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Structural Engineering
Structure: Building, Bridge, Dam, Arch, Tower etc.

Analysis: Finding effects in terms of internal force and displacement

Force: AFD, SFD, BMD (Stress) => Internal forces
Displacement: Deflection and Slope/Rotation (Strain)

Design: Finding cross section and choosing material.

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Rigid Body:
Relative position of particles does not change under the application of load.
Body does not change its shape, size and dimension.

Deformable Body:
Relative position of particles changes under the application of load.
Body changes its shape, size and dimension.

Stress:
• Force of resistance per unit area offered by a body against
deformation

• It is measured in terms of force exerted per unit area.

• The unit of stress is N/mm2(MPa) or KN/mm2 or N/m2(Pa).

• It originates only in deformable body

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Various Types of Stresses:

Direct Stresses:

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Indirect Stresses:

A) Direct stress:
The stress which is produced when direction of force and deformation is same.

1. Normal stress (Axial Stress):

Stress that acts perpendicular to surface i.e. along the axis of member.
i. Tensile stress:
- developed due to tensile force
- which tends to elongate the body.

ii. Compressive stress:

- developed due to compressive force
- which tends to shorten the body.
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2. Shearing stress:
- Stress that acts parallel to surface i.e. perpendicular to the axis of member.

3. Bearing stress/Crushing stress:

- developed at the state of load transfer
- a localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two
members.

B) Indirect stress:
The stress which is produced when direction of force and deformation is
different.
• Bending stress: Bending stresses developed due to bending moment

• Torsional stresses: When load applied at certain eccentricity, torsion is

developed on a body. Due to torsion, torsional stress is developed.

C) Combined Stress:
It is the possible combination of direct and indirect stresses.

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Strain
• the rate of change of this deformation is called strain.
• If ‘Δl’ be the change in length and ‘l’ is original length then,
Strain (ɛ) = (unitless)

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# Types of strain:
a) Normal Strain (longitudinal strain, axial strain, linear strain)
• Longitudinal direction strain due to longitudinal direction load
• two types i.e. tensile strain and compressive strain.
ɛ =

b) Lateral Strain/ Transverse Strain

• Lateral direction strain due to longitudinal direction load
•ɛ =

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c) Shearing strain
• Lateral direction strain due to lateral
direction load
•ɛ = tan∅
• For small angle ɛ ø
• So the shearing strain is angle through
which the body distorts.

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d) Volumetric strain
• Change in volume per unit original volume
•ɛ =

A)Volumetric strain for rectangular bar subjected to axial load in the direction of length
2
ɛ . 2∗ " #1 &
%
'
= #1 2μ)
(

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B) Volumetric strain for rectangular bar subjected to mutually

perpendicular forces
∆ + -+ -+
• ɛv = = ɛx +ɛy +ɛz = , (, . #1 2μ)
where ∆/ Change in Volume and v = Volume of the bar
• ɛx, ɛy, ɛz are strains in three principal direction x, y & z respectively.
+, 1 +8 1 +. 1
• ɛ0 #34 + 36 &, ɛ7 #39 + 36 & and ɛ: #34 +
( 2 ( 2 ( 2
39 &

C) Volumetric strain for a cylindrical bar of uniform diameter

ɛ 2 . 2∗ "

D) Volumetric strain for a sphere of diameter

ɛ 3 3∗ %" " 3ɛ

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# Poisson's ratio
• The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain (longitudinal strain)

• denoted by < (Mu) or = (Nu) or 1/m.

?@ @ A /
•µ= =
A ? @ @ A /

1
• The value of poison’s ratio,< ≯ and the limiting value lie
D
between -1 to 0.5

• µ = -ve : Auxetic Material

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# Poisson's ratio continue….

• For steel: 1/4 to 1/3 = 0.3 (Practically)

• For concrete. 0.08 to 0.18 = 0.15 (Practically)

• Clay = 0.3 to 0.45

• Cast Iron = 0.21 to 0.26

• µ=0 : Highly Compressible Material (Cork)

• µ=0.5 : Incompressible Material (Rubber)

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# Hooke's Law
• Robert Hooke formulated that "Stress is linearly proportional to strain within
proportional limit or limit of proportionality.”
• If σ is stress and ɛ is strain then.
σ∝ ɛ and F Gɛ (for normal stress and normal strain)
I
• H K
J
I
• H
J(

where,
E = a constant known as Young’s modulus of elasticity. It is actually the
slope of a stress-strain graph.
• The numerical value of E,
E for steel – 2*105 N/mm2 or 2*1011 N/m2 or 200 KN/mm2
E for concrete – 5000 to 5700 LMN and Generally, E= 5000 LMN
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Fig. Stress Strain Graph for Mild Steel (Ductile Material)

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Similarly, for Shear stress and Shear strain;

Shear Stress (O) α Shear Strain (P), within shearing proportionality limit
=> Q RS
where,
G = Modulus of Rigidity / Shear Modulus

Again, for volumetric stress and volumetric strain;

volumetric Stress (σvol) α volumetric Strain (εvol)
=> FTUV W XTUV
Where,
1
k = Bulk Modulus =
Y 2Z@? A[A A 4

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Thermal Stress (σt) and Thermal Strain (εt):

Change in dimension of body due to change in temperature,
⇒ ]∗ ∗
⇒ ]∗
⇒ X^ _ ∗ `^

Similarly,
3 K∗ a
F^ G ∗ _ ∗ `^

where,
α= coefficient of linear expansion
αsteel= 11 x 10-6 /oC
αconcrete= 12 x 10-6 /oC
αcopper= 17.5 x 10-6 /oC
αAluminium= 23 x 10-6 /oC
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Cases:

Case I: Restrained Condition

Temperature up => Tends to Expand => Restrained => Compressive
Stress

Temperature down => Tends to Contract => Restrained => Tensile

Stress

Case II: Free Condition

Temperature up or down => No Stress (Because free to expand)

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Q. A composite member consisting of steel and copper with free condition is subjected to temperature
rise, then copper will undergo
a) Tension
b) Compression (Ans)
c) Both a) and b)
c) None

Note: In composite material,

strain compatibility should be valid
i.e. Staincopper = Strainsteel
Also, αcopper > αsteel

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Relationship between three elastic moduli and Poisson’s ratio:

1. K 2b 1 + =

2. K 3N#1 2=&

9Nb
3. K
3N + b

4. K H b H N

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R
Q. What is the ratio for mild steel
G
a) 0.4 (Ans)
b) 2.5
c) 0.25
d) 4

Q. For homogeneous isotropic material obeying Hook’s law, number of

independent elastic constants are
a) 1
b) 2 (Ans)
c) 3
d) 4

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