FORENSIC – 6 generally used in pistols and

other high-power guns.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Bullets

Definition:

The word “Bullet” was

derived from French word
“Boulette” which means a
small ball. This term is Types of Bullets according to their
generally used when we are maximum effect to their targets:
referring to projectile fired
from any small arms. In 1. Ball type
more technical sense, bullet – Is a type
refers to a non-metallic of bullet
cylindrical ball propelled from which are
a firearm. intended
for anti-
Types of Bullets personnel
and
Bullets have various general use.
types depending upon their
specific and purpose. In
general bullet can be
2. Armour
classified as either piercing –
Lead or Jacketed. Is a type of
military
1. Lea bullet
d designed
to
penetrate
light steel
armor. Its mechanical construction
makes it capable of penetrating
through some light vehicles. It is
Type – is a type of a bullet that formed by a hard steel core covered
is basically composed of lead with a jacket thus, giving its core the
metal. It’s used was due to its optimum power of piercing while its
density, having a good weight shape has the optimum shape for
is a small size and easy for accurate flight. It was first patented in
casting. At present it is being about 1903 by Roth of Vienna
mixed with a small percentage although, it was largely introduced for
of antimony or zinc in order to snipers countering the small armour
add hardness and prevent shields in the year 1914-1918.
“Lead fouling”. In some cases,
lead metal is used as core for
jacketed type of bullet. 3. Explosive Bullet
Commonly used in revolvers - Is a small arms
and in modern construction bullet containing a
having its rear section charge of
jacketed, leaving the lead core explosive which
exposed. will detonate on
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet impact.
consisting of the regular lead
core, coated with a copper
alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is

Page 1-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 4. Incendiary designed by Major Rubin of the Swiss
Bullet – Army in the year 1880’s.
Type of a
military 3. Discarding Sabot – A type of bullet
bullet used designed for greater velocity. It has a
to cause ball covered with light metal which
fire in a separate when fired. The Remington
target, generally designed to use by Arms has its own version called
aircraft armament in order for the fuel accelerator bullet.
tanks to ignite. It is constructed by
having the front half of the
bullet be filled with white
phosphorus, a chemical
capable of spontaneous
ignition when comes into
contact with air. 4. Dumdum
5. Tracer Bullet – a type of – is a type
of bullet
designed
in India in
the year
1890s by
Captain
Bertie
Clay. It
consisted of a service ball having its
nose expose due to a trimmed jacket
military bullet capable of leaving to the back. Now the term is loosely
visible marks or traces while in flight used in describing any expanding
giving the gunner the chance to bullet.
observe the strike of the shot or make
adjustments in the event of a miss. It
resembles a ball type, although the
rare portion of core removed and the 5. Frangible ball type – is a type of
space filled with mixture of bullet designed for training purposes
magnesium powder, barium nitrate especially for aerial targets. It does
and metallic salts to give the desired not cause any damage to the target
color of the flame or smoke. rather leaving a paint mark for the
purpose of assessing the gunners.
Miscellaneous type of bullets
6. Flechette – a dark – like solid
1. Baton Round – is the proper name projectile, stabilized in flight by fins. It
used when referring to a “rubber was in used as early as 1914 and at
bullet”. This type of bullet was first present the cartridge for 12 gauge is
developed for the Hong Kong Police loaded with 20 steel flechettes.
and were made of wood, due to its
ability to split on impact with the
ground thus, possible of inflicting
wounds it was later replaced by a 7. Heel Bullet – is a type of bullet
rubber. This is generally a plain commonly used in pistol having its
cylindrical rubber or plastic used in 12 rear portion reduced in diameter in
bore, 26mm or 37mm riot gun and order to fit into mouth of the shell, thus
fired by a low powered charge. making the rest of its part appears
flush with the mouth of the shell.
2. Compound bullet – a type of a bullet
having its core of dense metal covered
with jacket of lighter metal which does
not bring lead into contact with the
rifling of the weapon and which was

Page 2-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 8. Hallow point -
is the type of 13. Streamlined Bullet – is a
bullet in which the nose is drilled out to type of bullet that have
the certain depth leaving a hole, the front section tapered to a
purpose is to be point and its rear section tapered to as
able for the smaller diameter thus reducing the
bullet to deform Base Drag.
upon impact
making a
“mushroom
bullet”.

9. Lethal Ball –
British term
used when
referring to a
single shot
used to issue
to the Cartridge
members of
the Home Case
guard anti-
personnel use Cartridge Case is the
during World metallic or non – metallic
War Two. tabular container usually of
brass (70% copper and
10. Multiple
Bullet – is 30% zinc) designed to
the team unite the bullet, primer and
applied to a the gunpowder into one
number or unit. It is also known as shell or casing.
two or
three bullet Cartridge case make is traditional of brass
formed a although there are some at present which are
cartridge it was patented to the early
either plastic varnish steel, zinc-coated or even
1990s by Georg Luger.
chemically coated are at use.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

11. Soft Point
– refers to 1. It locates the bullet properly relatively to
any type of the bore of the firearm.
bullet
having its 2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
jacket 3. It provides gas seals at the breech
short that
have nose against an unwanted escape of
is exposed thus capable deforming propellant gas upon firing.
upon the impact and its common for
hunting purpose. 4. Serves as waterproof container for the
propellant or powder charge.
12. Spitzer Bullet – Is the term to used by
the American and British sportsmen 5. Acts as the insulator between the
when referring to appointed bullet. propellant and the hot walls of the
chamber in a rapid- firing of firearms.

Page 3-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base – The Bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head
stamp (marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber,
manufacturer and in some cases including the date, trade name and batch
number.
2. Rim – Is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of
the cartridge to chamber.
3. Extracting Grooves – Is the circular groove near the rim of the shell
designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket – Is that part of the shell which provides the means for the
primer to be put in the central position. It function is extended to: (a) hold
the primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent escape of gas; (c) to
provide solid for primer anvil.
5. Body – is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gun powder.
6. Shoulder – that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the
cartridge which is evident in a bottle neck type.
7. Cannelure – is the type cylindrical groove formed in the outer
surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell
to the chamber as well as prevent bullet form being push
to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being
utilized for identification.

8. Neck – is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the

bullet. This obvious in a bottle neck type of shell but not with the
straight type.

9. Crimp – Is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell

designed for two purpose: (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it
from being pull out from the shell and two (2) to offers resistance to
the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the gun powder.

10. Vent or Flash hole – Is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serving as the passage way
for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

Primer

Definition

Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the

cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive
chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame
when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan of Boxer
type. It is also known as the percussion cup.

The Berdan is a type of primer construction which was

designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S. Army
Ordinance Department. Its distinction over the Boxer is that, its
anvil forms part of the cartridge case and a number of flash hole to
serve as the passage of ignition usually two (2). This is common in
almost all military ammunition.

Page 4-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 The Boxer on the other hand was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal laboratory at
Woolwich Arsenal the year 1866. In this type the anvil was formed separately from the shell and became a
part of the ignition. cap making a single flash hole to serve as the passage of ignition. Although its
manufacture seems o be quite difficult, it became more popular because of its adaptability for reloading.

Origin of Ignition System

The term “lock” was the one used during the ancient time when referring to ignition system. Ancient
weapons such as the muskets were found in varieties of ignition system. The earliest of these is the “match
lock” also referred to as refined “serpentine lock” with a – shaped piece of metal pivoted on the stave. The
forward end holding the hump fiber treated with saltpeter. Twisted and tied by a thread to retain the twists to
make it slow. Ancient of ignition system. The earliest of these is the “match lock” also referred to as refined
“serpentine lock” with a – shaped piece of metal pivoted on the stave, the forward end holding the hump fiber
treated with saltpeter, twisted and tied by a thread to retain the twists to make it slow burning. It burns at
about 3 to 5 inches per hour.

The match lock was later superseded by a “wheel lock” in the early years of the 16 th century. This
ignition system is comparable to the modern principle of our cigarette lighters. A roughened wheel, driven by
a spring that needs to be first wound up or spanned producing sparks igniting the priming powder and passed
through a touch hole burning the powder charge.

Fifty years later, the “flint lock” ignition system was developed (fast known as “snap-lock”) In this
system a simple mechanical fire striking lick called “snaphaunce” replace the wheel mechanism and an iron
right-angle pan cover hinged over the priming pan, constituted the flint lock. The hinged will be stricken by the
cock upon release of the trigger, causing the hinged cover to be thrown back, produced by the scraping of flint
along the iron. This system was used until the start of the 19 th century when the percussion system was
finally being developed.

Alexander John Forsyth, a minister of Belhelvie in Scotland, known as the father of percussion
system developed a better system of ignition in the year 1805. He devised a formula composing of mercury
fulminate that would easily ignite upon a single struck. The percussion system was spread and almost totally
replaced the flint lock in the year 1840. This led to the making of the famous percussion cap of Joshua Shaw
in 1814 and finally adopted by British Army in the year 1838 and by the Americans in the year 1842.

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup - Is the brass gilding cup

which contains the priming mixture,
the disc and the anvil.

Page 5-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 2. Priming Mixture – Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical
blow of the firing pin. Also called as percussion powder.
3. Anvil – Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the
firing pin causing friction that initiates ignition.
4. Disc – is a thin paper or foil which is
pressed over the priming mixture in
order to protect it from moisture attack.

Types of Priming Mixture Compound

1. Corrosive – one containing potassium chlorate which when ignited produce moisture causing the
formation of rust in the bore of the firearm. Other components are Antimony sulfide and mercury
fulminate.
2. Non Corrosive – One which is designed for less chances of rusting by replacing the potassium
chlorate with barium nitrate.

Gun Powder

Definition:

Gunpowder (also called as Propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of chemicals of various
compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when burned.

The Development of gun Powder

If there is much of literary works on firearm identification, the History of gunpowder is the most
controversial of all topics incorporated in the field of study. Powders, explosives are at most times credited to
the Chinese and the Arabs, they have had pyrotechnics composition of sorts --- fireworks long before anything
of the kind was known in Europe. But there is no warrant for considering that they had invented gun and gun
powder. On the other hand, according to Prof. J.K. Partington, A British Chemist, at about 1000 A.D., the
Chinese knew about saltpeter based gun powder.

A question of where it was discovered, who first used it for gun who invented it is still a mystery.
Maybe this is caused by lack of proof beyond doubt as to the claim of various writers as to who invented the
gun powder and realized its capabilities. Two of the most popular individual whose name are always attached
to gun powder discovery were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwarts. Let’s take a short description of how their
names are always mentioned in the history.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan Monk, who wrote the ----“De Mirabili Potestate Artis et
Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an anagram. This anagram was only re-
arranged and properly punctuated by a British Artillery Officer named Colonel Hime and it read – “but of
saltpeter takes seven part, five of young hazel twig and five of sulfur, and so thou wilt call up thunder and
destruction of thou know the art”. This is practically a working gunpowder formula.

Page 6-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 Bacon did not make any claim of its discovery but suggest that by 1266 the gunpowder was already of
a common knowledge and he was merely reporting it as a fact. Maybe another reason why he never any
claim is due to the prohibition existing during his time that no forms of an article involving explosives should be
made. If he was to directly print the same it might even cause his life.

Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who
according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while experimenting on some powder in a
cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid, and from this deduced the principle of
containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of Ammunition). The engraver dated the
scene 1380, and it was evident that well before that date, cannons were already in use.

Another person in the year 1325 A.D. makes his own literary works entitled “De Officiis Regnum”,
which illustrate the firing of a cannon. This is no explanation of the picture but it is clearly shown a bulbous
tube, with an arrow protruding from the muzzle, being ignited by a, man with a hot iron.

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter (75%) charcoal (15%)
and sulfur (10%). This formula varies in percentage and even in composition in different country throughout
the world. This mixture is being ground into fine dust, called “Serpentine” which was said to have been used
until the middle of the 16th century. After such form, a “corned powder was used to replace serpentine, for
being more stable. But due to its high sensitivity leading to accidents modification had been made to
developed other forms. Some used potassium nitrate while the other used sodium nitrate. But whatever
forms of composition of black powders there is generally great disadvantage of this power. It creates a dark
smoke and causes fouling. This creates a problem not only to the gunner but also to the gun itself.

These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the introduction of the
smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful
used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the year 1864. (Although historically, nitroglycerine compound was
first discovered in 1846). The basic ingredients used for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first
produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.

Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for rifle in the year 1884 and named
it “poudre B’ taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887 Alfred Nobel invented a smokeless powder with
nitroglycerine (40% and nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great
Britain, they utilized picric acid in addition to cellulose fiber which they called “Lyddite” and in Germany TNT
(Tri-nitroleluene) was the one used, more powerful than picric acid but mush difficult to detonate. Also in the
year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War Dept. Chemist developed “Cordite” a smokeless powder with same
composition as Nobel in a form of cords or sticks. And in the early 1890, s smokeless powder had replaced
black powder and became uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900

Firearms Characteristics

A gun barrel is the tube, usually metal, through which a controlled explosion or rapid expansion of gases are
released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high velocity. All barrel irrespective to the type of the
weapons for which they are made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from which the
barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical properties, thus assuring a high-quality
product after the various machine operations and heat treatment are completed.

The Following are the Stages in the Manufacture of the Barrel

A. Drilling
A special deep-hole is used and through the center of which
lubricating oil is force under pressure. This operation results to
comparatively rough hole of uniform diameter from one end of

Page 7-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 the barrel to other. At this stage the interior surface of the barrel will bear numerous scars and
scratches resulting from the irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chip will mark the finish.
It also the stage which the bore diameter (caliber) of the firearm is determined

B. Reaming
In this process some of the scars or scratches left by the drilling operation are removed. The
reamer removes the metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than
the drill which completes the bore operations. It includes roughly finishing and burnishing
reamer to have a smoothbore barrel.
C. RIFLING
This process is necessary for the making of the helical grooves inside the barrel and such can
be performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system – (broach)
4. Button – system (button)

Rifling in the bore of the firearm is helical groove consisting of depressed portion (groove) and an elevated
portion (lands) which is responsible for the rotation motion of the projectile as it leaves the gun muzzle.

D. Lapped
This is the polishing operation in which a plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn
back and forth on a rod carrying it is a polishing compound. This will remove large
imperfection on the inside surface of the barrel both to the lands and the grooves. What is
important about this process is that no matter how many times we polish or finish the barrel,
only the large imperfections may be eliminated but not the minute imperfections making a
series of striations that will pass through it. This is the basis for which firearms are identified.

The Breech face

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the

breech face also bears with it the same importance. It is
that portion of the firearms against which the shell or the
cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every
time that a cartridge is fired in the chamber. If this
happens, the base will be marked by the breech face of
the gun.

Class and individual characteristics of firearms;

Types of Characteristics in firearms

Page 8-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 1. Class Characteristics – are those properties or attributes of a firearms which can be determined
even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are considered to be a
manufacture’s designs or specifications and security.
2. Individual Characteristics – are meant for those characteristics which are being determine only after
the firearm was already been manufactured. They are the product of machine imperfections and
some later due to the used of the firearms.

Class Characteristics of firearms:

1. Bore Diameter - (caliber or gauge) it is diameter

to which the bore was reamed. The distance
measured between two opposite lands inside
the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an
inch. In most express in either caliber in inch or
in millimeters such

Cal. .22, .25, .30, .32, .38, .380, .357, .44, .45, .50, etc. or 5.56mm, 6.35mm, 9mm, 11mm etc. .in
shotgun they are either in gauge or in inch, such as 10 gauge (), 12 gauge (.729), 20 gauge (.615), 24
gauge (579), 30 gauge (.537) 36 gauge (.506) and the smallest which is .410.

2. Number of Lands and Grooves – the number of

lands and grooves inside the barrel of a given
firearm are always the same or equal. It may run
from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm
are five and six.

Lands – are the elevated portion of the

bore of the firearm.

Grooves – are the depressed portion of

the bore between the lands.

Page 9-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 3. Width of the Lands – is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves width and number.
The lands are the remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.

4. Width of the Grooves – is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a
grooves.

5. Direction of Twist – rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right which
cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of Rifling – It is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the measure
of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel (360 degree).

7. Depth of Grooves – The groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually
few thousandths of an inch deep which equal to the height of the lands.

Types of Rifling

1. Steyer Type – Is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width of the
lands grooves. (4 RG-L)

2. Carbine Type – Rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two (2)
times the width of the lands. (4RG2X)

3. Smith and Wesson – Rifling having five (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the land
and grooves are equal. (5RG-L)

4. Colt – Type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice (2)
the width of the lands. (6LG2X)

5. Browning – Type rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, width of the grooves is
twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)

6. Webley – Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, Right hand twist, the width of the groove is
three time broader than the lands. (7RG3X)

7. Winchester – Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves in
three time larger than the width of the lands. (6RG3X)

Individual Characteristics in Firearms:

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will give us both
the test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property based on the left marks on every
bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of a lens with high magnification is
necessary to discover individuality.

Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally categorized as to either Accidental or Repetitive.
Accidental marks are those marks that may bare some importance to the investigation but are considered of
not much value in the identification of the particular firearm or weapon since they are not regularly formed in

Page 10-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
the operation of the gun. On the other hand, Repetitive marks are those marks which are very useful in
identifying a firearm. They show identity of performance.

Marks Found of Fired Bullets:

1. Land Marks – marks left on a fired bullet

caused by its contact to the elevated
portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm.
It appears as slight depressions or
scratches on the cylindrical surface of the
fired bullet. This considered as one of the
most important mark found on a fired
bullet used for the purposes of
identification.

2. Groove Marks – marks found on a fired

bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel
which is the same number as that of the
land marks.

3. Skid Marks – Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is
more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward
movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.

4. Stripping Marks – marks found or those bullet fired from a “loose-fit” barrel
wherein the rifling are already being badly worn out. Worn out in the rifling of
the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction brought about by Rust
(corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion).

5. Shaving Marks – marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver cause
by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.

6. Slippage marks – marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or
oversize barrel.

Marks Found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark – mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically
near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge.
Considered as one of the most important marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.

2. Breech Face Mark – mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by backward movement to the
breech face of the block of the firearm. Also one of the important mark in shell identification.

3. Extractor mark – mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case. Cause by its
withdrawal from the chamber.

4. Ejector Mark – mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm. It is located
near the rim of the case cause by throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.

5. Shearing Mark – sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing pin
mark.

6. Magazine Lip Mark – marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips during the
loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

Page 11-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor
 7. Chamber Mark – mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the
irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In fired Cartridge Case either of the firing pin mark and the breech face marks can be used as
basis for identification, in the absence or non-use of these two, both the ejector and extractor
marks can be utilized as secondary choice.

Page 12-12 Vincent P. Sarmiento.RCrim

Subject Instructor