Organisms and Populations
1. Population Attributes
➢ Population is defined as the total number of individuals of a species in a specific
geographical area, sharing/ competing for similar resources which can interbreed
under natural conditions to produce fertile off springs and function as a unit of biotic
community.
➢ Population ecology links ecology to population genetics and evolution.
➢ Characteristics of a population:
(i) Population size or density of a species is the number of individuals of a
species per unit area or volume
(ii) Birth or natality rate: It is expressed as the number of births per 1,000
individuals of a population per year.
(iii) Death or mortality rate: It is expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000
individuals of a population per year.
(iv) Sex ratio: It is expressed as the number of females per 1,000 males of a
population in given time.
➢ A population at any given time is composed of individuals of different ages. When
the age distribution (per cent individuals of a given age or age group) is plotted for
the population, the resulting structure is called age pyramid.
➢ For human population, the age pyramids generally show age distribution of males
and females in a combined diagram.
➢ The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population and is of
three types:
(a) Expanding (Triangular shaped pyramid): Number of pre reproductive individuals is
very large, reproductive individuals moderate in no. and postreproductive are fewer.
Population is growing and show rapid increases.
(b) Stable (Bell shaped pyramid): Population size remains stable, neither growing nor
diminishing i.e., all the age group are evenly balanced.
(c) Declining (Urn shaped pyramid): Population is declining or diminishing population
showing negative growth.
➢ The pyramids also indicate the ratio of pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-
reproductive individuals in a population.
2. Population Growth
➢ The size of a population depends on food availability, predation pressure and
weather. Therefore, size of the population is not a static parameter. Population
Density (N) = Number of individuals or % cover or biomass.
➢ The population density depends on few basic processes:
(i) Natality: It is the number of births during a given period of time. It increases
the population density. E.g.,if in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year
and through reproduction 8 new plants are added
So, birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 per lotus per year.
(ii) Mortality: It is the number of deaths in a given time period. It decreases the
population density. e.g., if 4 individuals out of 40 fruit flies died during
specified time interval (say a week). Death rate = 4/4o = 0.1 Individuals per
fruit fly per week
(iii) Immigration: It is the number of individuals of same species added to a
habitat in a given time period. It increases the population density.
(iv) (iv) Emigration: It is the number of individuals of same species that move to
a different habitat in a given time period. It decreases the population
density.
➢ The population density is given by the following equation:
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) − (D + E)]
Where
Nt = population density at time t,
B = birth rate,
I = immigration,
D = death rate,
E = emigration and
Nt+1 is density at present.
➢ This equation shows that the population density will increase, if the number of births
plus the number of immigrants (B+I) is more than the number of deaths plus the
number of emigrants, i.e., (D+E), otherwise it will decrease.
3. Population Growth Models
➢ There are two models of population growth:
(i) The exponential growth
(ii) Logistic growth
(i) Exponential Growth
➢ The exponential or geometric growth is common where the resources (food + space)
are unlimited.
➢ Each species has the ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number.
➢ The equation for exponential growth can be derived as follows:
dN/dt= (b – d) × N,
Let (b – d)= r, then
dN/dt =r
Integral form of exponential growth equation is
Nt = N0ert
where, N = population size,
Nt = population density after time t,
N0 = population density at time zero,
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase,
e = the base of natural logarithms
(2.71828),
b = birth rate (per capita births)
d = death rate (per capita death rates).
➢ ‘r’ is an important parameter
assessing impacts of biotic and abiotic factors on population growth. ‘r’ for flour
beetle was 0.12, for Norway rat was 0.015 and for human population in India was
0.0205 in 1981.
➢ In exponential growth, when N in relation to time is plotted on graph, the curve
becomes J shaped.
(ii) Logistic growth
➢ The resources become limited at certain point of time, so no population can grow
exponentially.
➢ This growth model is more realistic.
➢ Every ecosystem or environment or habitat has limited resources to support a
particular maximum number of individuals called its carrying capacity (K).
➢ When N is plotted in relation to time t, the logistic growth shows sigmoid curve and
is also called Verhulst–Pearl logistic growth. It is given by the following equation:
dN/dt= rN [K – N/K]
where N = population density at time t
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = carrying capacity.
➢ Graph shows lag phase, followed by phases of acceleration and deceleration and
finally an asymptote when population density reaches the carrying capacity.
4. Population Interaction
➢ Interspecific interactions are interactions of populations of two different species.
• The interactions may be beneficial/positive effect indicated by +.
• harmful/detrimental/negative effect indicated by –.
• neutral interaction/no effect on the species indicated by 0.
(i) Predation
➢ It is an interspecific interaction, where an animal, called predator, kills and consumes
the other weaker animal called prey.
➢ Predation is nature’s way of transferring energy to higher trophic levels, e.g., a tiger
(predator) eating a deer (prey), a sparrow (predator) eating fruit or seed (prey), etc.
➢ The role of predators: (a) Predators keep prey population under control. This is called
biological control. (b) Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a
community, by reducing the intensity of competition among prey species. (c) Besides
acting as ‘conduits’ for energy transfer across trophic levels, predators play other
important roles. In absence of predator species, prey species could achieve very high
population densities and lead to ecosystem instability.
➢ When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they become
invasive and start spreading fast because the invaded land does not have its natural
predators, e.g., Prickly pear cactus introduced in 1920’s into Australia created havoc
by spreading to millions of hectares and thus was brought under control only after a
cactus feeding predator (a moth) was introduced into the country from its natural
habitat.
➢ If a predator is too efficient and over-exploits its prey, then the prey might become
extinct and following it, the predator will also become extinct due to the lack of
food.
➢ They also help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing intensity
of competition among competing prey species, e.g., In rocky intertidal communities
of American Pacific Coast, star fish Pisaster is important predator. In the beginning
when all starfishes were removed from an intertidal area more than 10 species of
invertebrates became extinct in a year because of interspecific competition.
➢ The prey defence mechanisms
(a) To avoid being detected easily by the predators, some species of insects and frogs
are cryptically coloured (camouflaged).
(b) The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (birds) because of a
special chemical present in its body which is acquired by the butterfly by feeding on
a poisonous weed in its caterpillar stage.
(c) 25% of insects are phytophagous, i.e., feed on plant sap and other parts of plants.
So, some plants have thorns or spines for defence mechanism, e.g., Acacia, cactus.
(d) Some plants produce highly poisonous chemicals like cardiac glycosides, nicotine,
caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc., are produced by plants actually as
defences against grazers and browsers e.g., Calotropis grows in abandoned fields.
(ii) Competition
➢ Competition is a type of interaction where both the species suffer. It may exist
between some species (interspecific competition) or between individuals of same
species (intraspecific competition).
➢ The competition occurs due to limited resources between closely related species.
➢ Some totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resource, e.g., in
some shallow South American lakes, visiting flamingos and resident fishes compete
for their common food, zooplanktons.
➢ In interspecific competition, the feeding efficiency of one species might be reduced
due to the interfering and inhibitory presence of the other species, although the
resources are abundant.
➢ For example, after the introduction of goats in Galapagos Islands, the Abingdon
tortoise became extinct within a decade due to greater browsing efficiency of the
goats.
➢ A species whose distribution is restricted to small geographical area because of
presence of competitively superior species is found to expend its distributional range
when competing species is removed. Connell’s Elegant field experiment showed on
rocky sea coasts of Scotland, larger and competitively superior barnacle Balanus
dominates intertidal area and excludes smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that
zone.
➢ Competitive release refers to the phenomenon of a species whose distribution is
restricted to a small geographical area because of the presence of a competitively
superior species, is found to expand its distributional range dramatically when the
competing species is experimentally removed.
➢ Gause’s competitive exclusion principle states that two closely related species
competing for the same resource cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively
inferior one will be eliminated eventually by the superior one.
➢ Resource partitioning: It refers to the phenomenon in which species facing
competition might evolve mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than
exclusion. MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on
the same tree were able to avoid competition and coexist due to behavioural
differences in their foraging activities.
➢ Herbivores are more adversely affected by competition than carnivores.
(iii) Parasitism
➢ It is the mode of interaction between two species in which one species (parasite)
depends on the other species (host) for food and shelter, and in this process
damages the host. In this process one organism is benefited (parasite) while the
other is being harmed (host).
➢ Adaptation of parasite:
(a) The parasite has evolved to be host-specific in such a manner that both
host and parasite tend to co-evolve.
(b) Loss of unnecessary sense organs as they do not interact with external
environment [For example, eyes as they are found in an environment that lacks
light.)
(c) Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling to host
(d) Loss of digestive system to absorb digested food from increase chances
of survival.
(e) High reproductive capacity.
(f) Presence of adhesive.
(g) Loss of chlorophyll and leaves (e.g., cuscuta), to derive its nutrition from
the host plant which it parasitises.
(h) Presence of more than one host to facilitate parasitisation of its primary
host.
(i) Eggs resemble the host egg (e.g., crow) in size and colour to reduce the
chances of host bird (i.e., Koel) detecting them.
➢ The life cycles of some parasites are complex, where one or more intermediate host
or vectors to facilitate parasitisation are present.
(a) The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate hosts, a snail and a
fish, to complete its life cycle.
(b) Malarial parasite (Plasmodium) needs a vector (mosquito) to complete its
life cycle.
➢ Majority of parasites harm the host by reducing the survival, growth and
reproduction of the host. They reduce its population density by making it physically
weak.
➢ Parasites may be of two types: ectoparasites and endoparasites.
S.NO. ENDOPARASITE ECTOPARASITE
1. These are the parasites which live These are the parasites which feed on
inside the host’s body at different sites the external surface of the host
like liver, kidney, lungs, etc., for food organism for food and shelter.
and shelter.
2. Example, tapeworm, liver fluke, Example, lice on humans, ticks on
Plasmodium. dogs, copepods, Cuscuta.
➢ The phenomenon in which one organism (parasite) lays its eggs in the nest of
another organism is called brood parasitism. Eggs of parasitic birds have evolved to
resemble host’s eggs in size and colour to reduce the chance of host bird detecting
foreign eggs and remove them from nest. e.g., Cuckoo lays eggs in Crow’s nest
(iv) Commensalism
➢ Commensalism is referred to as the interaction between two species where one
species is benefited and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
➢ Few examples of commensalism:
(a) An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango tree. The orchid gets
shelter and nutrition from mango tree while the mango tree is neither benefited nor
harmed.
(b) Barnacles growing on the back of whale. Barnacles are benefited to move
to location for food as well as shelter while the whales are neither benefited nor
harmed.
(c) The egrets are in close association of grazing cattle. The cattle egrets are
benefited by the cattle to detect insects because cattle stir up the bushes and insects
are flushed out from the vegetation, to be detected by cattle egrets.
(d) Commensalism is also found between sea anemones (that has stinging
tentacles) and the clown fish. The fish is protected from predators and sea
anemones are neither benefited nor harmed.
(v) Amensalism
➢ Amensalism is referred to as the interaction between two different species, in which
one species is harmed and the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
➢ For example, the mould Penicillium secretes penicillin which kills bacteria but the
mould is unaffected.
(vi) Mutualism
➢ Mutualism is referred to as the interspecific interaction in which both the interacting
species are benefited.
➢ Some examples of mutualism
(a) Lichens represent close association between fungus and photosynthetic
algae or cyanobacteria, where the fungus helps in the absorption of nutrients and
provides protection while algae or cyanobacterium prepares the food.
(b) Mycorrhizae are close mutual association between fungi and the roots of
higher plants, where fungi help the plant for absorption of nutrients while the plant
provides food, & protection for the fungus.
(c) Mutualism are found in plant–animal relationships. Plants take the help
of animals for pollination and dispersal of their seeds and animals are rewarded in
the form of nectar or edible pollen or oviposition (site for laying egg).
(d) Orchids have evolved to attract right pollinator insect (bees and bumble
bees). Mediterranean orchid. Ophrys muscifera employs sexual deceit to get
pollinated by bee species. One petal of flower resembles female bee in size, colour
and markings and male bee is attracted and pseudo copulates with it. During this
process of pseudocopulation, the pollen grains are dusted on the body of male bees.
With such pollen dusts, male bee pseudo copulates to another flower of the same
species and pollination takes place. Here we see co-evolution, i.e., if female bee’s
colour patterns change during evolution, orchid flower also co-evolves to maintain
resemblance of petal to female bee.
(e) Co-evolution is also seen in many species of fig trees which are pollinated
by specific species of wasp. Female wasp uses fruit for oviposition and also uses
developing seeds within fruit for nourishing its larvae. Wasp pollinates the fig
inflorescence while searching for suitable egg laying sites. In return, the fig offers the
wasp some of its developing seeds as food for the developing wasp larvae.
