Intro To Information and

Communication Technology
Computer Networks
Topics Covered
Computer networks
• Common network devices
• routers, NICs, hubs, switches, bridges
• Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
• Cloud computing
• LANs, WLANs and WANs
Network issues
• Security
Common network devices and terms
• Network interface card (NIC)
• Media access control (MAC) address
• Internet protocol (IP) address
• Data packet
Network interface card (NIC)
• Allow a device to connect to a network.
• An NIC turns binary data into an electrical signal that allows access to
a network
• Usually integrated into the motherboard
• Wireless network interface cards (WNICs) are the same
• Use wireless connectivity, utilizing an antenna to communicate with networks
via microwaves
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• Each NIC is given a unique hardwired (or hard-coded) Media Access
Control (MAC) address at the manufacturing stage. When installed in
a device, this uniquely identifies that device.
• The MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown as six groups
of hexadecimal digits with the general format:
NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD
manufacturer’s code device serial number
• For example, 00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 – FF , where the first six hex digits
identify a device made by Apple and the second set of six hex digits
are the unique serial number of the device itself.
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also change
• MAC address is sometimes referred to as the physical address
because it uniquely identifies a device.
• MAC addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults
because they never change, which makes it a more reliable method of
identifying data senders and data receivers on a network.
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
• Whenever a computer connects to the internet it is given an internet
protocol (IP) address
• This is usually assigned to the computer by the internet service
provider (ISP)
• Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders
and receivers of data communicating through the internet
• An IP address essentially identifies the location of a device on a
network
• The IP address changes each time you log in at different locations
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
• There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as four groups of
eight bits
254.25.28.77
• IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, which take the form of eight groups of
hex digits
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
Data Packets
• Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets.
• Whenever a user sends some data, it is split up into a number of packets
and each packet is transmitted separately.
• Packets of data will usually have a header which contains:
• the sender’s IP address
• the receiver’s IP address
• the sequence/identity number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the packets
can be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the destination)
• the packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets
have arrived intact)
• how many data packets make up the whole message.
Data Packets
• When a router receives a packet of data, it checks the destination IP
address against the stored routing table, which allows the router to
determine the packet’s next step in the path.
• A data packet will pass through a number of routers before it reaches
its final destination.
• All the information in the data packet headers allows the data packets
to be reassembled in their correct order, according to the
sequence/identity number, by the receiving station.
Exercise
Try finding and running a program called ‘tracert’ which shows the
‘hops’ data packets take from sender to receiver. The screen printout
will show the routers used in the path and the ‘hop’ numbers
Hubs
• Hubs are hardware devices that can have a
number of other devices connected to them
• They are used primarily to connect devices
together to form a local area network (LAN),
often in the same building
• A hub will take a data packet received at
one of its ports and broadcast it to every
device connected to it.
• Not very secure
• Generates unnecessary traffic on network
 Switches
• Switches are ‘intelligent’ versions of hubs
• As with hubs, they connect a number of devices together to form a LAN. However,
unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the network
• Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a matching MAC address
Switches
• Switches are more secure than hubs and do not waste bandwidth
• Hubs and switches are used to exchange data within their own local
area networks. They are unable to exchange data with outside
networks (such as the internet)
• To exchange data outside their own LAN, a device needs to be able to
read an IP address. Therefore, we need another device to allow
communication with external networks
Bridges
• Bridges are devices that
connect one LAN to another
LAN so that they can function
as a single LAN.
• Cannot communicate with
other external networks, such
as the internet.
Routers
• Routers are used to route data
packets from one network to
another network, based on IP
addresses
• It can do this because each
router has its own IP address
• Routers are used to join a LAN
to the internet.
Routers
• When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router inspects
the IP address and determines whether the data packet is meant for
its own network or for another, external network
• If the data packet is meant for its own network, then the data packet is routed
to the local switch or hub
• Otherwise, the data packet is transmitted to a different router (and therefore
to an external network).
Routers
Exercise
Compare routers with switches
Wireless Communication: Bluetooth
• Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different
frequencies (known as channels)
• These are all centred on a frequency of 2.45 GHz.
• When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random to pair with another device. If the channel is already being used, it
randomly picks another channel
• Once paired, to minimize the risks of interference with other devices, the
devices constantly change the channels they are using (several times a
second). This is known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping.
• Bluetooth uses key encryption to create a secure wireless personal area
network (WPAN)
Wireless Communication: Bluetooth
Bluetooth is useful:
• when transferring data between two or more devices which are very close
together (less than 30 meters distance)
• when the speed of data transmission is not critical
• for low-bandwidth applications (for example, when sending music files from a
mobile phone to a headset).
Wireless Communication: Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different frequency
bands
• 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz are the most common at the moment
• The 5GHz band has a faster data transfer rate but a shorter signal range.
• Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers
much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than
Bluetooth
• A Wi-Fi enabled device (such as a computer or smartphone) can
access, for example, the internet wirelessly at any Access Point (AP) or
‘hot spot’ up to 100 meters away.
Exercise
Compare of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity
Cloud Computing (storage)
• Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is stored on
remote servers
• there may be thousands of servers in many different locations
• The same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or
repair, allowing clients to access data at any time. This is known as data
redundancy.
• The physical environment of the cloud servers is owned and managed
by a hosting company.
Cloud Computing (storage)
There are three common cloud storage systems:
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client
and cloud storage provider are different companies.
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment
behind a company firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider
are integrated and operate as a single entity.
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two previous environments;
some data resides in the private cloud and
less-sensitive/less-commercial data can be accessed from a public
cloud storage provider.
Cloud Computing (storage)
Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
• Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from
any device, anywhere in the world, as long as internet access is available.
• Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it allows several
users to edit and collaborate on a single file or document
• There is no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device
with them, or even use the same computer, to store and retrieve
information.
• The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data, with obvious
advantages in the event of data loss/disaster recovery on their own
computer.
• The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!).
Cloud Computing (storage)
Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
• Security aspects of storing data in the cloud
• If the customer/client has a slow or unstable internet connection,
they could have many problems accessing or downloading their
data/files.
• Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download/upload
data transfer is required.
• The potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible
• this poses a risk of loss of all backup data.
Network Types
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or
geographically near each other
• A typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices (for
example, printers) which will be connected to hubs or switches
• One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to
allow the LAN to connect to external networks, such as the internet.
Local Area Network (LAN)
There are advantages of networking computers together using LANs:
• they allow the sharing of resources such as hardware (e.g. printers
and scanners) and software (e.g. word processors and photo editing
software)
• they permit easy communication between users of the LAN (e.g. by
using simple text messaging between computers on the network)
• they use a network administrator that ensures security and use of the
LAN is constantly monitored (e.g. the administrator can maintain
passwords and also monitor data traffic within the network).
Local Area Network (LAN)
There are also disadvantages of networking computers using LANs:
• easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
• queues for shared resources (such as a printer) which can be
frustrating
• slower access to external networks
• increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers
• if the main server breaks down, in many types of network structures,
the network will no longer function properly.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs, but there are no wires or
cables.
• they provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances
using radio or infrared signals instead of using cables
Comparison of wired LANs and wireless
LANs.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• If a number of LANs are joined together using a router, then they can
form a WAN.
• A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems
• Wide area networks (WANs) are used where computers or networks
are situated a long distance from each other geographically (for
example, in a different city or country)
• The network of ATMs (automated teller machines) used by banks is one of the
most common examples of the use of a WAN.
• Because of the long distances between devices, WANs usually make
use of some public communications network
Network Issues: Authentication
Authentication methods
• Passwords
• Zero login
• Biometrics
• Magnetic stripes
• Smart cards
• Physical tokens
• Electronic tokens
Network Issues: Authentication
Passwords
• There are many instances when you might need to type in a password and
a user ID
• It is important that passwords are protected. Some ways of doing this are:
• Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being relayed
back to whoever put the spyware on your computer
• Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of
another user illegally or accidentally.
• Passwords should strong (hard to crack or guess). Strong passwords should contain:
• at least one capital letter
• at least one numerical value
• at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.)
Network Issues: Authentication
Zero login and biometrics
• Instead of using passwords, the zero login system builds up a complex
user profile based on the following two features.
• Biometrics
• Behavioral patterns
• Biometrics is already used on many smartphones as a way of logging
into the phone.
• Newer systems allow the user to simply look at their smartphone screen
(using face recognition) to unlock it.
Network Issues: Authentication
• Behavioral patterns include: how you walk, your typing speed, your
normal location, how you swipe the screen, and so on.
• The advantages of zero login are fairly clear:
• Enhanced security (it is difficult to copy biometrics and behavioral patterns)
• easier and much quicker way to login to a system.
• But there are certain disadvantages that need consideration:
• How do users know when they are being monitored?
Network Issues: Authentication
Magnetic Stripe Cards
• Magnetic stripe cards have a magnetic stripe on the reverse side
(made up of tiny magnetic particles on a plastic film)
• The stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader
• Data such as name, ID number, and date of birth may be contained on
a magnetic stripe when used as a security device to allow entry to a
building, for example Access will only be allowed if the scanned data
matches data in a database
• Some ID cards also uses a holographic image (hologram) or
photographic image of the card user printed onto the card surface
Network Issues: Authentication
Advantages
• They are easy to use.
• It is not an expensive technology.
• Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
• The cards can be multi-purpose
Disadvantages
• Less secure than, for example, biometric methods (no encryption is used
and the stripe contents can be copied fairly easily).
• The cards wear out with a lot of use. Magnetic readers often fail to read the
cards on first attempt.
Network Issues: Authentication
Smart Cards
• By inserting a tag (chip and antenna) into a security card, it can act as
a smart contactless card (that is, it can be read from a distance and
does not have to be swiped through a card reader)
• The chip on the smart card can store data such as name, security number,
date of birth and a PIN
• Smart cards can be used as a security device. As the user of the card
walks up to a security gate and enter a PIN on the keypad. If all details
match, then access will be allowed.
Network Issues: Authentication
Physical tokens
• A physical token is a form of authentication in the form of a physical,
solid object
• The user’s interaction with a login system is used to prove that the
user has possession of the token
• Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other
authentication details are entered, then a one-time password (OTP) is
generated. The OTP is shown on a small screen. The code changes on
a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than a minute
Network Issues: Authentication
We will use banking as our example of its use. A customer has logged on to the bank’s
website. They get to a web page which requires some form of authentication to prove
who they are. To do this, they need to use a physical token supplied by the bank:
• The customer inserts their debit card into the top of the token device (first
authentication step) and the device either recognizes the card as genuine or rejects
it.
• The device then asks the customer to enter their PIN (second authentication step).
• A one-time password is then shown on the device screen – this is usually an
eight-digit code.
• The customer now goes back to their bank web page and enters the eight digit code.
• They are now given access to their account.
Network Issues: Authentication
Electronic Tokens
• Electronic (software) tokens are software/app installed on a user’s device,
such as a smartphone
• The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a
minute. The user enters this OTP when prompted, together with some
other form of authentication, such as PIN, touch ID or face ID.
• The website server runs the same software as the app. Because both the
server and smartphone have synchronised clocks, they will generate the
same numbers.
• Once the OTP and other form of authentication are verified, the user will be
allowed access.