CHAPTER 1: Nature of Geography
Learning Outcomes
• Define geography and other related geographical terms and concepts.
• Trace the historical background of geography as a science.
• Explain the major and minor fields of geography and the relationship between geography
and the other fields of study.
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and
their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s
surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how
human culture interacts with the natural environment, and the way that locations
and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where
things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.
Ancient Geographers
The term "geography" comes to us from the ancient Greeks, who needed a word
to describe the writings and maps that were helping them make sense of the
world in which they lived. In Greek, geo means “earth” and -graphy means “to
write.” Using geography, Greeks developed an understanding of where their
homeland was located in relation to other places, what their own and other
places were like, and how people and environments were distributed. These
concerns have been central to geography ever since.
Of course, the Greeks were not the only people interested in geography.
Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand something
about their place in the world, and the people and environments around them.
Indeed, mapmaking probably came even before writing in many places. But ancient
Greek geographers were particularly influential. They developed very detailed
maps of areas in and around Greece, including parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia.
More importantly, they also raised questions about how and why different human
and natural patterns came into being on Earth’s surface, and why variations existed
from place to place. The effort to answer these questions about patterns and
distribution led them to figure out that the world was round,
to calculate Earth’s circumference, and to develop explanations of everything from
the seasonal flooding of the Nile River to differences in population densities from
place to place.
During the Middle Ages, geography ceased to be a major academic pursuit in
Europe. Advances in geography were chiefly made by scientists of the Muslim
world, based around the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. Geographers of
this Islamic Golden Age created the world’s first rectangular map based on a grid,
a map system that is still familiar today. Islamic scholars also applied their study of
people and places to agriculture, determining which crops and livestock were most
suited to specific habitats or environments.
In addition to the advances in the Middle East, the Chinese empire in Asia also
contributed immensely to geography. Until about 1500, China was the
most prosperous civilization on Earth. The Chinese were scientifically advanced,
especially in the field of astronomy. Around 1000, they also achieved one of the
most important developments in the history of geography: They were the first to
use the compass for navigational purposes. In the early 1400s, the explorer Cheng
Ho embarked on seven voyages to the lands bordering the China Sea and the Indian
Ocean, establishing China’s dominance throughout Southeast Asia.
Age of Discovery
Through the 13th-century travels of the Italian explorer Marco Polo, Europeans
learned about the riches of China. Curiosity was awakened; a desire to trade with
wealthy Asian cultures motivated a renewed interest in exploring the world. The
period of time between the 15th and 17th centuries is known in the West as
the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery.
With the dawn of the Age of Discovery, the study of geography regained
popularity in Europe. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s helped
spread geographic knowledge by making maps and charts widely available.
Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitated more exploring, greatly
improving the accuracy of maps and geographic information.
Greater geographic understanding allowed European powers to extend their
global influence. During the Age of Discovery, European nations established
colonies around the world. Improved transportation, communication, and
navigational technology allowed countries such as the United Kingdom to
successfully govern colonies as far away as the Americas, Asia, Australia, and
Africa.
Geography was not just a subject that made colonialism possible, however. It also
helped people understand the planet on which they lived. Not surprisingly,
geography became an important focus of study in schools and universities.
Geography also became an important part of other academic disciplines, such
as chemistry, economics, and philosophy. In fact, every academic subject has
some geographic connection. Chemists study where certain chemical elements,
such as gold or silver, can be found. Economists examine which nations trade with
other nations, and what resources are exchanged. Philosophers analyze the
responsibility people have to take care of the Earth.
Emergence of Modern Geography
Some people have trouble understanding the complete scope of the discipline of
geography because, unlike most other disciplines, geography is not defined by
one particular topic. Instead, geography is concerned with many different
topics—people, culture, politics, settlements, plants, landforms, and much more.
What distinguishes geography is that it approaches the study of diverse topics in a
particular way (that is, from a particular perspective). Geography
asks spatial questions—how and why things are distributed or arranged in
particular ways on Earth’s surface. It looks at these different distributions and
arrangements at many different scales. It also asks questions about how the
interaction of different human and natural activities on Earth’s surface shape
the characteristics of the world in which we live.
Geography seeks to understand where things are found and why they are present
in those places; how things that are located in the same or distant places
influence one another over time; and why places and the people who live in them
develop and change in particular ways. Raising these questions is at the heart of
the “geographic perspective.”
Exploration has long been an important part of geography. But exploration no
longer simply means going to places that have not been visited before. It
means documenting and trying to explain the variations that exist across the
surface of Earth, as well as figuring out what those variations mean for the future.
The age-old practice of mapping still plays an important role in this type of
exploration, but exploration can also be done by using images from satellites or
gathering information from interviews. Discoveries can come by using computers
to map and analyze the relationship among things in geographic space, or from
piecing together the multiple forces, near and far, that shape the way individual
places develop.
Applying a geographic perspective demonstrates geography’s concern not just
with where things are, but with “the why of where”—a short, but useful definition
of geography’s central focus.
The insights that have come from geographic research show the importance of
asking “the why of where” questions. Geographic studies comparing physical
characteristics of continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for instance,
gave rise to the idea that Earth’s surface is comprised of large, slowly moving
plates—plate tectonics.
Studies of the geographic distribution of human settlements have shown how
economic forces and modes of transport influence the location of towns and
cities. For example, geographic analysis has pointed to the role of the U.S.
Interstate Highway System and the rapid growth of car ownership in creating a
boom in U.S. suburban growth after World War II. The geographic perspective
helped show where Americans were moving, why they were moving there, and
how their new living places affected their lives, their relationships with others,
and their interactions with the environment.
Geographic analyses of the spread of diseases have pointed to the conditions that
allow particular diseases to develop and spread. Dr. John Snow’s cholera map
stands out as a classic example. When cholera broke out in London, England, in
1854, Snow represented the deaths per household on a street map. Using the map,
he was able to trace the source of the outbreak to a water pump on the corner of
Broad Street and Cambridge Street. The geographic perspective helped identify the
source of the problem (the water from a specific pump) and allowed people to
avoid the disease (avoiding water from that pump).
Investigations of the geographic impact of human activities have advanced
understanding of the role of humans in transforming the surface of Earth, exposing
the spatial extent of threats such as water pollution by manmade waste. For
example, geographic study has shown that a large mass of tiny pieces of plastic
currently floating in the Pacific Ocean is approximately the size of Texas. Satellite
images and other geographic technology identified the so-called “Great Pacific
Garbage Patch.”
These examples of different uses of the geographic perspective help explain why
geographic study and research is important as we confront many 21st century
challenges, including environmental pollution, poverty, hunger, and ethnic or
political conflict.
Because the study of geography is so broad, the discipline is typically divided into
specialties. At the broadest level, geography is divided into physical
geography, human geography, geographic techniques, and regional geography.
Physical Geography
The natural environment is the primary concern of physical geographers, although
many physical geographers also look at how humans have altered natural
systems. Physical geographers study Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil,
streams, landforms, and oceans. Some disciplines within physical geography
include geomorphology, glaciology, pedology, hydrology, climatology, biogeograp
hy, and oceanography.
Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them.
Geomorphologists investigate the nature and impact of wind, ice,
rivers, erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, living things, and other forces that shape
and change the surface of the Earth.
Glaciologists focus on the Earth’s ice fields and their impact on the planet’s
climate. Glaciologists document the properties and distribution of glaciers
and icebergs. Data collected by glaciologists has demonstrated the retreat of
Arctic and Antarctic ice in the past century.
Pedologists study soil and how it is created, changed, and classified. Soil studies
are used by a variety of professions, from farmers analyzing
field fertility to engineers investigating the suitability of different areas for
building heavy structures.
Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water: its properties, distribution, and effects.
Hydrologists are especially concerned with the movement of water as it cycles
from the ocean to the atmosphere, then back to Earth’s surface. Hydrologists
study the water cycle through rainfall into streams, lakes, the soil, and
underground aquifers. Hydrologists provide insights that are critical to building or
removing dams, designing irrigation systems, monitoring water quality,
tracking drought conditions, and predicting flood risk.
Climatologists study Earth’s climate system and its impact on Earth’s surface. For
example, climatologists make predictions about El Nino, a
cyclical weather phenomenon of warm surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean.
They analyze the dramatic worldwide climate changes caused by El Nino, such as
flooding in Peru, drought in Australia, and, in the United States, the oddities of
heavy Texas rains or an unseasonably warm Minnesota winter.
Biogeographers study the impact of the environment on the distribution of plants
and animals. For example, a biogeographer might document all the places in the
world inhabited by a certain spider species, and what those places have in
common.
Oceanography, a related discipline of physical geography, focuses on the
creatures and environments of the world’s oceans. Observation of ocean tides
and currents constituted some of the first oceanographic investigations. For
example, 18th-century mariners figured out the geography of the Gulf Stream, a
massive current flowing like a river through the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery and
tracking of the Gulf Stream helped communications and travel between Europe
and the Americas.
Today, oceanographers conduct research on the impacts of water pollution,
track tsunamis, design offshore oil rigs, investigate underwater eruptions of lava,
and study all types of marine organisms from toxic algae to friendly dolphins.
Human Geography
Human geography is concerned with the distribution and networks of people and
cultures on Earth’s surface. A human geographer might investigate the local,
regional, and global impact of rising economic powers China and India, which
represent 37 percent of the world’s people. They also might look at
how consumers in China and India adjust to new technology and markets, and
how markets respond to such a huge consumer base.
Human geographers also study how people use and alter their environments.
When, for example, people allow their animals to overgraze a region, the soil
erodes and grassland is transformed into desert. The impact of overgrazing on the
landscape as well as agricultural production is an area of study for human
geographers.
Finally, human geographers study how political, social, and economic systems are
organized across geographical space. These include governments, religious
organizations, and trade partnerships. The boundaries of these groups constantly
change.
The main divisions within human geography reflect a concern with different types
of human activities or ways of living. Some examples of human geography
include urban geography, economic geography, cultural geography, political
geography, social geography, and population geography. Human geographers
who study geographic patterns and processes in past times are part of
the subdiscipline of historical geography. Those who study how people
understand maps and geographic space belong to a subdiscipline known as
behavioral geography.
Many human geographers interested in the relationship between humans and the
environment work in the subdisciplines of cultural geography and political
geography.
Cultural geographers study how the natural environment influences the
development of human culture, such as how the climate affects the agricultural
practices of a region. Political geographers study the impact of political
circumstances on interactions between people and their environment, as well as
environmental conflicts, such as disputes over water rights.
Some human geographers focus on the connection between human health and
geography. For example, health geographers create maps that track the location
and spread of specific diseases. They analyze the geographic disparities of health-
care access. They are very interested in the impact of the environment on human
health, especially the effects of environmental hazards such
as radiation, lead poisoning, or water pollution.
Geographic Techniques
Specialists in geographic techniques study the ways in which geographic
processes can be analyzed and represented using different methods and
technologies. Mapmaking, or cartography, is perhaps the most basic of these.
Cartography has been instrumental to geography throughout the ages.
As early as 1500 BCE, Polynesian navigators in the Pacific Ocean used complex
maps made of tiny sticks and shells that represented islands and ocean currents
they would encounter on their voyages. Today, satellites placed into orbit by the
U.S. Department of Defense communicate with receivers on the ground called
global positioning system (GPS) units to instantly identify exact locations on Earth.
Today, almost the entire surface of Earth has been mapped with remarkable
accuracy, and much of this information is available instantly on the internet. One
of the most remarkable of these websites is Google Earth, which “lets you fly
anywhere on Earth to view satellite imagery, maps, terrain, 3D buildings, from
galaxies in outer space to the canyons of the ocean.” In essence, anyone can be a
virtual Christopher Columbus from the comfort of home.
Technological developments during the past 100 years have given rise to a
number of other specialties for scientists studying geographic techniques. The
airplane made it possible to photograph land from above. Now, there are many
satellites and other above-Earth vehicles that help geographers figure out what
the surface of the planet looks like and how it is changing.
Geographers looking at what above-Earth cameras and sensors reveal are
specialists in remote sensing. Pictures taken from space can be used to make maps,
monitor ice melt, assess flood damage, track oil spills, predict weather, or perform
endless other functions. For example, by comparing satellite photos taken from
1955 to 2007, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) discovered that the
rate of coastal erosion along Alaska’s Beaufort Sea had doubled. Every year from
2002 to 2007, about 45 feet per year of coast, mostly icy permafrost, vanished into
the sea.
Computerized systems that allow for precise calculations of how things are
distributed and relate to one another have made the study of geographic
information systems (GIS) an increasingly important specialty within geography.
Geographic information systems are powerful databases that collect all types of
information (maps, reports, statistics, satellite images, surveys, demographic data,
and more) and link each piece of data to a geographic reference point, such as
geographic coordinates. This data, called geospatial information, can be stored,
analyzed, modeled, and manipulated in ways not possible before GIS computer
technology existed.
The popularity and importance of GIS has given rise to a new science known as
geographic information science (GISci). Geographic information scientists study
patterns in nature as well as human development. They might study natural
hazards, such as a fire that struck Los Angeles, California, in 2008. A map posted on
the internet showed the real-time spread of the fire, along with information to help
people make decisions about how to evacuate quickly. GIS can also illustrate
human struggles from a geographic perspective, such as the interactive online map
published by the New York Times in May 2009 that showed
building foreclosure rates in various regions around the New York City area.
The enormous possibilities for producing computerized maps and diagrams that
can help us understand environmental and social problems have made geographic
visualization an increasingly important specialty within geography. This geospatial
information is in high demand by just about every institution, from government
agencies monitoring water quality to entrepreneurs deciding where to locate new
businesses.
Regional Geography
Regional geographers take a somewhat different approach to specialization,
directing their attention to the general geographic characteristics of a region. A
regional geographer might specialize in African studies, observing and
documenting the people, nations, rivers, mountains, deserts, weather, trade, and
other attributes of the continent. There are different ways you can define a
region. You can look at climate zones, cultural regions, or political regions. Often
regional geographers have a physical or human geography specialty as well as a
regional specialty.
Regional geographers may also study smaller regions, such as urban areas. A
regional geographer may be interested in the way a city like Shanghai, China, is
growing. They would study transportation, migration, housing, and language use,
as well as the human impact on elements of the natural environment, such as the
Huangpu River.
Whether geography is thought of as a discipline or as a basic feature of our world,
developing an understanding of the subject is important. Some grasp of
geography is essential as people seek to make sense of the world and understand
their place in it. Thinking geographically helps people to be aware of the
connections among and between places and to see how important events are
shaped by where they take place. Finally, knowing something about geography
enriches people’s lives—promoting curiosity about other people and places and
an appreciation of the patterns, environments, and peoples that make up the
endlessly fascinating, varied planet on which we live.
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