiology to the Nursing
Profession
IGNAZ PHILIPP SEMMELWEIS • Microorganism are everywhere, they inhabit
- 1818 – 1865 the body (normal flora)
- Described/ known as the "saviour of • Some microorganisms are essential in
mothers“ proposed the practice of washing biotechnology: food & beverage,
hands with chlorinated lime solutions in pharmaceuticals
1847. • Some microorganisms like bacteria and fungi
- Puerperal fever – fever experience by are important sources of antimicrobial
postpartum mothers. Fever that last for more agents.
than 24 hrs of the 1st 10 days after women • Some acts as saphrophytes or decomposers
had a baby. • It has led to a better understanding of how
microorganisms produce disease.
SELMAN ABRAHAM WAKSMAN • It is relevant for better understanding of
- 1888 – 1973 negative instances like re emerging of
- Researched into decomposition of diseases (like polio), and use of biological
organisms that live in soil warfare agents. Infectious
- enabled the discovery of streptomycin and Agent

several other antibiotics. Susceptible

Reservoir
Host

JOHN SNOW Chain of

Infection
- 1813 – 1858 Portal Portal
- Father of Field Epidemiology of Entry of exit
Mode of
- Conducted studies of cholera outbreaks transmis
both to discover the cause of disease and to sion

prevent its recurrence

- developed geographic distribution of cases is Branches of Microbiology
called a SPOT MAP. Basic Microbiology or Applied Microbiology or
Pure Microbiology Biotechnology
LUC ANTOINE MONTAGNIER deals with the profound biotechnology deals with
theoretical study of the the application of
- 1932
organisms as the subject microorganisms in
- Discovered the human immunodeficiency
itself. specific processes
virus (HIV)
 Bacteria
Microbiology - Are small single-celled organisms
- Prokaryotic (has no nucleus)
- Cell wall with peptidoglycan (most)
BASIC - Unicellular
- Reproduces by binary fission (asexually)
- Circular DNA
By organism By Process DISEASE--RELATED
- Some are photosynthetic (Autotrophic), others
Bacteriology Microbial Metabolism Immunology are heterotrophic
Phycology Microbial genetics Epidemiology Groups of Bacteria:
Mycology Microbial Agriculture Etiology A. Anaerobic: can grow in the absence of
Virology oxygen
Parasitology
B. Aerobic: requires oxygen for growth
C. Facultative Anaerobes: can grow with or
Protozoology
without oxygen (O2).
Microbiology
Aerobic Bacteria Anaerobic Bacteria
Require oxygen for their Do not require oxygen for
growth growth
APPLIED
OBLIGATE AEROBIC OBLIGATE ANAEROBIC
BACTERIA BACTERIA
These bacteria can not These bacteria can not
DISEASE--RELATED ENVIRONMENTALLY- INDUSTRIAL survive in absence of survive the presence of
RELATED
oxygen oxygen
Infection control Food & Have absolute or obligate Cannot multiply if any
Chemotherapy Environmental Beverage Tech need for oxygen oxygen is present, often
Microbiology killed if w/ traces oxygen
Pharmaceutical
Ex. Mycobacterium
Microbiology Tuberculosis Ex. Clostridium Tetani
Genetic D. Perfringens
MICROAEROBIC FACULTATIVE
Engineering
BACTERIA / ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
MICROAEROPHILES
These bacteria can grow
Classifications of Pathogens These bacteria require without oxygen but use
1. Bacteria lower concentration of oxygen if it is present
oxygen Grow w/ O2 but can also
2. Virus
Requires small O2 (2% grow w/ out it.
3. Fungi
4. Protozoa to 10%) for aerobic
respiration Ex. E. Coli
5. Helmints
6. Algae
Ex. Helicobacter Pylori
Ex. Spirillum Voluntans
(an aquatic inhabitant)
 CAPNOPHILES AEROTOLERANT ➢ SARS
BACTERIA ➢ COVID-19
These bacteria can not
use oxygen for their FUNGI
growth but are not - Can be single celled or very complex
Require the addition of harmed by it. multicellular organisms
carbon dioxide to - Non-green, plantlike organisms
enhance their growth Also known as: Obligate - Eukaryotic (has nucleus)
fermenters - Cell wall has chitin
Ex. Campylobacter - Heterotrophic
species : diarrhea Can grow w/ O2 - Unicellular (yeast) or multicellular (molds and
presence, but do not use mushroom)
it to transform energy. - Can reproduce sexually or asexually
- Linear DNA
Ex. Streptococcus  Yeasts: single-celled forms
Pyogens  Molds: filamentous forms
 Mycotic: diseases caused by fungi
Archaea → Athlete’s foot (Tinea Capitis)
→ Ringworms (Tinea Corporis)
- Constitute a domain of single-celled
organisms  Candida: yeast like fungus that may infect a
weakened host
- Lack cell nuclei & are therefore prokaryotes.
➢ It may be in the skin, oral/mouth,
- Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan digestive tract, vaginal tract, and lungs.
- Reproduces by binary fission
- Initially classified as bacteria – named Protozoa
archaebacteria - Single-celled living things
- No pathogenic archaea have been identified - Eukaryotic
- Extremophiles: - Usually lacks cell walls
➢ Thermophiles - Usually heterotrophic
➢ Halophiles - Unicellular
➢ Methanogens: Produce methane as a - Can reproduce sexually or asexually
waste product of respiration
- Moves by:
➢ Pseudopods
Virus ➢ Flagella
- Smallest of all pathogens ➢ Cilia
- replication within the host ➢ Some are non-motile
- Composed of a core of nucleic acid, either
Groups of Protozoa:
single strand or double strain RNA or DNA
- Examples of Virus: A. Amoeboid (Amebas/Amoeba): has the
➢ HIV ability to alter shape
➢ Varicella Ex. Entamoeba Histolytica (responsible for
➢ Rubella Amebiasis)
➢ Rubeola B. Ciliates: presence of numerous cilia to
➢ Mumps virus propel the organism
➢ Influenza
Ex. Balantidium Coli (responsible for
➢ Ebola
balantidiasis – chronic diarrhea)
➢ Polio
➢ Hepatitis C. Flagellates: possesses flagella
➢ MERS forlocomotion and capturing prey
 Ex. Trypanosoma brucei (responsible for CELL THEORY
African Trypanosomiasis or “Sleeping 1. All living things are made of cells
Sickness” 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
D. Sporozoa: also known as apicomplexans; function in all living things.
are uninucleate and their body is covered by 3. New cells are only made from existing cells.
a pellicle; they do not possess cilia or
flagella. EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES
Ex. Plasmodium Malariae/falciparum - Living cells are classified as eukaryotes or
(responsible for malaria) prokaryotes.

Helminths Eukaryotes
- large, multicellular organisms - Includes plants animals, fungi protozoa, and
1.Flatworms – soft--bodied, flattened algae
invertebrates. - genetic materials are enclosed within a
Ex: trematodes (flukes) and cestodes membrane
(tapeworms)
- they possess membrane-bound organelles
2. Acanthocephala – spiny--or thorny--headed - cell walls are complex
worms. - they are usually divide by mitosis and meiosis
Ex: Moniliformis moniliformis (responsible for
acanthocephaliasis) TRAITS OF EUKARYOTES:
1. They all have a nucleus where the genetic
3.Roundworms --elongated, contain an intestinal material of the cell is stored.
system and a large body cavity. 2. They have many organelles that work together to
Ex: ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm, enterobiasis help the cell function.
3. Eukaryotic cells are much more complex then
Algae prokaryotic cells.
- Group of oxygenic, phototrophic microbes 4. They can be just one cell or can make up more
which has a nucleus complex multi-cellular organisms.
- can generate oxygen through photosynthesis 5. All plants, animals, fungi, and protists are
- Harmful algae produce toxins that may cause eukaryotic cells.
poisoning to humans when consumed
- Eukaryotic
- Cell wall has cellulose Prokaryotes
- Photosynthetic - include bacteria and archaea
- Unicellular or Multicellular - their genetic materials in not enclosed within a
- Can reproduce sexually or asexually membrane
- Often contains pigments: - DNA is not associated with histones
➢ Greens - they lack membrane-bound organelles
➢ Red
- their cell walls are simpler
➢ Brown
- they are usually divided by binary fission
- Examples of Algae:
TRAITS OF PROKARYOTES:
➢ Pseudo-nitzschia (Amnesic shellfish
1. They do not have a nucleus, and their genetic
poisoning)
material is not stored in the nucleus.
➢ Red Tide (harmful algal bloom): toxic to
2. They have some organelles (structures), but not
marine life and dangerous when
many.
consumed by human
3. They are less complicated that eukaryotes.
4. All bacteria are prokaryotes. - Reveals how pathogenic microorganism
5. Most are unicellular, but some prokaryotes are interacts with host cells in what is turning out to
multicellular. be a complex evolutionary battle of competing
gene products.
SIGNIFICANCE TO THE NURSING PROFESSION
- Line of defense against microorganism 6. MICROBIAL GENETICS
- Cut the chain of infection - Study of how genes are structured and
- Accurate nursing interventions and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular
management functions Closely related to the field of
molecular biology

APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY
- Organisms themselves are not examined in
applied microbiology; rather, they are applied to
a specific process.

MICROBES AND HUMANS

Historical uses of microbes of humans:
- Bread production
- Alcohol production
- Cheese production
- Treatment of wounds and lesions
- Mining precious metals
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY - Cleaning up human-created contamination
PURE MICROBIOLOGY
- Organisms are thoroughly investigated MICROSCOPE
- A lab instrument used to examine objects that
1. MICROBIAL CYTOLOGY are too small to be seen by naked eye.
- Study of microorganisms’ microscopic and
submicroscopic features. MICROSCOPY
- Is the science of investigating small objects &
2. MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY structures using a microscope.
- Study of how the biochemistry of a microbial
cell works. o Includes the study of microbial TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
growth, microbial metabolism and microbial SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
cell. - Magnifying instrument
- Uses only one lens or group of lenses in one unit
3. MICROBIAL PATHOGENESIS to magnify objects.
- Study of the process by which a microorganism ➢ Jewelry Eyepieces
causes a disease. ➢ Pocket Magnifiers
➢ Reading Glasses
4. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
- Relationship between microorganisms and COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
their environment. - Magnifying Instrument
- With different zoom levels of magnification
5. CELLULAR MICROBIOLOGY - Uses two types of lens to magnify object.
- Two types of Lenses:
➢ Eyepiece lens
 ➢ Objective lens: create resolved image then - Magnify 1,000 to 1,500 times
magnified by eyepiece lens for viewing. - For bacteria & fungi
- For stained & naturally pigmented
- Three Types of Compound Microscope: microorganisms
➢ Light Microscope:
- Source of light: Visible light
→ Magnify up to 1,000x
- Cannot view if object is 0.2um or less
→ Source of light: visible light
→ 2 magnifying lens system: DARK-FIELD MICROSCOPE
 EYEPIECE (ocular): contains ocular
- Uses reflected light instead of transmitted light
lens
- Has opaque disc that blocks light.
 2 Magnifying Lens system:
Positioned above microorganism - The specimen appears bright
- The background appears dark
- Electron Microscope: magnify up to 100,000x - Only the object is illuminated in darkfield
- Atomic Force Microscope: a powerful microscope
equipment that magnifies almost any type of - Used for:
surface, including polymers, ceramics, ➢ Spirochetes
composites glass. ➢ External details of specimen
→ Outline
➢ For unstained, transparent, absorbs
little/no light

Compound PHASE-CONTRAST MICROSCOPE

Microscope with Compound Microscope - Introduced by Frits Zernike, Dutch
EXTERNAL source with Light source physicist,1934
of light - Produces high-contrast images of specimen (w/
contrast–enhancing optical technique)
- Purpose:
➢ For transparent specimen: thin tissue
slices, living cells in culture, &
subcellular particles.
→ Nuclei
→ Organelles
➢ Detailed exam of internal structures
→ Endospores
➢ Study of binary fission & mobility

DIFFERENTIAL INTERFERENCE CONTRAST

MICROSCOPE (NOMARSKI INTERFERENCE
CONTRAST)
Bright- Field Microscope - Developed by George Nomarski,1952
- Illuminates field evenly - Utilizes 2 beams of light instead of one
- Specimen appears dark ➢ higher resolution o contrasting color d/t
- With low contrast so object need staining PRISMS
 ➢ Appears three-dimensional - For molecular & atomic shape of
microorganisms.
FLOURESCENT MICROSCOPE - Temperature, Chemical properties
- It is used with ultraviolet light & flourescent dyes - Developed by Dr. Gerd Binnig & Dr. Heinrich
called as fluorochromes Rohrer, Swiss Scientists, 1980
- Microorganisms flouresces or appears to shine - It produces a map showing bumps and valleys
against dark background of the atom on the surface
- To detect antigen & antibodies - It is used for:
➢ Immunofluorescence or the ➢ molecular and atomic shape of organisms
Fluorescent: antibody technique ➢ Variations of temperatures of cell
➢ Chemical properties
CONFOCAL MICROSCOPE - physical probe: goes back and forth organism
- Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) - Computer: gathers data; generate image
or Laser Confocal Scanning Microscope
(LCSM)
- It uses computer
- It produce a three-dimensional image
- It is used for studying the physiology of cell
- Microorganism is stained with fluorescent dye
to emit light
- It is scanned by laser in planes and region

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
- Source of illumination: beam of Electron and
magnet to focus the beam
- Magnifies up to 2 million times - Ernst Ruska,
German Engr (1933) Built first prototype
- resolution power up to 50nm
- it is used for virus and subcellular structure of
cell
- There are two types of electron microscope:
➢ Transmission electron microscope
(TEM):
▪ original electron microscope
▪ 2-dimensional
▪ Black & white image
▪ magnifies 200,000x
➢ Scanning electron microscope (SEM):
▪ 3D structure
▪ black & white
▪ magnify 10,000 times SCANNING

PROBE MICROSCOPE
- Scanned through surfaces of microorganisms
- Study surface structure of microorganisms.
 Lesson 2: BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH
REQUIREMENTS B. Bacteria Reproduction
BACTERIA - Bacteria reproduction is by binary fission.
- Bacteria are metabolically active single-celled - In binary fission, a bacteria divide in which one
prokaryotic bacteria that divide by binary fission cell splits in half to become two daughter cells.

A. Bacteria Size
- Unit of measurement
➢ Micron or micrometer, µm:
▪ 1 µm = 10-3mm

- Bacteria Size
➢ Varies with kinds of bacteria, and also related
to their age and external environment
▪ Cocci: sphere, 1µm
▪ Bacilli: rods, 0.5-1µm in width and
-3µm in length
▪ Spiral Bacteria: 1-3µm in length and
0.3-0.6µm in width
▪Mycoplasma genitalium: smallest
bacteria 0.2-0.3µm; it is the tiniest
organisms capable of surviving outside
of a host.
▪Thiomargarita Namibiensis: the
largest measuring spherical bacteriu, GENERATION TIME
between 100-250 µm in diameter. - The time it takes for one bacterial cell to split
into two cells.
- Bacteria will grow as long as conditions are
right.

C. Bacteria Shapes
 i. Variety of Morphologic Arrangements
SARCINA or OCTAD
Is a group of eight bacteria that remain
in a packet after dividing.

b. BACILLUS

SINGLE BACILLUS
- Bacillus Cereus

STREPTOBACILLI
Is arranged in chains
- Streptobacillus Moniliformis

PALISADES
Rods that is side by side or fence-like
- Corynebacterium Diphtheriae

DIPLOBACILLI
Arranged in pairs
a. COCCUS - Moraxella Bovis
DIPLOCOCCI
Remain attached in pair such as: c. SPIRILLUS
- Streptococcus Pneumonia
- Moraxella Catarrhalis VIBRIO
Is a comma-shaped bacteria and is
slightly bent
STREPTOCOCCI
Are rods that remain attached in
chains after cell division. SPIROCHETES
Are spiral bacteria that have a helical
shape, flexible, and have an axial
filament which helps in motility.
STAPHYLOCOCCI
Is a cocci in a grape-like cluster
SPIRILLUM
Is helical-shaped or corkscrew in
form. It has a similar structure with
TETRAD spirochete but more rigid.
A group of four coccus
 d. OTHER SHAPE AND ARRANGEMENTS
CORYNEBACTERIUM
Club-shaped Rod Bacteria are
thinner on one side than the
other
- Corynebacterium

PLEOMORPHIC BACTERIA
Is another shape of bacteria cell
that does not have a defined form
and lacks characteristics.

FILAMENTOUS BACTERIA
It can be box-shaped, triangular-
shaped bacteria, stalk bacteria, and
star-shaped bacteria.

BACTERIA CLASSIFICATION IN GRAM-STAINING

GRAM
- Are among the world’s most significant public
health problems due to their high resistance to
Grain stain is one of the most common techniques antibiotics.
used to visualize bacteria under microscope. - These microorganisms have significant clinical
- There are two classification of bacteria in gram- importance in hospitals because they put
staining: patients in the intensive care unit risk and lead
➢ Gram-Positive to high morbidity and mortality.
➢ Grame-Negative

GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA
- They have a distinctive purple appearance when
observed under a light microscope following
gram staining.
 CELL MEMBRANE

- Also called as cell sac, cytoplasmic membrane or

plasma membrane.
- It is an ultrathin, dynamic, electrically charged
selectively permeable layer that separates the
cytoplasm from the extracellular matrix.
- Function:
➢ Form a permeable barrier
▪ Regulates the passage of solutes between
the cell and the outer environment
BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
CELL WALL OUTER MEMBRANE

- Cell wall is the outermost component of all

bacteria except Mycoplasma species.
- It consists of:
➢ Peptidoglycan: an essential protective
barrier for bacterial cells that encapsulates
the cytoplasmic membrane of both Gram - Is found in Gram-negative bacteria
positive and Gram-negative bacterial cells. - It’s composition is distinct from that of the inner
- Functions: cytoplasmic cell membrane
➢ Protection - Consist of:
➢ Strength ➢ Complex Lipopolysaccharide
• Whose lipid portion acts as an endotoxin
➢ Provides rigidity
 PERIPLASMIC SPACE FIMBRAE
- This is the space between the plasma
membrane and the outer membrane in the
Gram-Negative Bacteria.

GLYCOCALYX

- is an appendage on a bacterial cell used for

attachment.

PILI
- Is an appendage on a bacterial cell used for
- Is a gelatinous polymer surrounding a bacterial conjunction and gliding
cell located outside their cell.
- It is a slime layer that is unorganized and loosely NUCLEOLOID
attached to the cell wall. It mediates adherence
to surfaces.

CAPSULE
- Is an outer, viscous covering on some bacteria
that protects against phagocytosis.

FLAGELLA

- is the region in a bacterial cell containing the

chromosome.

RIBOSOMES
- Is a tiny spherical organelle that make proteins
- Are long hairy structures that help in their by joining amino acids together.
locomotion
- Based on their arrangement, they can be Granule
classified as: - Also called “Inclusion bodies”
➢ Monotrichous: have one flagellum - Function:
➢ It serve as storage vessels
➢ Amphitrichous: have a single flagellum at
both ends. ENDOSPORE
➢ Lophotrichous: has numerous flagella as a
tuft
➢ Peritrichous: a flagella that is distributed all A resting Structure formed
over the cell except at the poles. inside some bacteria
 MESOSOMES OXYGEN MEASUREMENT

- an extension of the cell membrane presence in

cytoplasm as infolding.

BACTERIA TOXIN
- Is generated during the breakdown of bacterial
cell wall when bacteria die. OBLIGATE AEOROBES
- It causes septic shock and non-disease specific - Have absolute or obligate need for oxygen
symptoms such as: ➢ Micrococcus
➢ Fever OBLIGATE ANAEROBES
➢ Pain - Cannot multiply in an y oxygen is present, often
➢ Shock killed even with traces of oxygen
➢ Fatigue ➢ Bacteroides (large intestine)
-
➢ Discomfort ➢ Clostridium Botulinum
ENDOTOXIN FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES
- This is produced and secreted by Gram-positive - Grows with O2, but can also grow without it.
bacteria. ➢ E.coli
- It can result in severe, disease-specific ➢ Yeast saccharomyces
symptoms MICROAEROPHILES
- Three main categories are: - Require small O2 (2% to 10%) for aerobic resp
➢ Enterotoxins ➢ Helicobacter Pylori: Cause of gastric and
➢ Neurotoxins duodenal ulcer.
➢ Cytotoxins ➢ Spirillum Voluntans: An aquatic habitant

EXOTOXIN AEROTOLERANT ANAEROBES/ OBLIGATE

- This is produced and secreted by Gram-positive FERMENTERS
bacteria. - Can grow without oxygen presence, but do not
use it to transform energy.
- It can result in severe, disease-specific
➢ Streptococcus Pyogenes
symptoms.
- Three main categories are: TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENT
➢ Enterotoxins PSYCHROPHILE (cold loving bacteria)
➢ Neurotoxins - Between 10°C to 20°C
➢ Cytotoxins - Artic / Antartic / Glacier
Ex. Moritella Psychrobacter
BACTERIAL GROWTH
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENT MESOPHILES (require optimal temperature)
1. Water/Moisture - Between 20°C to 40°C - Grows in human body
2. Oxygen Ex. Coli, Staphylococcus
3. Temperature
4. pH THERMOPHILE (heat-loving bacteria temperature
5. Osmotic Condition higher than 40 degrees Celsius)
Ex. Bacillus, Clostridium / Lactobacilli ➢ Organisms that derive their energy by the
oxidation of inorganic substance like sulfur.
pH Chemoorganotrophs
ACIDOPHILE ➢ Organisms that obtain energy from the
- Grows at pH less than 6.0 oxidation of reduced organic compounds.
NEUTROPHILE
- Multiplies between pH 6.5 to 7.5 NITROGEN, SULFUR, AND PHOSPHORUS
ALKALOPHILE - Necessary for the synthesis of cellular
- Grows at pH above 8.4 – 9.0 materials like protein and nucleic acids.
- Nitrogen and Phosphorus
WATER/ MOISTURE ➢ Essential for For synthesis of ATP and
- Bacterial cell is composed mainly of water. It nucleic acid
serves as the medium from which bacteria - Nitrogen and Sulfur
acquire their nutrients. ➢ Required For synthesis of proteins
- Except:
Inorganic Ions:
➢ Bacterial endospores o MAGNESIUM, POTASSIUM, CALCIUM, IRON, AND
➢ Protozoan Cyst TRACE ELEMENTS
▪ If placed in moist, nutrient-rich - Magnesium
environment, they will grow and reproduce ➢ Stabilizes ribosomes, cell membrane and
normally nucleic acid.
▪ Desiccation: survive compete dryness ➢ Co factor in the activity of many enzymes
OSMOTIC CONDITION - Potassium
OSMOTOLERANT ➢ Require for the normal functioning and
- Requires high osmotic pressure for growth integrity if ribosomes.
- Can tolerate hypertonic environment ➢ Participate in the enzymatic activities of the
cells.
HALOPHILES - Calcium
- Requires high levels of NaCl/salt concentration ➢ Important component of the gram positive
for growth cell wall.
- Iron Trace Elements (manganese, zinc, copper
Light Needs
& cobalt)
- Photoautotrophs: requires light for ➢ Components of enzymes
photosynthesis. ➢ Function as co-factors
➢ Maintenance of protein structure
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT
CARBON (backbone)
Growth factors
- Autotrophs/Lithotrophs
- Amino acids: for nitrogen and carbon
➢ Source of carbon are salt and water
metabolism
➢ Organisms that utilize inorganic
- Pyrimidines
compounds and inorganic salts as their
- Purines
carbon source.
- Vitamin B complex
- Heterotroph/ Organotrophs
➢ Organisms that makes use of organic
substances like sugar or glucose as their
carbon source.
- Phototroph/ Photolitotroph
➢ Energy derive from light
- Chemolithotrophs
 BACTERIAL GROWTH RATE 1. DNA Replication: Before it divides in half,
- Illustrates the phases in the growth of he its choromosome must be duplicated first.
population of the bacteria when they are grown 2. Generation Time: The time it takes for
in a culture in a fixed volume. binary fission to occur; varies from one
LAG PHASE (may last for 1-4hours) bacterial species to another & also depends
- characterized by cellular activity but not on the growth condition.
growth. 3. Segregation of DNA: The cell elongates with
- the period of adjustment for the bacteria in the a septum forming at the middle. Two
new environment chromosomes are also separated in this
- Absorbs nutrient phase.
- Prepare for cell division 4. Splitting of Cells: new cell wall is formed.
- Cell increases in size but No increase in ➢ The cell splits at the center, dividing the
number parent cell into two new daughter cells.
➢ Each of the daughter cells contains a
LOG PHASE/LOGARITHMIC/EXPONENTIAL PHASE copy of the nuclear materials as
- Multiplies rapidly & double in each generation necessary organelles.
time. (binary fission) * PARENT CELL splits in half to become 2
- Antibiotics and disinfectants are most effective DAUGHTER CELL
- Cells are metabolically active
- Average duration of this phase is about 8 hours GENERATION TIME
- The time it takes for binary fission to occur.
STATIONARY PHASE (Equal) - Varies from one bacterial species to another &
- Equilibrium / Growth slows down also depends on the growth condition.
- The culture is at its greatest population density Ex. E.coli – generation time is every 20 mins.
- The number of bacteria that are dividing equal
the number of dying. STEPS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF INFECTIOUS
- Spore forming bacteria produce endospores DISEASES
- Pathogenic bacteria generate toxin 1. PORTAL of ENTRY
- An anatomic site through which pathogens
DEATH/DECLINE PHASE can pass into host tissue
- Nutrients become less available and waste - Major portals of entry include the skin, mucous
products increase. membranes of the respiratory tract, GIT,GUT
- Number of dying cells continue to rise and blood.
- Nutrients available to help spore producing 2. ATTACHMENT / ADHESION
bacteria to survive long enough for spore - Pili/ Fimbriae
production. ➢ Attaches to the receptor site
- Concentration of waste product increase while ➢ Molecules (either proteins or
the nutrient decreases carbohydrates) called adhesins bind to
- Sporulation may occur in some bacteria specific receptors (glycoproteins) on host
cells.
BACTERIAL REPRODUCTION ➢ Adhesins are present on the fimbriae and
- Bacteria are prokaryotic cells flagella of bacteria, the cilia of protozoa,
➢ Binary Fission: the division of one cell into and the capsids or membranes of viruses.
two cells, after DNA replication and the 3. MULTIPLICATION
formation of a separating membrane and - Binary fission
cell wall; Parent cell splits in half to two 4. INVASION OR SPREAD
daughter cell. - Localized or systemic
- May multiply in 1 area of the body
- May multiply by spreading in the body VIRUS
5. EVASION OF HOST DEFENSES VIRUSES STRUCTURE
- Antigenic variation: Cell Wall Modification, - Acellular
Capsule Production, Mimicry - Virions: the complete virus
- Bacterial Sabotage: Inhibition via Effector
particles/ccomponents
Proteins
6. DAMAGE TO HOST TISSUES - It has three major components:
How bacterial pathogens damage host cells? o Viral genome
- If pathogen overcome host defenses the o Protein Capsid
microorganism can damage host cell by: o Viral Envelope
▪ USING HOST CELL NUTRIENTS ▪ For some virus
▪ CAUSING DIRECT DAMAGE
▪ INDUCING HYPERSENSITIVITY VIRAL GENOME
REACTIONS - Nucleic acid
▪ PRODUCING TOXINS
- The genomes of viruses can be comprised of
NOMENCLATURE single or double stranded DNA or RNA
- Developed in 18th century by Carolus Linnareus o DNA: Double stranded/Single Stranded
- Binomial system = 2 names o RNA: Double stranded/Single stranded
 Homo Sapiens (human) PROTEIN CAPSID
1st name Genus 2nd Name Species

- A two name system for writing scientific names: - Covers the genomes
➢ Genus Name: written first and always - Made up of repeating structural subunits called
capitalized. as capsomeres
➢ Species Name: written second and never o polyhedral: many sided; 20 or more
capitalized o Helical: coiled tubes
- Both words are to be italicized if typed, or o Bullet-shaped
underlined if hand written.
o Spherical
- Both words are to be italicized if typed, or
underlined if hand written. o Complex: combination
➢ Felis concolor or F. concolor

- The species name usually relates to some

characteristics of the species or to the person
who found the original.
➢ Ex. The scientific name for humans is
Homo sapiens. (Genus: Homo=man,
sapience=thinking. In latin, thinking
man.)

- It can also be written in similarity to the person

who discovered it.
o Escherichia: Theodore Escherich Entry
o Neisseria: Albert Ludwig Neisser
o Salmonella: Daniel Elmer Salmon Skin/m.m Respiratory Tract GIT GUT BLOOD
o Bordetella: Jules Bordet
VIRAL ENVELOPE

- Outer envelop composed of lipids &

polysaccharides
- viral proteins serve as binding to receptors on the
host cell, play a role in membrane fusion and cell
entry, etc.
VIRUSES CHARACTERISTICS
- Lacks enzymes for energy production.
- Unable to replicate (multiply) on their own,
replication is directed by genome once in a host
cell.

VIRUSES CLASSIFICATION
1. Type of genetic material
- DNA or RNA
2. Shape of capsid
3. Size of capsid
4. Number of capsomeres
5. Presence/absence of envelope
6. Type of host that it infects
7. Type of disease it produces
8. Target cell
9. Immunologic/antigenic properties
 Lesson 2: PART 2 BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY Neisseria gonorrhoeae
COCCUS/ COCCI
- COCCI: from the Greek work :kokkos” meaning
berry or seed.
- COCCUS: singular COCCI: plural
- Spherical / oval cells
- Mostly spherical or round and sometimes
elongated oval shape.
- Diameter ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer

COCCUS BACTERIA
Monococcus
- Occurring singly
Diplococcus Teracocci: Paracoccus
- In twos
Streptococcus
- In chains (beads like)
Tetrad / Tetracoccus
- In tetrads
Staphylococcus/ Staphylococci
- In grape-like clusters
Sarcina
- 3D-geometrical forms

Staphylococcus aureus

Micrococcus luteus
Streptococcus pyognes
 Streptoccus pneumoniae Bacilli

SARCINA 2 bacilli, link end to end

- Sarcina ventriculi
- tetrad characteristic morphology and able to
survive in extreme low pH environment

Coccobacilli
- Causes pneumonia
Bacillus/Bacilli
- Bacillus is a Latin word which means “little
staff or wand”
- Cylindrical or rodlike bacteria
- Usual size 0.5-1.0 μm wide and from 1- 4 μm
long
\

Streptobacilli Club Shaped Bacteria

- Corynebacterium diphtheria – club shaped rod
bacteria.
- are gram-positive, catalase-positive, aerobic or
facultatively anaerobic, generally nonmotile
rods.

Spirillum/Spirilla
- large, elongate, spiral shaped, rigid cells
- Curved bacteria, cork-screw-like
- whiplike flagella at each end, capable of
movement
Example:
• Campylobacter jejuni.
• Helicobacteri pyori
Review of Shapes of Bacteria
1. Round shaped bacteria that are arranged
Spirochetes in chains?
- Helical in shape, flexible bodies 2. Round shaped, arranged in pairs?
- Move by means of axial filaments 3. Grape-like, arranged in clusters?
Examples: 4. Curved shape, cork-screw like?
• Spirochaeta 5. Helical in shape, flexible?
• Treponema 6. Short-curve, like comma?
• Borrelia 7. Bacteria with many shapes
• Leptospira 8. partly round and partly rod- shaped
bacteria
9. Rod shape bacteria
Vibrios

- Short-curved rod
• Comma-shaped
• Ex: Vibrio cholerae

Pleomorphic Bacteria
- Have many shapes
- Ability of the bacteria to alter
their shape and size in
response to environmental
conditions (can change shape)
Ex. Legionella pneumophila
• Deinococcus radiodurans
 Lesson 3: MEDICAL & SURGICAL ASEPSIS Surgical Asepsis / Sterile Asepsis
SEPSIS AND ASEPSIS - The process of completely eliminating all
Sepsis microorganisms including their spores where
- Indicates bacterial contamination or infection. surgical procedures will be performed and
- Development of systemic reaction to bacterial carried out before they can enter an open
infection. surgical wound or contaminate a sterile field.
- Applied in non-intact skin and when internal
Asepsis
areas of the body is involved in the procedure.
- Absence of significant contamination
- Free of any microorganism - Examples of Procedures:
- Sterilization of all instruments, drapes, &
Goal of Asepsis objects that could possibly have contact with
- Protect patient from nosocomial infection the surgical wound or field.
- Prevent the spread of microorganisms
- Use of disposable sterile supplies, such as
syringes, needles, and surgical gloves.
Nosocomial Infection
- Referred to as healthcare-associated infections
ASEPTIC PORCEDURES IN THE OPERATING
(HAI),
ROOM
- Are infection(s) acquired during health care that
- thorough cleaning of the OR: detergent or
was not present during the time of admission.
detergent germicides, soap and water.
Common Microorganisms that Cause - all equipment that would directly in contact
Nosocomial Infections: with the patient must be sterilized: autoclave
- Escherichia coli (E.coli) or chemical agents.
- Staphylococcus aureus - ensure sterility of the packages: keep dry and
- Pseudomonas aerogenosa intact when not in use.
- Candida Albicans - use of sterile surgical clothing, OR gowns and
- Enterococcus other protective devices like gloves, face
Primary Locations of microorganisms: mask, face shields, googles (serve as
- Surgical wound barriers).
- Respiratory Tract - use of sterile drapes.
- observance of sterile principles (sterile to
Categories of Asepsis
sterile)
- Medical Asepsis - skin preparations: shaving and cleaning.
- Surgical Asepsis - surgical scrub must be performed: long-acting
powerful antimicrobial soap (2-5 minutes).
Medical Asepsis/Clean Asepsis
- refers to the absence of disease – producing Medical Asepsis Clean Surgical Asepsis
microorganisms. Technique Sterile Technique
- any practice that aims to decrease the number - Total elimination of all
of organisms and prevent their spread in a microorganisms &
general clinical setting. - reduces the number, spores.
growth and spread of - Sterile Field (OR,
General Medical Aseptic Procedures microorganisms. LR/DR), gown and
- Frequent hand washing - Requires ‘clean’ gloves.
- Prompt and safe disposal of contaminated technique. - Requires sterile
materials like mask, bandages and needles. - Medical hand washing technique
- Regular checking and emptying of containers 40-60secs. - Methods: steam,
for surgical drains like Jackson-pratt, t-tube radiation, chemicals,
drains. or gas.
 - Surgical scrubbing
Droplet Precautions
Types of Precaution - Droplets larger than 5 microns
ISOLATION PRECAUTION
- The process of separating an individual with an Infection/Condition:
infectious disease from the rest of the healthy - Diphtheria (pharyngeal)
population. - Rubella, pneumonia or scarlet fever,
- To prevent the spread of infection to other - Pertussis, mumps, pneumonia, COVID-19
individuals. Barrier Protection:
- Private room
UNIVERSAL PRECAUTION - Surgical mask
- Specific measures geared towards handling of -----------------------------------------------------------------
patients with an infection from an unknown Contact Precautions
pathogen to decrease the risk of transmission. - Direct patient or environment contact
- Measures applied to all blood, skin and mucous - Prevent spread of infection transmitted through
membranes. touching patients or items (formites).
Universal Precautions/Standard Precaution Infection/Condition:
According to CDC - Colonization of infection
• Proper hand washing - Major wound infections: herpes simplex
• Use PPE ➢ Scabies; varicella zoster
• Proper handling and disposal of secretions
(Respiratory hygiene/ cough etiquette) and Barrier Protection
excretions including sweat. - Private rooms
- Gloves, gowns
• Proper handling of soiled linens and equipment. -----------------------------------------------------------------
• Environmental control: disinfection Bloodborne Precautions
- Blood-borne transmission of pathogens is
• Prevention of injury from sharp devices such as largely due to percutaneous injuries.
needles.
Infection/Condition:
• Patient placement - HIV
- Hepatitis B and C
Transmission-based Precautions for Use with - Malaria
Specific Types of Patients - Measles
Airborne Precaution - Herpes
- Droplet nuclei less than 5 microns. - Chickenpox
Examples of Diseases: Barrier Protection:
- Anthrax - PPE
- Chickenpox (Varicella) - Sharps disposal should be in an approved
- Influenza puncture-proof "sharp-only" locked and
- Meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis) secured bin.
- Measles (Rubeola) - All sharps should not be re-capped.
- All sharps should not be bent or broken.
Barrier Protection:
- Safety devices should be implemented to
- Door must be closed at all times
prevent contact with needles and other
- Private room with negative pressure
sharps.
- N95 mask
- These precautions apply to any blood-
containing fluids, including cerebrospinal fluid,
 pericardial fluid, pleural fluid, and peritoneal
fluid.

Types of Isolation
Isolation/Source Reverse Isolation
Isolation
- Protective Isolation
(reverse barrier
nursing)
- Barrier protection
designed to prevent
infection in a
- (barrier nursing) compromised and
- Where the patient is highly susceptible
the source of client.
infection. - Source of
microorganism:
Examples: COVID-19 health care
professionals and
relatives,
environment.

Ex. Burned patients,

chemo patients,
transplant patients.
 LESSON 4: HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION Types of Antigens
DEFINITION OF TERMS • Autoantigens/Self-Antigens
IMMUNOLOGY: the study of the immune system - Normal protein or complex proteins
and the immune response. - Are antigens of one’s own cells or cell products
- The Immune response is concerned with the that stimulate autoantibodies in the organism
reaction of the body to any foreign antigen. that produced it.
Ex: (Autoimmune disease) – lupus, rheumatoid
IMMUNOGEN: Any substance capable of inducing arthritis.
an immune response, whether humoral or cell
mediated or both. • Alloantigen / Isoantigen
- Are antigens found in different members of the
IMMUNITY same species.
- Is defined as to the resistance of a host injury - Are genetically determined antigens present in
due to microorganisms & their products. some but not all individuals of a specie, it
stimulates the production of antibodies that
Antibody (immunoglobulin) – is a glycoprotein lack it.
molecule formed in response to an antigenic
stimulus. Ex: the red blood cell antigens A and B
Name of Antigens ABO
Antigen: Substances which when introduced Blood Group present on antibodies
parenterally into the body stimulate the production the red cell present in the
of an antibody & induce immune response. surface plasma
Type O n/a anti-A and
*ANTI-body GENerating substance anti-B
Antigenicity: refers to the power of an antigen to Type A A antigen anti-B
induce an immune response. Type B B antigen Anti-A
Type AB A and B n/a
Epitope: the antigenic determinant of the antigen; antigens
part of the antigen to which antibody binds.
Antigenicity: refers to the power of an antigen to • Heterophile antigens
induce an immune response. - Are identical antigens found in the cells of
different species.
PROPERTIES OF ANTIGENS THAT STIMULATE
- Antigen of Group A beta-hemolytic
IMMUNE RESPONSE (Immunogenic)
streptococci
1. foreignness and genetic composition
- (Streptococcus pyogenes) and antigens of the
2. chemical composition and complexity:
human myocardium are heterophilic
most organic substances can be antigenic
✧ antibodies against group A streptococcal cell
except lipids and nucleic acid.
walls cross-react with human cardiolipin antigens
3. molecular size and stability: molecular
and thus damage human heart tissues.
weight below 1000 daltons are weakly
immunogenic.
Ex: Frequent Tonsilitis may lead to Rheumatic heart
4. mode of entry of the antigen
fever.
Types of Antigen
• Autoantigens/Self-Antigens
• Alloantigen/Isoantigen
• Heterophile Antigens
 Cells of the Immune System
1. Granulocytes: 50%-80%bof WBC:
• Neutrophils: phagocytes, acute
inflammation, bacterial infections.
• Eosinophils: parasitic infection,
hypersensitivity reactions (types 1)
• Basophils: allergic reactions, destroy early
cancer cells

2. Agranulocytes: involved in chronic

inflammation.
• Lymphocytes: 25%-45% of total WBC: viral
infection
• Monocytes: 3%-8% of WBC, bacteria and
fungi infection, predominant in chronic
inflammation.
2. Secondary/Peripheral Lymphoid Organs
- lymph nodes, spleen
Types of White Blood Cells - the mucosa-associated
• lymphoid tissues: tonsils, adenoids
- Peyer's patches in the ileum and appendix
- sites where antigens from organisms are
trapped.

BODY DEFENSE MECHANISMS

• 1 line of Defense – Physical Barriers &
st

Chemical Barriers
• 2nd line of Defense – defensive cells & proteins,
inflammation, and fever.
• 3rd line of Defense – The immune system

The First Line of Defense

- Combination of physical and chemical
Organs involved in the Immune System
barriers.
1. Primary/Central Lymphoid Organs
- Physical barriers: includes the INTACT SKIN
- primary sites for differentiation and
- chemical: enzymes in tears in body
maturation of T cells and B cells
secretions & normal flora
- Bone Marrow: B cells
- prevent all types of foreign agents from
- Thymus: T cells
penetrating the outer layer of the body.
- lymphocytes (B cells)
- B cells remain in bone marrow to reach
Physical Barriers
maturity.
1. Skin
- differentiate into antibody producing plasma
✧ Cells filled with keratin, making skin
cells.
impenetrable, and resistant to toxins.
- Upon maturation, B and T cells enter blood
2. Mucous Membranes
stream and migrate to secondary lymphoid
tissues. ✧ line the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems and protect the internal
lining.
3. Hair Defense Proteins:
✧ in the nose, it acts as a coarse filter. • Interferon
- Cell becomes infected by virus.
Chemical Barriers - Infected cell sends interferon to healthy
1. Sweat neighbors.
✧ washes away microbes and acidity slows - Interferon causes healthy cell to create defense
bacterial growth. enzymes.
2. Mucous - Healthy cell able to fight virus.
✧ traps many microbes
• Defensive Proteins/ Complement System - a
✧protects the inside of the body
complex system of more than 30 proteins that act
3. Saliva and tears
together to help eliminate infectious
✧ contain enzyme called lysozyme that kills
microorganism.
bacteria by rupturing their cell walls
a. Destruction of pathogen (Cell lysis): cell
4. Cerumen (ear wax)
bursting of foreign & infected cells.
✧ protects the canal by trapping dirt & dust b. Enhancement of phagocytosis: ingestion of
particles. foreign particles & cell debris.
✧ hydrophobic: protective covering c. (Opsonization): uses opsonin to tag foreign
pathogens for elimination of phagocytes.
The Second Line of Defense d. Stimulation of inflammation with the release of
cytokines: control the growth of all blood cells
✧ Defensive cells
that help in the immune response.
✧Defense Proteins /Complement System e. Chemotaxis: attraction of macrophages and
(cytokines) neutrophils into the site of infection.
✧ Inflammation and Fever
Defensive Cells • Inflammation
✧Phagocytes -- scavenger cells - Redness (rubor): caused by increased blood
▪ Neutrophils- first cell to arrive in bacterial flow to the damaged area.
infection - Heat (calor): increased blood flow elevates
▪ Macrophages: surround and kill microorganism the temperature in the area of injury,
▪ Dendritic cells: link innate and adaptive increasing metabolic rate of the body cells.
immunity - Swelling (tumor): histamine makes
▪ B lymphocytes: professional antigen presenting capillaries more permeable than usual.
cell - Pain (dolor): causes person to protect the area.
▪ determine the specificity of immune response to
antigens (foreign substances) in the body. Fever
✧Abnormally high body temperature caused by
✧ Eosinophils – Discharge destructive enzymes pyrogens (chemicals that set the “thermostat” in
to destroy pathogens too big for phagocytes (e.g., the brain to a higher set point).
parasitic worms). Immediate allergic reactions ✧A mild or moderate fever helps the body fight
and inflammatory response. bacterial infections.
✧ Natural Killer Cells --Seek out and kill target • higher temperature makes bacteria and viruses
cells/ abnormal cells (e.g., cancer cells), no harder to survive.
immune memory. • Activates immune response
 The Third Line of Defense ✧ Two arms of the adaptive defense system :
The Immune System - Humoral immunity & Cellular immunity
- When the first two line of defense of the body
can not prevent the infection, the immune ✧ Is also known as the Acquired Immunity
system acts to eliminate the infectious agent ✧ defense mechanism which are stimulated by
and prevent the body from infection. exposure to infectious agents
- Immune response - immunity generally - improves upon repeated exposure
consists of two steps:
✧It is antigen specific - recognizes and acts against
Step--1: Recognition of the pathogen or foreign
particular foreign substances, initiated by
molecule.
recognition of specific epitopes of the foreign
Step--2: Mounting reaction against the pathogen.
invaders.
✧It is a Systemic -immunity is not restricted to the
- The cells and molecules responsible for
initial infection.
immunity constitute the immune system and
their collective and coordinated response to the
A. Humoral Immune Response
foreign substance.
- antibody-mediated immunity
- provided by antibodies present in humors or
Two Categories of Immunity
body fluids.
1. Innate Immunity
- primarily involves B cells which are the antigen
2. Adaptive Immunity
presenting cells.
- neutralizes threats outside human cells.
Innate Immunity
- Possess immunologic memory
- natural immunity
- with Ig on its surface (IgM & IgD)
- active from the time of birth, prior to the
exposure to an antigen.
Immunoglobulins
✧It’s mechanism is non -- specific (non specific
- Also referred to as “antibodies” or “Ig”
immunity)
- They are Y shaped molecules that connect on one
✧2 Major functions:
end to invading microbes (Antigens) and on the
1. kills microorganisms
other end they bind with various white cells that
2. activates adaptive immune response
effectively block and destroy the antigen.
Types: - Two identical strands of heavy chains and two
1. Physical barrier such as skin. identical strands of light chains.
2. Physiological barriers such as pH of the - The end with two heavy chains forms a stable non-
stomach, bile juice, saliva and tears.
variable receptor point called an effector, which is
3. Cellular barriers
the part of the Ig molecule that binds with our own
Adaptive Immunity immune system cells.
- involves production of antibodies by the B cells - On the opposite end of the antibody are two
and activation of cytotoxic T cells. antigen binding sites, each with a light chain and
- produces memory, once B or T cells are heavy chain combination.
activated, some of the B cells and T cells are
converted to memory cells.
- It is responsible for conferring lifetime
protective immunity to re- infection with same
pathogen.
- There is a Memory that recognizes and mounts
a stronger attack on previously encountered.
 Types of Immunoglobulins Adaptive Immunity
IgG B. Cell-mediated Immune Response
- Predominant antibody in the secondary - Stem cells (T cells) continuously migrate from
response (most common) the bone marrow to the thymus gland for
- 75% of total immunoglobulin maturation.
- Appears in serum and tissues - T cells are the main mediator
- Assumes a major role on bloodborne and tissue - target virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and
infections. cells of foreign body.
- Activates the complement system - Develops gradually
- Enhances phagocytosis - carry the antigenic message, or blue print, to the
- Only Ig that Crosses the placenta lymph nodes, where the production of other T
IgA cells is stimulated.
- Called secretory Ig - retain a memory for the antigen.
- 15% of total immunoglobulins
- Important component of mucosal immunity. T lymphocytes (T cells) has 3 main subsets:
- Main Ig in secretion in body fluids (saliva, tears, 1. Helper T cells – promote inflammation &
respiratory, GIT and GUT) antibody production.
- Protection against respiratory, gastrointestinal - Secrete cytokines that attract and activate B
and genitourinary infections. cells.
- Prevents absorption of antigens from food. - Produce different types of cytokines.
- Passes to neonate in breast milk for protection.
IgM 2. Cytotoxic T cells – A.K.A killer cells
- 10% of total immunoglobulins - Recognize & kill virus infected cells, tumor cells
- largest among the Ig and its pentamer & foreign cells also possess immunologic
- Appears mostly in intravascular serum response.
- Appears as the first immunoglobulin produced - Direct attack micro-organism by releasing
in response to bacterial and viral infections cytolytic enzymes and cytokines.
(ACUTE infections)
- Activates the complement system. 3. Suppressor T cells / Memory T cells
- Control of B-cell activation (B cells create IgM - Suppress cytotoxic and helper T-cells
as first line of defense) - Keep the immune system from becoming over-
IgE active, prevent hypersensitivity.
- A.K.A reaginic antibody
- 0.004% of immunoglobulins Cell Mediated Immunity
- Appears in serum • Basic Functions:
- Mediates immediate or anaphylactic - Provide resistance and aid in recovery from
hypersensitivity reaction. infections due to intracellular organism (ex
- Takes part in allergic and hypersensitivity of virus)
reactions. - Important defense against fungi, parasites and
- Combats parasitic infections. bacteria.
IgD - Involved in transplant and graft rejection.
- No known antibody function - Main defense against tumor cells.
- Functions as antigen receptor
- 0.2% of immunoglobulins
- Found on the surface of many B-cells and
serves as a surface marker.
- Appears in small amounts in serum (1%)
- Possibly influences B-lymphocytes
differentiation but role is unclear.
 Lesson 5: BACTERIA and DISEASE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE OCCURRENCE
Definitions: OF INFECTION:
Pollution 1. PORTAL OF ENTRY
- Undesirable substance in water, air, or soil. - The organism may fail to produce disease when
Contamination introduced into some other route/pathway.
- Presence of organisms or chemicals or
poisonous substances in the body, water, or 2. VIRULENCE OF THE MICROORGANISM
food. - disease producing power of the organism
Infection - overcoming defensive powers of host
- Invasion by pathogenic Microorganisms
- Example: Capsule, Chem. Substance in cell
- Not Synonymous to disease.
wall– used by the microorganism to evade the
Disease
immune system.
- Undesirable relationship between host &
pathogens
3. NUMBER OF MICROORGANISM
- Interruption in normal functioning.
4. DEFENSIVE POWERS OF THE HOST
Pathogen
- Organism that invades & causes damage,
How Organism Produce Disease
injury.
1.) Mechanical:
Pathogenicity
- Invasiveness
- “pathogenic” – ability of organism to cause
- The organism directly damages tissues or
disease; the state of becoming pathogenic.
surface.
KOCH’S POSTULATE - Ex. Leprosy/warts
- Formulated by Robert Koch & Friedrich Loeffler 2.) Chemical:
in 1884, based earlier concepts described by a. Leukocidins
Jakob Henle. ➢ Destroy WBC;
- four criteria to establish causative relationship ➢ Escape phagocytosis
between microbe & disease. b. Coagulase
➢ Coagulates fibrinogen of blood
1.) The Organism must always be present in every 3.) Toxin:
case of the disease. - Poisonous substance and are often the primary
2.) The Organism must be isolated from a host factors that contribute to disease production
containing the disease and grown in pure - a. Exotoxin: gram positive
culture. - b. Endotoxin: gram negative
3.) Samples of the Organism taken from pure Types of Exotoxin:
culture must cause the same disease when 1. Neurotoxin – interferes in nerve impulse
inoculated into a healthy animal in the transmission.
laboratory. 2. Enterotoxin – affects cell lining of GIT
4.) The Organism must be isolated from the 3. Cytotoxin – kills host cells.
Inoculated animal and must be identified as the
same original organism that was first isolated
from the originally diseased host.
4.) Immunologic Incidence of a Disease
- Consequence of the immune response of the - Refers to the number of person in a population
host to microorganism. who acquired the disease at a particular point
Ex. Damage to liver – Hepatitis of time.
Incidence rate: = # of new cases
Classification of Infection Prevalence rate: = # of new & old cases
Based on the manner of how the agent reaches the
host: Epidemic
Communicable - Rapid spread of infectious disease to large # of
- Directly or indirectly transmitted from host to people in a given population w/in a short period
host. of time.
- Ex. diphtheria/tuberculosis/rabies
Endemic
Non-Communicable - Constantly present in a particular place
- Not spread from one person to another - Schistosomiasis in Sorsogon and Oriental
- Ex. Tetanus Mindoro
- Malaria in Palawan
Based on the manner of the source of the Host
Exogenous Infection Sporadic
- From outside the body
- occurring at irregular intervals or only in a few
- Involve a pathogen entering a patient’s body
places; scattered or isolated.
from their environment.
Endogenous Infection
Occurrence of a Disease
- Disease arising from an infectious agent
PANDEMIC
already present in the body but previously
➢ present worldwide
asymptomatic; overgrowth of normal flora.
- 2009 swine flu
OTHER TERMS: - flupandemic: H1N1, was first identified in the
Specific Infection U.S. in April 2009.
- Disease is caused by microorganism that is - Spanish flu 1920 100 M died
known - HIV/ aids: 40M(+) cases
- Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis/ - Cholera 1820
Tubercle Bacilli - Bubonic Plaque in 1720
- Diphtheria: Corynebacterium Diphtheriae
Other Terms:
Non-Specific Infection BACTEREMIA – bacteria in blood
SEPTICEMIA – actively multiplying bacteria in the
- Disease is caused by several microorganisms
blood.
- UTI: E. Coli, pseudomonas, proteus species PYEMIA – pus-producing bacteria in the
- Flu: influenza virus, Orthomyxovirus bloodstream.
TOXEMIA – toxin in blood
VIREMIA – virus in the blood
 Classification Based on Duration of Disease Predisposing Factors
Acute – shows rapidly for short period of time. - make the body more susceptible to the
Chronic – occurs slowly; occurs long period of time. development of a particular disease
Latent – inactive for long time but can become - Gender: Female: UTI
active again. - Geographic location: cold areas
- Nutritional Status:
Classification Based on the Extent of ➢ Age
Involvement ➢ Lifestyle
Local Infection ➢ Habits
- Invading microorganisms are limited to a ➢ Occupation
relatively small area of the body. ➢ Pre-existing disease
- Boils, acne ➢ Intake of drugs or meds
➢ Emotional disturbance
Focal Infection
- Localized in specific part of body that may Opportunistic Infection:
spread to another part of body via blood or - is an infection caused by pathogens that take
lymphatic vessel advantage of an opportunity not normally
- Localized infection but with generalized available, such as a host with a weakened
symptoms immune system, an altered microbiota (such as
- Appendicitis a disrupted gut microbiota), or breached
- Tonsilitis integumentary barriers.

Systemic Infection
- Invading microorganisms or their products are
spread throughout the body by blood or lymph
- Influenza
- HIV

According to the extent of Host Involvement

PRIMARY INFECTION
- first time you are exposed to and infected by a
pathogen.
- During a primary infection, the body has no
innate defenses against the organism, such as
antibodies.
SECONDARY INFECTION
- due to opportunistic pathogens after primary
infection weakened body’s defense.
SUBCLINICAL INFECTION/INAPPARENT INFECT.
- Does not cause any noticeable illness
- Hepatitis
 Types of Carrier
- healthy or asymptomatic carrier: may exist in
an individual with an infection that is inapparent
throughout its course (Typhoid)

- Incubatory carrier: An individual capable of

transmitting an infectious agent to others
during the incubation period of the
disease(measles/ chicken pox)

- convalescence and postconvalescence

carrier: the person who had been infected by
that microorganism is recovering from that
infection (hepatitis, cholera, and poliomyelitis)

- Temporary carriers: The carrier state lasts for

less than 6 months.

- Chronic carriers: The carrier state lasts for

more than 6 months. (Hep B, HIV infection)
 Routes of Transmission a.) Mechanical Transmission – passive
Transmission – pathway of causative agents from transport of organism on insect’s feet or
source to infection of susceptible host. other parts.
b.) Biological Transmission – active transport
1.) CONTACT TRANSMISSION of organism.
➢ Direct *Microorganism enter acter insect/vector bites an
- Person to person infected person.
➢ Indirect
- From reservoir to susceptible host

Vertical Transmission Note: Goodluck po sa prelims! FIGHTING!!!! - A.M

- Some viruses can pass generationally between
mother and fetus in utero (in the case that
breaks in the placental barrier are present,
during delivery, or during breastfeeding).
- HIV, toxoplasma gondii, rubella,
cytomegalovirus, and herpes viruses have been
proven to transfer from mother to child via these
routes.

AIR-BORNE
- Refers to spread of pathogens by droplet nuclei
in dust that travels> 1 meter from reservoir to
the host
- (ex. Measles, TB)

DROPLET
- Spread in droplet nuclei
- Travels <1 meter

2.) VEHICLE TRANSMISSION

- transmission of organism through media such
as food, water, air.

FOOD-BORNE
•Pathogens are transmitted through ingestion of
food that improperly cooked, prepared, poorly ref,
unsanitary condition
• ex. Food poisoning, AGE

WATER-BORNE
- pathogen is spread through contaminated
water. (ex.cholera)

3.) VECTORS – animals that carry microorganisms

from one host to another
➢ Insects (arthropods) – most important
group of vectors.